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Weddish: Difference between revisions
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'''Weddish''' (''Weddish'': '''װעדיש''', ''X"Q'': '''וֶדִש''', ''Romanization'': '''Vediš''') is a constructed, ''a posteriori'', naturalistic auxlang, made from Yiddish with heavy influences from Hebrew, English, German, and Basque. It has ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment and a pervasive yet symbolic use of the dual. It is meant to promote the institution of marriage and foster better communication between persons. It is perhaps best suited as an auxlang for Jewish intermarriage. | '''Weddish''' (''Weddish'': '''װעדיש''', ''X"Q'': '''וֶדִש''', ''Romanization'': '''Vediš''') is a constructed, ''a posteriori'', naturalistic [[auxlang]], made from Yiddish with heavy influences from Hebrew, English, German, and Basque. It has ergative-absolutive [[Linguistics:Morphosyntactic alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]] and a pervasive yet symbolic use of the dual. It is meant to promote the institution of marriage and foster better communication between persons. It is perhaps best suited as an auxlang for Jewish intermarriage. | ||
The language was created in 2013 by [[User:aquatiki|Robert Murphy]] as part of an assignment at [[w:Covenant Theological Seminary|Covenant Theological Seminary]] for Professor Jerram Barrs. | The language was created in 2013 by [[User:aquatiki|Robert Murphy]] as part of an assignment at [[w:Covenant Theological Seminary|Covenant Theological Seminary]] for Professor Jerram Barrs. | ||
== Background == | == Background == | ||
In 1946, a group of American Ashkenazi Orthodox and Messianic Jews founded a kibbutz near Bilbao, Spain. They were reacting to their perception that the nation of Israel was being founded on Zionist, anti-Yiddish principles. Weddish was created as an auxiliary language to bridge the gap between Yiddish, Hebrew, English, and some Basque. The decision was made early on to engineer in the dual number as a fundamental yet symbolically-rich part of the language. The Hebrew/Aramaic alphabet is the exclusive script, both as an alphabet and as a "pointed" abjad. | ''In 1946, a group of American Ashkenazi Orthodox and Messianic Jews founded a kibbutz near Bilbao, Spain. They were reacting to their perception that the nation of Israel was being founded on Zionist, anti-Yiddish principles. Weddish was created as an auxiliary language to bridge the gap between Yiddish, Hebrew, English, and some Basque. The decision was made early on to engineer in the dual number as a fundamental yet symbolically-rich part of the language. The Hebrew/Aramaic alphabet is the exclusive script, both as an alphabet and as a "pointed" abjad.'' | ||
== Phonology == | == Phonology == | ||
Weddish has 25 consonantal sounds, which is typologically average <ref>http://wals.info/chapter/1</ref>, and common in Europe as well as the Middle East. English speakers will find it to be common, apart from the lack of <tt>/w/</tt> and the ubiquity of <tt>/x/</tt> (like the ''ch'' in ''Bach'' or ''loch''). Weddish has 6 vowels, which is also average<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/2</ref>, as is the resulting consonant-to-vowel ration<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/3</ref>. This is typologically equivalent to Yiddish and Hebrew, but far less than German or English. | |||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left;" | {| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left;" | ||
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish''' | |+ '''Consonants of Weddish''' | ||
| Line 126: | Line 128: | ||
! Mid | ! Mid | ||
| '''ע''' <tt>/e/~/ɛ/</tt> | | '''ע''' <tt>/e/~/ɛ/</tt> | ||
| | | <tt>/ə/</tt> | ||
| '''אָ''' <tt>/o/~/ɔ/</tt> | | '''אָ''' <tt>/o/~/ɔ/</tt> | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| '''אָו''' = ow | | '''אָו''' = ow | ||
|} | |} | ||
Voices is contrasted in both plosives and fricatives, like Yiddish and English<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/4</ref>. Vowel nasalization and rounding are not phonemic<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/11</ref> | |||
<br clear="both" /> | <br clear="both" /> | ||
