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|image = Ahba.svg | |image = Ahba.svg | ||
|imagesize = 100px | |imagesize = 100px | ||
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] | |imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] | ||
|name = Ash | |name = Ash | ||
|nativename = '' | |nativename = ''ʼạhgaa'' | ||
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː] | |pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː] | ||
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]] | |creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]] | ||
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==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
'''Ash''' ('' | '''Ash''' (''ʼạhgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ʼahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. | ||
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV. | The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV. | ||
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===Romanisation=== | ===Romanisation=== | ||
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following | The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters as well as an apostrophe to mark a word-initial glottal stop. A dot below a vowel is used to mark stress when ambiguous. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| a | | a | ||
| ạ | |||
| ã | | ã | ||
| ạ̃ | |||
| e | | e | ||
| ẹ | |||
| ẽ | | ẽ | ||
| ẹ̃ | |||
| y | | y | ||
| o | | o | ||
| ọ | |||
| õ | | õ | ||
| ọ̃ | |||
| ı | |||
| w | | w | ||
| b | | b | ||
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| s | | s | ||
| h | | h | ||
| | | ’ | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}} | | {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}} | ||
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}} | | → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}} | ||
| → {{IPA|[ | | → {{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}} | ||
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day" | | → ''oahdawo'' "during the day" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so. | Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so. | ||
=== | ===Clusters=== | ||
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels. | Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels. | ||
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process. | * A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process. | ||
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate. | * All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate. | ||
* /h~ʔ/ | * {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates. | ||
* Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped). | * Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped). | ||
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades bidirectionally through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} word-finally and cluster-initially. | |||
<div style="float: left"> | <div style="float: left"> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//N-//}} | ! {{IPA|//N-//}} | ||
| [ɲ.ɲ] | | {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}} | ||
| [m.m] | | {{IPA|[m.m]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ||
| [ç.ç] | | {{IPA|[ç.ç]}} | ||
| [ʍ.ʍ] | | {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}} | ||
| [ɕ.ɕ] | | {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}} | ||
| [s̠.s̠] | | {{IPA|[s̠.s̠]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}} | ||
| [ʎ.ʎ] | | {{IPA|[ʎ.ʎ]}} | ||
| [ɫ.ɫ] | | {{IPA|[ɫ.ɫ]}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ||
|rowspan="2"| /h.P/ [ħ.P] | |rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ||
| /t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P] | | {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ||
| [ħ.P] | | {{IPA|[ħ.P]}} | ||
| [ʔ.P͡F] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}} | ||
| /ʔ.ᴰN/ | | {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴰN/}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ||
| [ʔ.ᵇm] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ||
| [ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ||
| [ʔ.ᶢŋ] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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===Laterals=== | ===Laterals=== | ||
The lateral affricate /t͡ɬ/ patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate /t͡s/ but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. [t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative [ɬ] in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant [l] in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either [ʎ] or [ɫ]. | The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either {{IPA|[ʎ]}} or {{IPA|[ɫ]}}. | ||
===Syllabification=== | |||
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by the vowel letter '''ı''' placed before the non-vocalic consonant letter. | |||
An example is the inalienable possession prefix ''(a)n-'' becoming ''ın-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''ındoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ʼadındoo-'' when the direct marker ''ʼah-'' is added. | |||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="3" | | ||
! colspan="5" | Stem | ! colspan="5" | Stem | ||
| colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Deixis | | Deixis | ||
| | | Agency | ||
| Incorp. | | Incorp. | ||
| | | Preverb | ||
| '''Root''' | | '''Root''' | ||
| | | Deriv. | ||
| State | | State | ||
| Mood | | Mood | ||
| | | Involv. | ||
| Converb. | | Converb. | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Stems==== | ====Stems==== | ||
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine": | Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! Indicative | ! Indicative | ||
| '''''oada''''' | | '''''oada''''' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}} | |||
| ''oahda'' | | ''oahda'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}} | |||
| ''oadna'' | | ''oadna'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}} | |||
| ''oasda'' | | ''oasda'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Optative | ! Optative | ||
| ''oase'' | | ''oase'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}} | |||
| ''oadse'' | | ''oadse'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}} | |||
| ''oadne'' | | ''oadne'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}} | |||
| ''oasdse'' | | ''oasdse'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}} | |||
|} | |} | ||
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative | All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative. | ||
====Derived verbs==== | ====Derived verbs==== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Basic | ! Basic | ||
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' | | colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo'''''</center> | ||
| ''oona'' | | ''oona'' | ||
| '' | | ''ohda'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Causative | ! Causative | ||
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' | | colspan="2" | <center>''oyya''</center> | ||
| ''oena'' | | ''oena'' | ||
| '' | | ''oehda'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Frequentative | ! Frequentative | ||
