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| {{construction}} | | {{construction}} |
| {{Infobox language | | {{Infobox proto-language |
| | name = ''Proto-Dynic'' | | | name = Proto-Dynic |
| |-
| | | creator = [[User:Gaffney.flancer|Gaffney McCoy Flancer]] |
| |creator = Gaffney McCoy Flancer | | | target = Dynic |
| | setting = Veyn | | | era = |
| |- | | | region = Veyn |
| | familycolor = #93CCEA | | | familycolor = dynic |
| | fam1 = Dynic language family | |
| }} | | }} |
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| ! rowspan="2" | Palatal | | ! rowspan="2" | Palatal |
| ! colspan="2" | Velar | | ! colspan="2" | Velar |
| ! rowspan="2" | Glottal
| |
| |- | | |- |
| ! <small> plain <small> | | ! <small> plain <small> |
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| | *ŋ | | | *ŋ |
| | *ŋʷ | | | *ŋʷ |
| |
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! rowspan="2" | Stop | | ! rowspan="2" | Stop |
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| | *k | | | *k |
| | *kʷ | | | *kʷ |
| | (*ʔ)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! <small>voiced</small> | | ! <small>voiced</small> |
| | *b | | | *b |
| | *d | | | *d |
| | | | | |
| | *g | | | *g |
| | *gʷ | | | *gʷ |
| |
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! colspan="2" | Fricative | | ! colspan="2" | Fricative |
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| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | *h
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| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! colspan="2" | Liquid | | ! colspan="2" | Liquid |
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| | | | | |
| | *w | | | *w |
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| |} | | |} |
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| |- | | |- |
| ! rowspan="2" | | | ! rowspan="2" | |
| ! colspan="2" | Front | | ! colspan="3" | Short |
| ! colspan ="2" | Central | | ! rowspan="6" | |
| ! colspan ="2" | Back | | ! colspan ="3" | Long |
| |- | | |- |
| ! <small> short <small> | | ! <small>Front</small> |
| ! <small> long <small> | | ! <small>Centre</small> |
| ! <small> short <small> | | ! <small>Back</small> |
| ! <small> long <small> | | ! <small>Front</small> |
| ! <small> short <small> | | ! <small>Centre</small> |
| ! <small> long <small> | | ! <small>Back</small> |
| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! Close | | ! Close |
| | *i | | | *i |
| | | rowspan="2" | *ë |
| | | rowspan="2" | *u |
| | *ī | | | *ī |
| | | | | rowspan="2" | *ë̄ |
| | | | | rowspan="2" | *ū |
| | *u | |
| | *ū | |
| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! Mid | | ! Mid |
| | *e | | | rowspan="2" | *e |
| | *ē | | | rowspan="2" | *ē |
| | *ə | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| | *ə̄ | | ! Open |
| | | | | colspan="2" | *a |
| | | | | colspan="2" | *ā |
| |- style="text-align:center;" | | |- style="text-align:center;" |
| ! Mid
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| |
| |
| |
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| | *a
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| | *ā
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| |} | | |} |
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| == Morphology == | | == Morphology == |
| === Verbs ===
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| ==== The verb template ====
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| {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
| |
| |+caption | Proto-Dynic verb template
| |
| |-
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| ! colspan="6" | conjunct prefixes
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| ! stem
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| ! conjunct suffixes
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | 1
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| | 2
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| | 3a
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| | 3b
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| | 4
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| | 5
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| | 6
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| | 7
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | <small>direct object</small>
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| | <small>adverb</small>
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| | <small>(converb classifier)</small>
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| | <small>converb</small>
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| | <small>classifier</small>
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| | <small>subject</small>
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| | <small>'''stem'''</small>
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| | <small>auxiliary</small>
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| |}
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|
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| ==== Subject and object marking ====
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| {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
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| |+caption | Pronominal inflection
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="2" | Number
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| ! colspan="2" | Subject
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| ! colspan="2" | Object
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| |-
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| ! <small>singular</small>
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| ! <small>plural</small>
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| ! <small>singular</small>
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| ! <small>plural</small>
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| ! 1st person
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| | ''*t-''
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| | ''*wi-''
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| | ''*-ti-''
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| | ''*-wəh-''
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| ! 2nd person
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| | ''*n-''
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| | ''*bi-''
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| | ''*-ni-''
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| | ''*-bih-''
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| ! 3rd person
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| | colspan="2" | ''*Ø-''
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| | colspan="2" | ''*i-''
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| ! 4rd person
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| | colspan="2" | ''*s-''
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| | colspan="2" | ''*ki-''
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| ! Indefinite
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| | colspan="2" | ''*a-''
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| | colspan="2" | ''*a-''
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| ! Reflexive
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| | colspan="2" | ''*Ø-''
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| | colspan="2" | ''*de-''
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| |}
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| The third person and fourth person pronominal clitics are used to keep track of multiple third person arguments within discourse, any may also be referred to as the ''third person proximate'' and ''third person obviate'' respectively. The third person is assigned to the more salient argument, or the argument which has appeared before.