There are several issues in the pronunciation of individual sounds. The rhotic of Weddish is either alveolar or uvular and may be anything from a flap, to a trill, to an actual approximant. No R-colors vowels are permitted. Words that begin with a vowel are separated from a prior open syllable by a glottal stop. The velar nasal only occurs when an "n" is assimilated in place of articular before or after an "x", "k", or "g". '''ng''' is pronounced <tt>/ŋg/</tt>, not just <tt>/ŋ/</tt>. '''L''' is typically dark (aka "velarized") except before '''i'''. '''Ayen''' is always romanized '''e''', but signifies the schwa in unaccented syllables. | There are several issues in the pronunciation of individual sounds. The rhotic of Weddish is either alveolar or uvular<ref>As in Hebrew, uvular may be seen as the most prestigious form: http://wals.info/chapter/6</ref> and may be anything from a flap, to a trill, to an actual approximant. No R-colors vowels are permitted. Words that begin with a vowel are separated from a prior open syllable by a glottal stop. The velar nasal only occurs when an "n" is assimilated in place of articular before or after an "x", "k", or "g", in a syllable coda<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/9</ref>. '''ng''' is pronounced <tt>/ŋg/</tt>, not just <tt>/ŋ/</tt>. '''L''' is typically dark (aka "velarized") except before '''i'''. '''Ayen''' is always romanized '''e''', but signifies the schwa in unaccented syllables. | ||
In the dialect of the Americas, central vowels retain a color of their original/short form. Elsewhere, they are all central, except <tt>/a/</tt> before glottals and <tt>/ɪ/</tt> before labials. Another dialect difference is that '''c''' and '''dž''' are pronounced <tt>/θ/</tt> and <tt>/ð/</tt><ref>http://wals.info/chapter/19</ref>. However, the rhotic is still not retroflex! | |||
=== Orthography === | === Orthography === | ||
Weddish written in the Hebrew alphabet, after the standard of YIVO Yiddish. There is a one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme, except for three digraphs and one trigraph. Weddish also has its own Romanization scheme, largely Slavic in appearance. In it, <tt>/ʃ/</tt> is written '''š''', <tt>/ʒ/</tt> is written '''ž''', <tt>/j/</tt> is written '''y''', <tt>/ts/</tt> is written '''c''', <tt>/tʃ/</tt> is written '''č''', <tt>/dʒ/</tt> is written '''dž''', and <tt>/ʁ/</tt> is written '''r'''. | |||
If the syllable after a diphthong begins with a vowel, the off-glide of the diphthong is doubled as the onset of that next syllable, '''''without being written again'''''. Thus '''zeyer''' is pronounced <tt>/zey.yer/</tt>. | |||
As in Hebrew, five letters have "final" forms, when they occur at the end of a word. These forms do not affect pronunciation at all. | As in Hebrew, five letters have "final" forms, when they occur at the end of a word. These forms do not affect pronunciation at all. | ||
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Alphabetical order is '''alef''', '''alef pasex''', '''alef komac''', '''beys''', ('''veys''',) '''giml''', '''dalet''', '''dalet zayen''', '''dalet zayen šin''', '''hey''', '''vov''', '''gvovayin''', '''šurek''', '''zayen''', '''zayen šin''', ('''xes''',) '''tes''', '''tes šin''', '''yud''', '''yud xirik''', '''gyudayin''', '''gyudayin pasex''', '''vov yud''', '''xof''', ('''xof dageš''',) '''lamed''', '''mem''', '''nun''', '''samex''', '''ayen''', '''pey''', '''fey''', '''cadek''', '''kuf''', '''reyš''', ('''sin''',) '''šin''' (, '''tav''', '''sav'''). | Alphabetical order is '''alef''', '''alef pasex''', '''alef komac''', '''beys''', ('''veys''',) '''giml''', '''dalet''', '''dalet zayen''', '''dalet zayen šin''', '''hey''', '''vov''', '''gvovayin''', '''šurek''', '''zayen''', '''zayen šin''', ('''xes''',) '''tes''', '''tes šin''', '''yud''', '''yud xirik''', '''gyudayin''', '''gyudayin pasex''', '''vov yud''', '''xof''', ('''xof dageš''',) '''lamed''', '''mem''', '''nun''', '''samex''', '''ayen''', '''pey''', '''fey''', '''cadek''', '''kuf''', '''reyš''', ('''sin''',) '''šin''' (, '''tav''', '''sav'''). | ||
When necessary to avoid confusion, <tt>/u/</tt> can be precisely specified with a '''וּ''', called a '''šurek'''. <tt>/i/</tt> can be invoked as '''יִ''', that is a ''' | When necessary to avoid confusion, <tt>/u/</tt> can be precisely specified with a '''וּ''', called a '''šurek'''. <tt>/i/</tt> can be invoked as '''יִ''', that is a '''yud xirek'''. | ||
==== Others ==== | ==== Others ==== | ||