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' | | colspan="2" | <center>''odsa''</center> | ||
| ''osdna'' | | ''osdna'' | ||
| ''osda'' | | ''osda'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as '' | Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ımmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''. | ||
===Nominals=== | ===Nominals=== | ||
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair | Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! Distal | ! Distal | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''ımmõõ'' | ||
| ''emmõõ'' | | ''emmõõ'' | ||
| ''ommõõ'' | | ''ommõõ'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). | Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. | ||
===Converbs=== | ===Converbs=== | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! | ! | ||
! Suffix | ! colspan="2" | Suffix | ||
! Example | ! Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| ''-da'' | | ''-da'' | ||
| ''-s'' | |||
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house" | | ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Durative | ! Durative | ||
| ''-wo'' | | ''-wo'' | ||
| ''-h'' | |||
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning" | | ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Benefactive | ! Benefactive | ||
| ''-wa'' | | ''-wa'' | ||
| ''-wı'' | |||
| ''eewa'' "in order to see" | | ''eewa'' "in order to see" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Semblative | ! Semblative | ||
| ''-ya'' | | ''-ya'' | ||
| '' | | ''-yı'' | ||
| ''ʼayya'' "sea-like; blue; green" | |||
|} | |} | ||
The shorter forms are the historically regular outcomes of these suffixes after unstressed vowels; the longer forms have since taken over productively in normal verbs by analogy with the instances where those were always regular, but the shorter forms remain productive in the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ʼahba las'' "in Appa"), and are still found in some common fossilised words, such as ''eas'' "here" and ''eah'' "now". Certain proper nouns retain this form for possessive constructions (e.g. ''ʼahbas ımmee'' "Appa('s) town square"). There are also instances of splits, such as the productive ''oadnada'' "where the sun rises" versus the fossilised ''oadnas'', referring specifically to the corresponding cardinal direction. | |||
===Deixis=== | ===Deixis=== | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals '' | Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa'' (reduced from ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' still used for emphasis), generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-ɛ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-ɔ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of TV marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ʼa-'' becomes ''ʼe-''. | ||
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs=== | ===Conjunct and disjunct verbs=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct | ! Conjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale" | ||
| - | | - | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?" | ||
| - | | - | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct | ! Disjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada''<br />"you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) oada''<br />"they are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct | ! Conjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct | ! Disjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ʼahhee''<br />"you look at them" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ʼassee''<br />"they look at you" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ʼahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ʼassee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! rowspan="2" | | ! rowspan="2" | | ||
! colspan="2" | Proximal | ! colspan="2" | Proximal | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct source | ! Conjunct source | ||
! Disjunct source | ! Disjunct source | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct target | ! Conjunct target | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct target | ! Disjunct target | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale" | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Indirect involvement==== | ====Indirect involvement==== | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair | |translation=Ao is braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>hh</u>ee | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçi̯eː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog | |translation=Ao is looking at the dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>ss</u>ee | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | |translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼehhees | ||
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ] | |IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I am looking at them | |translation=I am looking at them | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼessees | ||
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ] | |IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=oadnawo | |phrase=oadnawo ʼaesããs | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠] | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠] | ||
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ | |gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=oadnawo | |phrase=oadnawo ʼao go ʼaosãã ma | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ] | ||
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG | |gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG | ||
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning | |translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼehbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=you are braiding my hair | |translation=you are braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼeebadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I am braiding my hair | |translation=I am braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao go bahba od<u>sa</u>woyya | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST- | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink | |translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsawoyya | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST- | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire | |translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| ''bahba go | | ''bahba go ʼahhee''<br />"dogs watch it" | ||
| ''bahba go | | ''bahba go ʼassee''<br />"dogs are watched" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| ''sãã sa | | ''sãã sa ʼahhee''<br />"water is watched" | ||
| ''*sãã sa | | ''*sãã sa ʼassee''<br />(ungrammatical) | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Topicalisation=== | ===Topicalisation=== | ||
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus | New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| '' | | ''ʼao go <u>bahba</u> ʼohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog" | ||
| ''<u>bahba go</u> | | ''<u>bahba go</u> ʼao ʼossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| '' | | ''ʼao go <u>sãã</u> ʼohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water" | ||