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|
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| ==== Classifiers ====
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|
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| Classifiers are optional prefixes that affect the [[w:Transitive verb|transitivity]] or [[w:Valency (linguistics)|valency]] of a verb. There are a number of different classifiers for different categories of verbs. Some verbs have an inherent transitivity, which can be changed via classifiers, whilst others require a classifier for both their transitive and intransitive forms.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
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| |+caption | Pronominal inflection
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| |-
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| ! IN
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| ! Use
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| ! Examples
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| ! TR
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| ! Use
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| ! Examples
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| |-
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*ar-''
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| | Forms intransitive verbs from stems related to motion, or creates stative verbs of position.
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| | ''*arttes'' 'I come down'
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*e-''
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| | Forms transitive verbs from stems related to motion, or creates transitive verbs from root unaccusative verbs of manipulation or change of state.
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| | ''*yettes'' 'I lower it'
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| |-
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*re-''
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| | Forms unaccusative verbs from stems related to manipulation.
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| | ''*reren'' 'it comes off', ''*redək'' 'it closes'
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*c-''
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| | Forms transitive verbs from stems related to manipulation, or change of state.
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| | ''*ictdək'' 'I close it'
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| |-
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*ri-''
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| | Forms intransitive verbs denoting a static state from stems related to state.
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| | ''*ritaidə'' 'it suffices'
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*ac-''
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| | Forms transitive verbs from stems denoting a state of change, especially a physical impact, or causative verbs from stems relating to speech or sound.
| |
| | ''*yactmugidə'' 'it got scorched,' ''*yacttaidə'' 'I add it'
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| |-
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*e-''
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| | Forms unaccusative verbs from stems denoting a state of change, especially a physical impact.
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| | ''*ekusidə'' 'it is cut', ''*emugidə'' 'it got scorched'
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*əc-''
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| | Forms causative transitive verbs from stems denoting labour or a physical or mental change of state.
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| | ''*tiəcnəskidə'' 'You woke me up'
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| |-
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*i-''
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| | Forms intransitive verbs from stems denoting labour or a physical or mental change of state.
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| | ''*itəskidə'' 'I wake up'
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| | style="text-align:center;" | ''*ce-''
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| | Forms causative transitive verbs from stems denoting physical location or position.
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| | ''*icetnər'' 'I put them on the boat'
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| |}
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|
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| ==== Conjugation ====
| |
| Proto-Dynic has a rich system of verbal suffixes. Proto-Dynic verbs use [[w:Inflection|inflection]] for [[w:Linguistic modality|modal]] and [[w:Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctional]] purposes. Other categories, such as [[w:Voice (grammar)|voice]], [[w:Grammatical tense|tense]], [[w:Grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[w:Grammatical mood|mood]], are expressed using optional suffixed [[w:Auxiliary verb|auxiliaries]], which are also inflected. There are six [[w:Principle parts|principle parts]] from which all other conjugations are derived.