Yiddish has many loanwords from Hebrew and Aramaic which are written using the Hebrew abjad in the Semitic way. Weddish, however, writes these words out according to its own orthographic conventions. However, in traditional setting it is sometimes necessary to use the ancient letters. | Yiddish has many loanwords from Hebrew and Aramaic which are written using the Hebrew abjad in the Semitic way. Weddish, however, writes these words out according to its own orthographic conventions. However, in traditional setting it is sometimes necessary to use the ancient letters. | ||
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|} | |} | ||
== Phonotactics == | == Phonotactics == | ||
Weddish phonotactics are inherited from Yiddish, which is among the more permissive in the world. Which they do not rise to the level of Georgian or Salish, they are nevertheless daunting for new learners. | Weddish phonotactics are inherited from Yiddish, which is among the more permissive in the world<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/12</ref>. Which they do not rise to the level of Georgian or Salish, they are nevertheless daunting for new learners. Gemination only becomes phonemic across word boundaries. Consonant clusters are spontaneously broken up across syllables in order to make codas less complicated and onsets more so. | ||
=== Syllabic Consonants === | |||
Liquids and fricatives may all be said syllabically. Apart from the inseparable prepositions '''l''' and '''m''', and the proclitic conjunction '''v''', syllabic consonants all occur at the end of a word. In an unstressed syllable, syllabic sonarants and syllables with a reduced vowel are indistinguishable. In stressed syllables, no vowel is written, the onset and coda are optional or may consist of a single stop. | |||
=== Onsets === | === Onsets === | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:560px;" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:560px;" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! b | ! b | ||
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''by''' || || '''bl''' || || || || || || || || '''br''' || | | || '''bg''' || '''bd''' || || || || || || || || || '''by''' || || '''bl''' || || || || || || || || '''br''' || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! g | ! g | ||
|| || || || || || || '''gv''' || || || || || '''gy''' || || '''gl''' || || || || || || || || '''gr''' || | || || || || || || || '''gv''' || '''gz''' || || || || '''gy''' || || '''gl''' || || '''gn''' || || || || || || '''gr''' || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! d | ! d | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! t | ! t | ||
| || || || || || || '''tv''' || || || || || '''ty''' || || '''tl''' || '''tm''' || '''tn''' || '''c''' || || || || '''tk''' || '''tr''' || '''č''' | | || || || || || || '''tv''' || || || || || '''ty''' || '''tx''' || '''tl''' || '''tm''' || '''tn''' || '''c''' || || '''tf''' || || '''tk''' || '''tr''' || '''č''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! č | ! č | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! x | ! x | ||
| || || || || || || '''xv''' || || || || || '''xy''' || || '''xl''' || '''xm''' || '''xn''' || || || || '''xc''' || '''xk''' || '''xr''' || | | || || || || || || '''xv''' || || || || || '''xy''' || || '''xl''' || '''xm''' || '''xn''' || '''xs''' || || || '''xc''' || '''xk''' || '''xr''' || '''xš''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! l | ! l | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! p | ! p | ||
| || || || || || || '''pv''' || || || '''pt''' || || '''py''' || '''px''' || '''pl''' || || || '''ps''' || || '''pf''' || || '''pk''' || '''pr''' || | | || || || || || || '''pv''' || || || '''pt''' || || '''py''' || '''px''' || '''pl''' || || '''pn''' || '''ps''' || || '''pf''' || || '''pk''' || '''pr''' || '''pš''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! f | ! f | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! c | ! c | ||
| || || || || || || '''cv''' || || || || || '''cy''' || || '''cl''' || || '''cn''' || || || || || || '''cr''' || | | || || '''cd''' || || || || '''cv''' || || || || || '''cy''' || || '''cl''' || || '''cn''' || || || || || || '''cr''' || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! k | ! k | ||
