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Lemizh: Difference between revisions
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→Syntax: Indentation
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The word levels determine the structure of a sentence. | The word levels determine the structure of a sentence. | ||
'''Rule One of sentence grammar. A word of level n is subordinate to the nearest word of level n−1 in front of it; the parole acts as a word of level zero.''' | |||
All words of second level are subordinate to the main predicate (which has first level). A word of third level is subordinate to the next second-level word in front of it, and so on. In other words, Lemizh sentences are strictly [[w:Head directionality|head-first]]. The main predicate itself is subordinate to the [[w:Parole (linguistics)|parole]], the action of speaking (or writing) the sentence in question, which consequently has level zero. | All words of second level are subordinate to the main predicate (which has first level). A word of third level is subordinate to the next second-level word in front of it, and so on. In other words, Lemizh sentences are strictly [[w:Head directionality|head-first]]. The main predicate itself is subordinate to the [[w:Parole (linguistics)|parole]], the action of speaking (or writing) the sentence in question, which consequently has level zero. | ||
'''Rule Two. An object of a word in a sentence is a word subordinate to the former, its predicate, plus all of its own objects.''' | |||
In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''. | In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''. | ||
The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. (This has been interpreted as Lemizh having VSO word order, although a subject is not quite the same as an agent, and Lemizh grammar strictly speaking does not have the concept of a subject.) | The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. (This has been interpreted as Lemizh having VSO word order, although a subject is not quite the same as an agent, and Lemizh grammar strictly speaking does not have the concept of a subject.) | ||
'''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.''' | |||
This is what we would expect: the nominative object of a predicate defines its source (sender), the accusative object its content, the temporal object its time, etc. | This is what we would expect: the nominative object of a predicate defines its source (sender), the accusative object its content, the temporal object its time, etc. | ||
'''Examples''' | '''Examples''' | ||
{{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 2A: second level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 2A: second level, agentive | ||
|dá föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi. | |dá föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi. | ||
|give-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2 | |give-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2 | ||
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The word stems of the three objects are nominal verbs, hence the inner accusatives. The outer cases indicate the sender, content and recipient of the act of giving. The agent is specified independently of the plot arrow; note the difference: | The word stems of the three objects are nominal verbs, hence the inner accusatives. The outer cases indicate the sender, content and recipient of the act of giving. The agent is specified independently of the plot arrow; note the difference: | ||
{{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 2A: second level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 2A: second level, agentive | ||
|dá lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe. | |dá lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe. | ||
|give-FACT-1 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2 | |give-FACT-1 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2 | ||
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We need not mark an object as agentive if we consider this information unimportant. The English translations are only rough approximations: | We need not mark an object as agentive if we consider this information unimportant. The English translations are only rough approximations: | ||
{{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 2A: second level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 2A: second level, agentive | ||
|dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe. | |dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe. | ||
|give-FACT-1 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2 bottle-ACC-ACC-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2 | |give-FACT-1 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2 bottle-ACC-ACC-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2 | ||
|''Lucy gets a bottle from Father Christmas. Lucy is given a bottle by Father Christmas.''}} | |''Lucy gets a bottle from Father Christmas. Lucy is given a bottle by Father Christmas.''}} | ||
'''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.''' | |||
''dà'' in the above sentence does not just mean "to give", it refers to one specific action of giving. This rule ensures that all the objects refer to the same action of giving. … | ''dà'' in the above sentence does not just mean "to give", it refers to one specific action of giving. This rule ensures that all the objects refer to the same action of giving. … | ||
'''Rule Five. A case characterises the action it refers to completely with regard to its case descriptor.''' | |||
… | … | ||
===Noun phrases=== | ===Noun phrases=== | ||
Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. In the following example, the inner case of "give" is changed to the nominative, yielding "one giving something, a giver", and everything is pushed down one level. The third-level words are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three. | Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. In the following example, the inner case of "give" is changed to the nominative, yielding "one giving something, a giver", and everything is pushed down one level. The third-level words are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three. | ||
{{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 3: third level; 3A: third level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2: second level; 3: third level; 3A: third level, agentive | ||
|dmàt tryxkì dée föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi. | |dmàt tryxkì dée föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi. | ||
|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-NOM-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3 | |see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-NOM-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3 | ||