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
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| |+caption | Conjugation of verb classes
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| |-
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| ! Verb class
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| ! Irrealis
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| ! Infinitive
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| ! Conclusive
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| ! Adnominal
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| ! Realis
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| ! Imperative
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| ! Gloss
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| |-
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| ! C-stem regular
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| | ''*réne''
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| | ''*réni''
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| | ''*rénusu''
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| | ''*rénu''
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| | ''*rénsa''
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| | ''*rénə̄''
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| | 'take, tug'
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| |-
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| ! ''s''-stem irregular
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| | ''*báse''
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| | ''*bási''
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| | ''*básu''
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| | ''*básu''
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| | ''*bâsa''
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| | ''*básə̄''
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| | 'hit, strike'
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| |-
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| ! ''i''-stem irregular
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| | ''*mié''
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| | ''*mǐ''
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| | ''*misú''
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| | ''*miú''
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| | ''*misá''
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| | ''*miré''
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| | 'look, see'
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| |-
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| ! ''u''-stem irregular
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| | ''*cué''
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| | ''*cuí''
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| | ''*cusú''
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| | ''*cǔ''
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| | ''*cusá''
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| | ''*curé''
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| | 'make, do, place'
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| |-
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| ! ''e''-stem irregular
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| | ''*ě''
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| | ''*eí''
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| | ''*esú''
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| | ''*eú''
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| | ''*esá''
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| | ''*eré''
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| | 'eat'
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| |-
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| ! ''ə''-stem irregular
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| | ''*kʷê''
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| | ''*kʷə́i''
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| | ''*kʷə́su''
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| | ''*kʷə́u''
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| | ''*kʷə́sa''
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| | ''*kʷə̂''
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| | 'say, speak'
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| |-
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| ! ''a''-stem irregular
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| | ''*daŋʷáe''
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| | ''*daŋʷái''
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| | ''*daŋʷásu''
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| | ''*daŋʷáu''
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| | ''*daŋʷása''
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| | ''*daŋʷáre''
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| | 'sing, chant'
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| |-
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| ! C-stem stative
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| | ''*ə̄c-hé''
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| | ''*ə̄c-hí''
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| | ''*ə̄c-sí''
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| | ''*ə̄c-hú''
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| | ''*ə̄c-sá''
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| | ''*ə̄c-hə́re''
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| | 'big, large'
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| |-
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| ! V-stem stative
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| | ''*ə́nə-he''
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| | ''*ə́nə-hi''
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| | ''*ə́nə-si''
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| | ''*ə́nə-hu''
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| | ''*ə́nə-sa''
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| | ''*ə́nə-həre''
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| | 'small, little'
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| |}
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|
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| The marked conclusive form may be dropped and the bare stem used to signify a conclusive meaning before a pausa.
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|
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| ==== Auxiliary verbs ====
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| ;'''''*dəsu'''''
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| :(''perfective aspect • emphatic'') Attaches to the infinitive form of a verb. Generally used for voluntarily concluded action or states.
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| ;'''''*dəiarusu'''''
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| :(''perfective aspect • continuing importance'') Attaches to the infinitive form of a verb. Formed of ''*dəsu'' + the copula ''*arusu''.