| || || || || || || '''kv''' || || || || || '''ky''' || || '''kl''' || || || || || || || || '''kr''' || | | || || '''kd''' || || || || '''kv''' || || || '''kt''' || || '''ky''' || '''kx''' || '''kl''' || || '''kn''' || '''ks''' || || || || || '''kr''' || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! r | ! r | ||
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|} | |} | ||
There are three-consonant clusters allowed that begin with '''s''' or '''š''' plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid: '''spl''', '''spr''', '''str''', '''skr''', '''skl''', '''špl''', '''špr''', '''štr''', '''škl''', and '''škr''' but not '''stl''' or '''štl'''. | There are three-consonant clusters allowed that begin with '''s''' or '''š''' plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid: '''spl''', '''spr''', '''str''', '''skr''', '''skl''', '''špl''', '''špr''', '''štr''', '''škl''', and '''škr''' but not '''stl''' or '''štl'''. | ||
American's should take care with '''dr''', '''tr''', '''štr''', and '''str''' not to "africatize" the cluster. | |||
=== Codas === | === Codas === | ||
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! colspan="25" | Coda Consonant Clusters | ! colspan="25" | Coda Consonant Clusters | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | |||
! b || g || d || dz || dž || h || v || z || ž || t || č || y || x || l || m || n || s || p || f || c || k || r || š | ! b || g || d || dz || dž || h || v || z || ž || t || č || y || x || l || m || n || s || p || f || c || k || r || š | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! x | ! x | ||
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || '''xs''' || || || || || || '''xš''' | | || || || || || || || || || || || '''xt''' || || || || || '''xs''' || '''xp''' || || || '''xk''' || || '''xš''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! l | ! l | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! p | ! p | ||
| || || || || || || || || || '''pt''' || '''pč''' || || || || || || '''ps''' || || '''pf''' || '''pc''' || || || '''pš''' | | || || || || || || || || || '''pt''' || '''pč''' || || || || || || '''ps''' || || '''pf''' || '''pc''' || '''pk''' || || '''pš''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! f | ! f | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! k | ! k | ||
| || || || || || || || || || '''kt''' || '''kč''' || || '''kx''' || || || || '''ks''' || || '''kf''' || '''kc''' || || || '''kš''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! r | ! r | ||
| '''rb''' || '''rg''' || '''rd''' || '''rdz''' || '''rdž''' || || '''rv''' || '''rz''' || '''rž''' || '''rt''' || '''rč''' || || '''rx''' || || '''rm''' || '''rn''' || '''rs''' || '''rp''' || '''rf''' || '''rc''' || '''rk''' || || '''rš''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! š | ! š | ||
| || || || || || || || || || '''št''' || || || || || || || '''šs''' || '''šp''' || || || '''šk''' || || | |||
|} | |} | ||
There are also ''liquids plus stop plus homorganic, alveolar fricative''. | There are also ''liquids plus stop plus homorganic, alveolar fricative'': '''lps, lbz, lks, lgz, rps, rbz, rks, rgz. | ||
== Suprasegmentals == | == Suprasegmentals == | ||
Stress is predicable, if one knows the root of a word. The first syllable of the root receives primary stress, with secondary stresses proceeding out like ripples on a pond to every other syllable, forwards and backwards. | Stress is predicable, if one knows the root of a word. The first syllable of the root receives primary stress, with secondary stresses proceeding out like ripples on a pond to every other syllable, forwards and backwards. (The major exception is the dual, which moves the stress of a word with an odd number of syllables.) The default rhythm of Weddish is ''trochaic'': '''stressed'''-unstressed. Neither vowel length nor stress is phonemic. Long vowels indicate stress. If the word is long, one of the first three syllables must have primary stress. Prefixes and suffixes all have an underlying vowel which is expressed or repressed in order to maintain the rhythm pattern. Two syllables with reduced vowels may not follow each other. Polar and interrogative questions are both marked by a rising tone at the end of the utterance. | ||
== Syntax == | == Syntax == | ||
