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* The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩]. | |||
* The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ]. | * The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ]. | ||
* /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪]. | * /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪]. | ||
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::'''nxua intaneti''' | ::'''nxua intaneti''' | ||
::/Nʃu.á.i. | ::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/ | ||
::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí] | ::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí] | ||
::''is on the internet'' | ::''is on the internet'' | ||
===Epenthetic /s/=== | ===Epenthetic /s/=== | ||
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===Nominals=== | ===Nominals=== | ||
Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of | Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the <u>pronominals</u>, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence. | ||
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In addition, there are two | In addition to the pronominals, there are two <u>complementisers</u> which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'. | ||
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Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain. | |||
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Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting. | |||
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| "the things that" || "are potable" | | "the things that" || "are potable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" |''the (drinkable) water'' | | colspan="2" |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water'' | ||
|} | |||
:Plural: | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''xu''' || '''hunia''' | |||
|- | |||
| NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable | |||
|- | |||
| "the things that" || "are potable" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" |''the (serving of drinkable) water'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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| "was heard" || "to me" || "the thing that" || "is a bird" | | "was heard" || "to me" || "the thing that" || "is a bird" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
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=====Clusivity===== | =====Clusivity===== | ||
The plural forms of all pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. | The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness. | ||
The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms ("you, one person, and I") being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''. | |||
The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. | Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. | ||
The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule. | |||
Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive. | Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive. | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || ''' | | '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS | | want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || ''' | | '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM. | | JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "should" || "go - to them" || "you | | "should" || "go - to them" || "you and I" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS] | | colspan="4" | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS] | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''ti''' || ''' | | '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS | | PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS | ||
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| '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}''' | | '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| IMP || COP-ABL.1s. | | IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "!" || "go - from me" | | "!" || "go - from me" | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || ''' | | '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS) | | be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "be known" || "to her/him" || " | | "be known" || "to her/him" || "that" || "since" || "be small" || ("s/he") | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="6" | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.'' | | colspan="6" | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.'' | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || ''' | | '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN. | | begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "begin" || "be dead" || "the inaccessible one who" || "be mother" || "be yours" || "when" || "be seen" || ("to the inaccessible one") || " | | "begin" || "be dead" || "the inaccessible one who" || "be mother" || "be yours" || "when" || "be seen" || ("to the inaccessible one") || "that thing" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="10" |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.'' | | colspan="10" |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.'' | ||
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=====Genitive===== | =====Genitive===== | ||
The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u( | The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal. | ||
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=====Possessive===== | =====Possessive===== | ||
The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u( | The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one. | ||
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Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for | It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences. | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}''' | |||
|- | |||
| be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS | |||
|- | |||
| "be a snake" || "at the thing which" || "be inside" || "be a boot" || "be mine" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB] | |||
|} | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}''' | |||
|- | |||
| be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS | |||
|- | |||
| "be a snake" || "at the thing which" || "be inside" || "be a boot" || "my" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB] | |||
|} | |||
In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession. | |||
Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case. | |||
=====Vocative===== | =====Vocative===== | ||
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| "oh you" | | "oh you" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="1" |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ | | colspan="1" |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM] | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}''' | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| VOC.3s.DEF. | | VOC.3s.DEF.ICS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "oh they" | | "oh they" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="1" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ | | colspan="1" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB] | ||
|} | |} | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || ''' | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS | | VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS | ||
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::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g- | | '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC. | | hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "hunt" || "certain people" || "by" || "wait" || "at anything which" || "is bushes" || "be-at | | "hunt" || "certain people" || "by" || "wait" || "at anything which" || "is bushes" || "be-at any things which" || "be drinking water" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="8" | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — | | colspan="8" | ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
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====Nominal Tables==== | ====Nominal Tables==== | ||
Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]]. | |||
:: | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Simple pronominals | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural | |||
|- | |- | ||
| || | ! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible | ||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 1st person | ||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | na | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | nu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ina | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | inu | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd person | ||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ua | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iua | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivu | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene''' | | rowspan="6" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd person | ||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate specific | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ma | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | mu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ima | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | imu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate generic | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | u | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate definite | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate specific | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | zu | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | izu | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate generic | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | a | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ia | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Demonstrative pronominals | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: right;" | 3rd person | |||
animate | |||
definite | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>ie</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>ue</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>ie</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>ue</u> | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>ia</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>ua</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>ia</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>ua</u> | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>io</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>uo</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>io</u> | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>uo</u> | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd person | |||
inanimate | |||
definite | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>ue</u> | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>ue</u> | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>ua</u> | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>ua</u> | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>uo</u> | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>uo</u> | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Compound pronominals | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | dominant | |||
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | subordinate | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd + 1st person | |||
| style="text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | dual | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | uana | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vunu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | uanu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vuna | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iuana | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivunu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iuanu | |||
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivuna | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Complimentisers | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | temporal | |||
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | non-temporal | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | kuo | |||
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | zuo | |||
|} | |||
=====First Person===== | |||
First person nominals are all definite and animate. | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. | |||
|- | |||
| Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina''' | |||
|- | |||
| Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine''' | |||
|- | |||
| Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai''' | | Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai''' | ||
Line 1,260: | Line 1,431: | ||
=====Second Person===== | =====Second Person===== | ||
Second person nominals are all definite. | Second person nominals are all definite and animate. | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| || ICS | | || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua''' | | Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua''' | ||
Line 1,295: | Line 1,466: | ||
|} | |} | ||
=====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)===== | |||
First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words. | |||
{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|| | |||
|| ICS.DU | |||
|| ACS.DU | |||
|| DOM.DU | |||
|| SUB.DU | |||
|| ICS.PL | |||
|| ACS.PL | |||
|| DOM.PL | |||
|| SUB.PL | |||
|- | |- | ||
| || | || Nominative | ||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuna | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuna | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | || Accusative | ||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuine | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | || Dative | ||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuine | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi''' | || Ablative | ||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuinui | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uainai | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uainui | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuinai | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuinui | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuainai | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuainui | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuinai | |||
|- | |||
|| Locative | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuanua | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auanua | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuanua | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iauana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iauanua | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuana | |||
|- | |||
|| Genitive | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuine | |||
|- | |||
|| Possessive | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uvunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uvuna | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuvunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuvuna | |||
|- | |||
|| Vocative | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | evunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | evuna | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eivunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eiuana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eiuanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eivuna | |||
|- | |||
|| Causal | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuine | |||
|- | |||
|| Benefactive | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuine | |||
|- | |||
|| Instrumental | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuine | |||
|- | |||
|| Comitative | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuine | |||
|- | |||
|| Topical | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuine | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuini | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuene | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiueni | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuine | |||
|- | |||
|| Essive | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ovunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ouana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ouanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ovuna | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oivunu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oiuana | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oiuanu | |||
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oivuna | |||
|} | |||