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| ;'''''*nusu'''''
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| :(''negative'') Attaches to the irrealis form of a verb. Irregular stem; ''*n-'' in the irrealis, infinitive, conclusive, and imperative and ''*s-'' adnominal and realis.
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| :{{interlinear | box=yes
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| | *daŋʷáe -nu
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| | sing.IRR -NEG.CONCL
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| | 'They do not sing'}}
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| :{{interlinear | box=yes
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| | *daŋʷáe -su
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| | sing.IRR -NEG.ADN
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| | 'The one(s) that do not sing'}}
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| ;'''''*nəsu'''''
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| :(''perfective aspect • emphatic'') Attaches to the infinitive form of a verb. Generally used to express natural states or actions.
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| ;'''''*kusu'''''
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| :(''past tense'') Attaches to the infinitive form of a verb. Irregular stem; ''*k-'' in the irrealis, infinitive, conclusive, and imperative and ''*ŋ-'' adnominal and realis; e.g. ''*daŋʷáikusu'' ('they sang') vs. ''*daŋʷáiŋu'' ('the one(s) that sang').
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| ;'''''*kiarusu'''''
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| :(''reported past • hearsay • narrative tense'') Attaches to the infinitive form of a verb. Formed of ''*kusu'' + the copula ''*arusu''.
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| ;'''''*ta-si'''''
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| :(''volition • desiderative mood'') Attaches to the infinitive form of a verb.
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| ::{{interlinear | box=yes | top='''''*nitmǐtahinə'''''
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| | *ni- t- mǐ -ta -hi -nə
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| | 2SG- 1SG- see.INF -DES -INF -PFV.CONCL
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| | 'I wanted to see you.'}}
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| === Reduplication === | | === Reduplication === |
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| Proto-Dynic makes extensive use of reduplication to form the plural of nouns. Generally, the first onset and nucleus of a word are reduplicated, with any long vowels shortened in the reduplicated syllable: | | Proto-Dynic makes extensive use of reduplication to form the plural of nouns. Generally, the first onset and nucleus of a word are reduplicated, with any long vowels shortened in the reduplicated syllable: |
| * ''*kél'' ('island') → ''*kekél'' ('islands') | | * ''*kel'' ('island') → ''*kekel'' ('islands') |
| * ''*dûnə'' ('person') → ''*dudûnə'' ('people') | | * ''*dūnə'' ('person') → ''*dudūnə'' ('people') |
| * ''*sáuk'' ('hawk') → ''*sasáuk'' ('hawks') | | * ''*sawk'' ('hawk') → ''*sasawk'' ('hawks') |
| Reduplication can also be used with uncountable or collective nouns to refer to large or otherwise extreme or emphatic versions of a noun. The same is true of adjectives: | | Reduplication can also be used with uncountable or collective nouns to refer to large or otherwise extreme or emphatic versions of a noun. The same is true of adjectives: |
| * ''*sêl'' ('the ocean') → ''*sesêl'' ('the vast ocean') | | * ''*sēl'' ('the ocean') → ''*sesēl'' ('the vast ocean') |
| * ''*hur-sí'' ('tall, high') → ''*huhur-sí'' ('very tall, very high') | | * ''*hur-si'' ('tall, high') → ''*huhur-si'' ('very tall, very high') |
| * ''*ə̄c-sí'' ('large, big') → ''*əʔə̄c-sí'' ('huge, enormous') | | * ''*ə̄c-si'' ('large, big') → ''*əʔə̄c-si'' ('huge, enormous') |
| Occasionally a reduplicated term may carry both of these meanings. For example, ''*kekél'' may have the plural meaning 'islands,' or the collective 'land, all the islands, great island, continent.' | | Occasionally a reduplicated term may carry both of these meanings. For example, ''*kekel'' may have the plural meaning 'islands,' or the collective 'land, all the islands, great island, continent.' |
| | |
| | Reduplication is used in verbs to form mediopassive verbs from active transitive ones. Due to the ''bi-moraic rule'', the conclusive verb ending is dropped before a pausa in verbs with single mora stems. |
| | * ''*mīh'' ('to see') → ''*mimīh'' ('to be visible') |
| | *: ex. ''*sawk ti-mīh'' ('I see a hawk') vs. ''*sawk mimīh'' ('the hawk is visible') |
| | * ''*bura'' ('to protect') → ''*bubura'' ('to be safe, to be protected') |
|
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| == Development == | | == Development == |
| === To [[Proto-Central Dynic]] === | | === To [[Proto-Central Dynic]] === |
| Diphthongs ending in a palatal glide become long monophthongs, some merging with original ''*ē'', whilst others becoming a new, perhaps more closed version, such as {{IPA-all|ɛː|}}, written ''*ē₂''. | | Diphthongs ending in a palatal glide become long monophthongs, some merging with original ''*ē'', whilst others becoming a new, perhaps more closed version, such as {{IPA-all|ɛː|}}, written ''*ē₂''. |
| * ''*ē'' → ''*ē₁''; e.g. ''*sêl'' ('sea') → ''*sē₁l'' | | * ''*ē'' → ''*ē₁''; e.g. ''*sēl'' ('sea') → ''*sē₁l'' |
| * ''*ei'' → ''*ē₁''; e.g. ''*iteídə'' ('I ate it') → ''*itē₁d'' | | * ''*ey'' → ''*ē₁''; e.g. ''*itʔeyn'' ('I ate it') → ''*ittē₁n'' |
| * ''*əi'' → ''*ē₂''; e.g. ''*-dəiarusu'' (''{{interlinear|PFV}} suffix'') → ''*-dē₂arusu'' | | * ''*əy'' → ''*ē₂''; e.g. ''*ŋʷəy'' (''fish'') → ''*ŋʷē₂'' |
| * ''*ai'' → ''*ē₂''; e.g. ''*daŋʷáidə'' ('I ate it') → ''*daŋʷē₂d'' | | * ''*ay'' → ''*ē₂''; e.g. ''*daŋʷay'' ('song') → ''*daŋʷē₂'' |
| A similar change occurred with ''*ə̄'' and ''*əu'', however ''*eu'' and ''*au'' were unaffected. | | A similar change occurred with ''*ə̄'' and ''*əu'', however ''*eu'' and ''*au'' were unaffected. |
| * ''*ə̄'' → ''*ō₁''; e.g. ''*nkʷə̂'' (''speak!'') → ''*inkʷō₁'' | | * ''*ə̄'' → ''*ō₁''; e.g. ''*ə̄č-si'' (''big'') → ''*ō₁čsi'' |
| * ''*əu'' → ''*ō₂''; e.g. ''*kʷə́idəu'' (''the one who spoke'') → ''*kʷē₂dō₂'' (perhaps {{IPA-all|kʷɛ̂ː.dɔː|}}) | | * ''*əw'' → ''*ō₂''; e.g. ''*dəwl'' (''door'') → ''*dō₂l'' |
| | Word final /*ə/ is dropped in most cases, except before a case suffix. In root initial cases, it becomes, it becomes /*o/, and elsewhere it becomes /*e/. |
| | * ''*ənə-si'' ('small') → ''*onesi'' |
| | * ''*dūnə'' ('person') → ''*dūn'', but ''*dūnə-ŋa'' → ''*dūne-ŋa'' |
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| == Lexicon == | | == Lexicon == |
| | [[:Category:Proto-Dynic_words|Proto-Dynic Lexicon]] |
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| == Footnotes == | | == Footnotes == |