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> | | ''<u>sãã sa</u> ʼao ʼohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=[ | |phrase=[owahdawo bahba go ʼossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdawo ʼesseenas]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub> | |gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub> | |translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub> | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=bahba go oada | |phrase=bahba go oada ʼesseenas no | ||
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q | |gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q | ||
|translation=have you seen the white dog? | |translation=have you seen the white dog? | ||
}} | }} | ||
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| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving" | | ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving" | ||
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving" | | ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving" | ||
| ''ebadsa no | | ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?" | ||
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!" | | ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| ''baa'' | | ''baa'' | ||
| ''ba'' | | ''ba'' | ||
| : | | :MAN | ||
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools) | | Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools) | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ımmõõ bo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC | |gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC | ||
|translation=hair (on the head) | |translation=hair (on the head) | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ımmõõ la | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT | |gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT | ||
|translation=head (on the body) | |translation=head (on the body) | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications | Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications for the syntax. | ||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair | |translation=Ao is braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao go bahba go oas egoo | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑːɕ‿ɕɪˈɣu̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there | |translation=Ao and the dog are over there | ||
}} | }} | ||
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===Specification=== | ===Specification=== | ||
Prefixes such as '' | Prefixes such as ''n-'' "up; forth" and ''l-'' "down; away" can be used to specify location, with the inchoative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion toward a destination, and the terminative away from it. | ||
{| | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoo | |||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː] | |||
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | |||
|translation=Ao is down in Appa | |||
}} | |||
{{gloss | |||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoona | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː.n̠ɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT. | |gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.INCH.IND | ||
|translation=Ao | |translation=Ao went down to Appa | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{gloss | |||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgohda | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈkʷo̞ħ.t̠ɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT. | |gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.TERM.IND | ||
|translation=Ao | |translation=Ao went away from Appa | ||
}} | }} | ||
===Use with converbs=== | ===Use with converbs=== | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao sas sãã | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː] | ||
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea | |translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼao sas laa | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑː] | ||
|gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=(be) by the sea | |translation=(be) by the sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Possession=== | |||
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum. | |||
{{gloss | |||
|phrase=ʼao gos ımmõõ la | |||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩ˈmũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | |||
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT | |||
|translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao") | |||
}} | |||
==Pragmatics and conventions== | ==Pragmatics and conventions== | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ewoes | |phrase=ewoes | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ | ||
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry | |translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ewoe no | |phrase=ewoe no | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q | |gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q | ||
|translation=perhaps I should eat something | |translation=perhaps I should eat something | ||
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|phrase=bahba go ewoe no | |phrase=bahba go ewoe no | ||
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ] | |IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q | |gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q | ||
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry | |translation=maybe the dog is hungry | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go ʼesdsoes | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ] | ||
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ | |gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ | ||
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa | |translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼahba las esoonas | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐɕ‿ɕɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ | |gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I've moved to Appa | |translation=I've moved to Appa | ||
}} | }} | ||
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===Colour terms=== | ===Colour terms=== | ||
Colours are mainly expressed through | Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ʼayya'' "blue; green". | ||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=meyya bahba go | |phrase=meyya bahba go | ||
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ] | |IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ] | ||
|gloss= | |gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT | ||
|translation=a brown dog | |translation=a brown dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
Some are expressed through | Some are expressed through regular stative verbs like ''oada''. | ||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=oada bahba go | |phrase=oada bahba go | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ] | ||
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog TOP:ACT | |gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog=TOP:ACT | ||
|translation=a white dog | |translation=a white dog | ||
}} | }} |
edits