=====Third Person===== | |||
::'''Definite''' | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl. | |||
|- | |||
| Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu''' | |||
|- | |||
| Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi''' | |||
|- | |||
| Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui''' | | Ablative || '''jui''' || '''ijui''' || '''jai''' || '''ijai''' || '''xui''' || '''ixui''' | ||
Line 1,471: | Line 1,796: | ||
|• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person | |• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person | ||
|- | |- | ||
|• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of | |• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN] | |• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN] | ||
Line 1,529: | Line 1,854: | ||
::{| | ::{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope="col" width="10" | || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | "howls" || || "the being who" || "is a gibbon" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | colspan="4" style="text-align:left" | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali''' | ||
|- style="height: 2em;" | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Predicate || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Argument (Subject) | | style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''zagua''' || '''ju''' || '''gahu''' | | '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| be.gibbon || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl | | be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "is a gibbon" || "the being who" || "howls" | | "is a gibbon" || || "the being who" || "howls" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="4" style="text-align:left" | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,680: | Line 2,005: | ||
| "is the pair of eyes" || "my" || "the thing which" || "is a snake" | | "is the pair of eyes" || "my" || "the thing which" || "is a snake" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — ''' | | colspan="4" | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB] | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,692: | Line 2,017: | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''' | | '''lamas''' || '''aja''' || '''teui''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS | | be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS | ||
Line 1,698: | Line 2,023: | ||
| "is (a) tear(s)" || "at him/her" || "because of you" | | "is (a) tear(s)" || "at him/her" || "because of you" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/ | | colspan="3" | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB] | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,838: | Line 2,163: | ||
======Gerundive====== | ======Gerundive====== | ||
The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. | The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question. | ||
Line 1,846: | Line 2,171: | ||
::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular) | ::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular) | ||
::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular) | ::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular) | ||
:* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes' | :* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)' | ||
::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed) | |||
:* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting' | |||
::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu''] | |||
:* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk' | |||
::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken) | |||
:* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell' | |||
::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji''] | |||
:* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act' | |||
::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done) | |||
:* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable' | |||
::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do) | |||
:* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at' | |||
::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at) | ::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at) | ||
:* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', 'to crush under a boot' | :* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch' | ||
::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) | ::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word) | ||
:* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot' | |||
::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji''] | |||
:* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter' | :* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter' | ||
::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) | ::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji''] | ||
======Locative====== | ======Locative====== | ||
Line 1,872: | Line 2,210: | ||
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money') | ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money') | ||
:* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber' | :* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber' | ||
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with | ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)') | ||
:* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair' | :* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair' | ||
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair') | ::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair') | ||
Line 1,903: | Line 2,241: | ||
In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank. | In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank. | ||
Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha | Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot'). | ||
Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word. | Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word. | ||
Line 2,007: | Line 2,345: | ||
| "break gender roles" || "hit" || "the inaccessible being" || "the accessible being" | | "break gender roles" || "hit" || "the inaccessible being" || "the accessible being" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.'' | | colspan="4" |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 2,016: | Line 2,354: | ||
====''Au''==== | ====''Au''==== | ||
====''Au'' and '' | ====''Au'' and ''teu''==== | ||
'''Au''' and ''' | '''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence. | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue| | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| first || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS) | | first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "first" || "eat" || "I" || "then" || "sleep" || ("I") | | "first" || "eat" || "I" || "then" || "sleep" || ("I") | ||
Line 2,039: | Line 2,377: | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue| | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| second || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS) | | second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "then" || "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I") | | "then" || "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I") | ||
Line 2,057: | Line 2,395: | ||
| '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') | | '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS) | | sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I") | | "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I") | ||
Line 2,064: | Line 2,402: | ||
''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.'' | ''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean "to be first", however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''. | |||
====''Ha''==== | ====''Ha''==== | ||
Line 2,193: | Line 2,533: | ||
| "be very" || "rain" || "so" || "be going to" || "become large" || "the things which" || "be stream" | | "be very" || "rain" || "so" || "be going to" || "become large" || "the things which" || "be stream" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="7" | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.'' | | colspan="7" | ''It's raining hard, {{color|MediumBlue|so}} the streams are going to swell.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 2,673: | Line 3,013: | ||
|} | |} | ||
Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows. | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue| | | '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja | ||