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The verb "to be", "to become", and "to have" are all copulas in Weddish. That means they all use only the absolutive case, never the ergative. However, "to be" and "to have" are more like "to equal" and "to exist". "I have shoes" is literally "Shoes exist to me". This can be easier for Far East Asians to learn than Westerners. | The verb "to be", "to become", and "to have" are all copulas in Weddish. That means they all use only the absolutive case, never the ergative. However, "to be" and "to have" are more like "to equal" and "to exist". "I have shoes" is literally "Shoes exist to me". This can be easier for Far East Asians to learn than Westerners. | ||
<br clear="both" /> | |||
== Morphology == | == Morphology == | ||
=== Case === | === Case === | ||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right" | |||
! colspan="4" | Genitive | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | '''פֿון'''/'''fun''' | |||
|- | |||
! Dative || Ablative || Partitive || Equative | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ל־'''/'''l-''' | |||
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ב־'''/'''b-''' | |||
| style="text-align:center;" | '''מ־'''/'''m-''' | |||
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ק־'''/'''k-''' | |||
|} | |||
By default, all nouns are in the ''absolutive'' case. But, if they are placed '''''before''''' the verb, then they are said to be in the ergative case, though their morphology is unchanged. The only exception is the masculine singular/dual definite article changes in the ergative case. Linguists call these two case the "core cases" of a language, since they are fundamental. There are five additional cases --- called "non-core" cases --- in Weddish that are also very important. Unlike many languages that have ''suffixing'' case marking, Weddish has ''prefixing''. This is because they are derived from Hebrew Inseparable Prepositions (IP's). Phrases in the non-core cases either relate to the verb (and are hence, adverbial), or are in a noun phrase. In relation to nouns, the core cases are all seen as greater specificity ''within'' the genitive case. | |||
Non-core cases all fall under the umbrella term "genitive". | Non-core cases all fall under the umbrella term "genitive". The generic genitive is not a case ''per se'', but a preposition (meaning, a separable preposition). An expression like '''dos line fun gelt'''/''the love of money'' is even more ambiguous in Weddish than in English. It may mean ''the love belonging to money'', ''the love in/by money'', ''the love from/composed of money'', or ''the love as/according to money''. After a genitive phrase has been established or is implicitly understood, the phrase may be into a compound noun using the "head-second" structure. | ||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} | {| {{Table/bluetable}} | ||
|+ '''Case, Articles, and IP's''' | |+ '''Case, Articles, and IP's''' | ||
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| '''{{C|mi}}''' | | '''{{C|mi}}''' | ||
| '''{{C|mawm}}''' | | '''{{C|mawm}}''' | ||
| '''m | | '''m-/{{C|min}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Eq. | ! Eq. | ||
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| '''k)-''' | | '''k)-''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== Number === | |||
Weddish verbs conjugate for three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), but nouns inflect '''''eleven''''' different ways! However, these myriad ways can be easily understood as the optional adding of "associates" to a noun, and distinguishing between masses of individuals and collectives (one forest vs. many trees). The following table is color-coded to show verb conjugation in the singular (light background), dual (purple), and plural (brown). | |||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} | |||
! || Singular || Dual || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Distributive | |||
| '''פֿרײַנד''' <br /> '''fraynd''' <br /> ''a friend'' | |||
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''פֿרינדײַים''' <br /> '''frindayim''' <br /> ''two friends each'' | |||
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרײַנדין''' <br /> '''frayndin''' <br /> ''friends each'' | |||
|- | |||
! Collective | |||
| | |||
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''געפֿרינדײַים''' <br /> '''gefrindayim''' <br /> ''a couple of friends'' | |||
| '''געפֿרײַנדין''' <br /> '''gefrayndin''' <br /> ''a group of friends'' | |||