|- | |- | ||
| " | | "kill deliberately" || "the thing which" || "be.dog" || "while be not" || "the accessible being who" || "be Tehi" || "while be indeed" || "the accessible being who" || "be Mbuja" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' | | colspan="11" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.'' | ||
|} | |||
===Interrogation=== | |||
====Polar Questions==== | |||
Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''. | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu''' | |||
|- | |||
| Q || rain | |||
|- | |||
| "?" || "rain" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
Line 2,818: | Line 3,173: | ||
| "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — | | colspan="3" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Relative tenses==== | |||
When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a "relative tense" (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the "reference time". The three basic "relative tense" markers are ... | When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a "relative tense" (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the "reference time". The three basic "relative tense" markers are ... | ||
Line 2,841: | Line 3,196: | ||
| "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 2,853: | Line 3,208: | ||
| "be underway" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "be underway" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 2,865: | Line 3,220: | ||
| "be going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "be going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Absolute tenses==== | |||
The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame. | The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame. | ||
Line 2,885: | Line 3,240: | ||
| "be earlier" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "be earlier" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 2,897: | Line 3,252: | ||
| "be now" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "be now" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Continuation==== | |||
There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something. | There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something. | ||
Line 2,909: | Line 3,265: | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge''' | |||
|- | |||
| PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book | |||
|- | |||
| "have been doing" || "read" || "I" || "this thing which" || "is a book" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB] | |||
|} | |||
====Perfective and imperfective==== | |||
In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a "snapshot" of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. | In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a "snapshot" of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time. | ||
Line 2,981: | Line 3,349: | ||
The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment'). | The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment'). | ||
====Resultative perfect==== | |||
The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time. | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo''' | |||
|- | |||
| RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane | |||
|- | |||
| "is in the resulting state" || "break" || "the thing which" || "is a window pane" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.'' | |||
|} | |||
'''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed. | |||
====Time word stacking==== | |||
More than one time word can be used together. | More than one time word can be used together. | ||
Line 2,992: | Line 3,379: | ||
| "will" || "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "will" || "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — | | colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 3,003: | Line 3,390: | ||
| "was" || "will" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "was" || "will" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — | | colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 3,018: | Line 3,405: | ||
| "will be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "will be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 3,029: | Line 3,416: | ||
| "was going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | | "was going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — | | colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Distance from reference time==== | |||
The distance from the time | The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''. | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''' | | '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| be. | | begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second | ||
|- | |- | ||
| " | | "becomes" || "is ill" || "while" || "is year" || "is earlier" || "is second" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="6" | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as "S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year." Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with "ago" as it would set the reference time to the present moment. | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| | || Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| || | | be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first | ||
|- | |- | ||
| || " | | "is completed" || "dies" || "while" || "is month" || "is about to" || "is first" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="6" | ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
A more literally translation could be "S/he died while there was the second coming year." Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with "in one month" as it would set the reference time to the present moment. | |||
In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time. | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue| | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| be. | | be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year | ||
|- | |- | ||
| " | | "has been till now" || "is known" || "the person" || "to me" || "while" || "are five" || "is year" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="5" | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM] | | colspan="5" | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM] | ||
Line 3,072: | Line 3,465: | ||
Another | Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''. | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''' | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill | ||
|- | |- | ||
| " | | "was" || "be two" || "be year" || "then" || "become" || "be ill" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="5" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
|| ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo''' | |||
|- | |||
| || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die | |||
|- | |||
| || "is going to" || "is one" || "is month" || "then" || "die" | |||
|- | |||
| ||colspan="5" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.'' | |||
|} | |||
::{| cellpadding="2" | |||
|- | |||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' | |||
|- | |||
| be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS | |||
|- | |||
| "has been till now" || "are five" || "is year" || "then" || "is known" || "the person" || "to me" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM] | |||
|} | |||
====Miscellaneous time words==== | |||
There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples. | There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples. | ||
Line 3,260: | Line 3,677: | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Topical | | Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' | | Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' | ||
Line 3,455: | Line 3,872: | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || ''' | | ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2 | | (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2 | ||
Line 3,482: | Line 3,899: | ||
::{| cellpadding="2" | ::{| cellpadding="2" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || ''' | | '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich | | then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich | ||
Line 3,526: | Line 3,943: | ||
===Speech Crime=== | ===Speech Crime=== | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | |||
[[Category:Conlangs]] |
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