|- | |||
! Distributive <br /> Associative | |||
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרײַנדז''' <br /> '''frayndz''' <br /> ''a friend and associates each'' | |||
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרינדײַיםז''' <br /> '''frindayimz''' <br /> ''two friends and associates each'' | |||
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרײַנדינז''' <br /> '''frayndinz''' <br /> ''friends and associates each'' | |||
|- | |||
! Collective <br /> Associative | |||
| '''געפֿרײַנז''' <br /> '''gefrayndz''' <br /> ''a group of a friend and associates'' | |||
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''געפרינדײַימז''' <br /> '''gefrindayimz''' <br /> ''a group of two friends and associates'' | |||
| '''געפֿרײַנדינז''' <br /> '''gefrayndinz''' <br /> ''a group of friends and associates'' | |||
|} | |||
The dual ending is unique, in that is shifts the accent pattern of the root to itself. It may be written '''-áyim''' to indicate that shift. This shift triggers vowel reduction of of the previous syllable, if it is a diphthong (cutting it down to its first vowel). | |||
Forms lacking the collective plural endings are automatically distributive. | |||
=== Pronouns === | === Pronouns === | ||
==== Independent Personal ==== | ==== Independent Personal ==== | ||
Absolutive independent personal pronouns are most commonly used with ø-copula clauses to show predication. Such sentences are distinguished from those with the "to be" verb, which show absolute identity, as opposed to mere attribution. '''Gu Yidiš'''/''We are Jewish'' vs. '''Big Džonzez'''/''We are (the) Jones's''. | |||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} | {| {{Table/bluetable}} | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>f.sg</small> | ! <small>f.sg</small> | ||
| '''{{C|zi}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|es}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|aya}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|ba}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|mina}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|ka}}''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>dl</small> | ! <small>dl</small> | ||
| '''{{C|bera}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|hura}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|hav}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|bav}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|minav}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|kav}}'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>pl</small> | ! <small>pl</small> | ||
| '''{{C|zey}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|cey}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|čire}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|bouč}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|minč}}''' | |||
| '''{{C|kač}} | |||
|} | |} | ||
==== Interrogative ==== | ==== Interrogative ==== | ||
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| {{C|ma}} || {{C|vos}} || {{C|fun vos}} || {{C|vu}} || {{C|vi}} || {{C|vat}} || {{C|ven}} | | {{C|ma}} || {{C|vos}} || {{C|fun vos}} || {{C|vu}} || {{C|vi}} || {{C|vat}} || {{C|ven}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
The interrogative pronouns do not inflect for person, number, or gender. Linguists would say they are animate and inanimate, though Weddish grammar calls them "personal" and "impersonal". They are identical to the relative pronoun (just as in English) and must match their antecedent in animacy, but not in case. Instead (just as in English) they indicate their new role in the relative clause. | |||
==== Affixes ==== | ==== Affixes ==== | ||
Like Hebrew, Weddish uses enclitic forms of pronouns to indicate several things. On verbs, pronominal suffixes mark the absolutive argument of the clause. On nouns, they mark a genitive relationship. Pronominal prefixes are used exclusively on transitive verbs to mark the ergative argument, and are obligatory. Weddish is not pro-drop, and an affix on both ends is required on transitive verbs. Remember, there are no ambi-transitive verbs in Weddish. Use of the independent personal pronouns when the person has been specified on either end of the verb is considered emphatic. | |||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} | |||
! Person || # || Suffix || Prefix | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | <big>1</big> | |||
! sg | |||
| '''-(n)i''' | |||
| '''ni-''' | |||
|- | |||
! dl | |||
| '''-(u)g''' | |||
| '''gu-''' | |||
|- | |||
! pl | |||
| '''-(n)u''' | |||
| '''na-''' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | <big>2</big> | |||
! sg | |||
| '''-(e)d''' | |||
| '''de-''' | |||
|- | |||
! dl | |||
| '''-(e)st''' | |||
| '''sti-''' | |||
|- | |||
! pl | |||
| '''-ti''' | |||
| '''ta-''' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="4" | <big>3</big> | |||
! m.sg | |||
| '''-o''' | |||
| '''ro-''' | |||
|- | |||
! f.sg | |||
| '''-a''' | |||
| '''ya-''' | |||
|- | |||
! dl | |||
| '''-av*''' | |||
| ø | |||
|- | |||
! pl | |||
| '''-(ay/i)č''' | |||
| '''čay-''' | |||
|} | |||
=== Verbs === | === Verbs === | ||
Weddish verbs do not conjugate for tense, only aspect. | |||
==== Aspect Ablaut ==== | ==== Aspect Ablaut ==== | ||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} | |||
! Perfective || Imperfective | |||
|- | |||
| -ei- || -i- | |||
|- | |||
| -au- || -ai- | |||
|- | |||
| -ou- || -u- | |||
|- | |||
| -e- || -a- | |||
|- | |||
| -o- || -oi- | |||
|} | |||
==== Voices ==== | ==== Voices ==== | ||
# Causative | # Causative: š/že- | ||
# Reflexive | # Reflexive: hit/hid- | ||
# Antipassive | # Antipassive: V-u | ||
# Mixed | # Mixed | ||
==== Non-finite ==== | ==== Non-finite ==== | ||
# participle -ing | |||
# infinitive absolute: u-V | |||
# infinitive construct: ge- | |||
==== Incorporation ==== | |||
On the Mithun scale<ref>Mithun, Marianne. 1984. The Evolution of Noun Incorporation. ''Language'', Vol. 60, No. 4. pp. 847-894.</ref>, Weddish does type-I and type-II noun incorporation. This means 1) I picked berries -> I berry-picked, and 2) I washed his face -> I face-washed him. | |||
=== Derivation === | === Derivation === | ||
==== Compounding ==== | ==== Compounding ==== | ||
When the relationships between nouns is genitive, and it has already been stated or can easily be implied, compound nouns. For example, ''a field for football/soccer'' may become '''fusbolfeld'''. (Note the loss of abstraction suffixes.) Suppose it was an Australian rules football field. Would could make '''fusbolfeldeoystralie'''. Lastly, If one wanted to add that it is '''mgroz'''/''composed of grass''', this could become '''פֿוסבאָלפֿעלדעאויסטראליעגראָז'''/'''fusbolfeldeoystraliegroz'''. Words with greater than four parts are not common. Word order is almost "head initial", but with the first specifier coming at the very front. | |||
==== Abstract Nouns ==== | ==== Abstract Nouns ==== | ||
All nouns in Weddish are inherently concrete. Two levels of abstraction are possible through suffixation. The first signifies the ''practice'', typically of one or more persons. The second signifies the ''understanding'' of the practice, usually universally. Both are available in both genders, with the masculine form referring to a person (of either gender), however, the "practice"-form occurs much more often in the masculine and the "understanding"-form occurs much more often in the feminine. | |||
{| {{Table/bluetable}} | |||
! Suffix | |||
! "Tennis" | |||
| gloss | |||
! "Peace" | |||
| gloss | |||
|- | |||
! ø | |||
| '''a tenis''' | |||
| ''a game of tenis'' | |||
| '''a šolem''' | |||
| ''a season of peace'' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | -ay | |||
| '''dos tenisayo''' | |||
| ''his tennis game'' | |||
| '''šolemaya''' | |||
| ''her (practice of) peace'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''dem tenisayt''' | |||
| ''the tennis player'' | |||
| '''dem šolemayt''' | |||
| ''the peacemaker'' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | -šaft | |||
| '''dos tenisšafte''' | |||
| ''the game of tennis'' / "tennisology" | |||
| '''šolemšafte'' | |||
| ''peace know-how'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''a tenisšaft''' | |||
| ''a tennisologist'' | |||
| '''a šolemšaft''' | |||
| ''a student of peace'' | |||
|} | |||
== Discourse == | == Discourse == | ||
=== Formality === | |||
=== Particles === | === Particles === | ||
<references /> | |||
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Germanic languages]][[Category:Semitic languages]][[Category:A posteriori]] | [[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Germanic languages]][[Category:Semitic languages]][[Category:A posteriori]] | ||