Linguifex

Knrawi: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Knrawi (view source)

Revision as of 20:49, 24 March 2024

22,981 bytes added ,  24 March
no edit summary
No edit summary
(130 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 6: Line 6:
|nativename        = knrawi
|nativename        = knrawi
|pronunciation    = k̠n̩˥ɹɔʍɛ
|pronunciation    = k̠n̩˥ɹɔʍɛ
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Knrawi
|pronunciation_key = IPA for standard Knrawi
|state            = [https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Knrawi_Isles Knrawi Isles]
|state            = [https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Knrawi_Isles Knrawi Isles]
|setting          = [https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Pollasena_Wiki Pollasena]
|setting          = [https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Pollasena_Wiki Pollasena]
|created          = 2020
|created          = 2020
|fam1              = [[Wasc languages | Wasc]]
|familycolor      = isolate
|creator          = Dillon Hartwig
|creator          = Dillon Hartwig
|era              = -2000 to -900 MT
|script            = Wacag
|script            = Wacag
|nation            = Knrawi Empire
|nation            = Knrawi Empire
|map              = PollasenaMapGlowPNG2.png
|map              = PollasenaMapGlowPNG2.png
|mapsize          = 280px
|mapsize          = 280px
|mapcaption        = Range map of Knrawi (pink) and [[Soc'ul']] (green)
|mapcaption        = Range map of Knrawi (pink) and [[Soc'ul']] (green), c. -1200 MT
|notice            = IPA
|notice            = IPA
}}
}}


'''Knrawi''' /kənˈrɑwi/ (<small>standard Knrawi:&nbsp;</small><span class="nowrap" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[IPA for Knrawi|[k̠n̩˥ɹɔʍɛ&#93;]]</span>) is an isolate spoken across the Knrawi Empire, with strong influence from [[Soc'ul']] and other languages of the Knrawi Isles.
'''Knrawi''' /kənˈrɑwi/ (<small>standard Knrawi:&nbsp;</small><span class="nowrap" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[IPA for standard Knrawi|[k̠n̩˥ɹɔʍɛ&#93;]]</span>) is a language spoken across the Knrawi Empire, with moderate influence from [[Soc'ul']] and other languages of the Knrawi Isles. It is most likely related to the rest of the central Pre-Knrawi languages, but if so their common ancestor is too distant to reconstruct.


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
Line 26: Line 27:


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
Knrawi is written with the Wacag logography. Its romanization is as follows.
Knrawi is written with the Wacag logography. Its romanization is as follows (using Standard Knrawi phonetic values).


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Knrawi Romanization
|+ Knrawi Romanization
! a !! c !! ch !! cj !! e !! f !! fh !! fj
|-
|-
|
| /a/ || /k̟/ || /k̟ʰ/ || /k̟ˣ/ || [ə] || [ɸ] || [ɸʰ] || [ɸˣ]
|-
! g !! h !! i !! j !! k !! kh !! kj !! m
|-
| /ŋ/ || /h/ || /ɪ/ || /x̠/ || /k̠/ || /k̠ʰ/ || /k̠ˣ/ || /m/, [mʷ]
|-
! n !! p !! ph !! pj !! q !! qh !! qj !! r
|-
| /n/ || [p] || [pʰ] || [pˣ] || /kʷ/ || /kʷʰ/ || /kʷˣ/ || /ɹ/
|-
! s !! sh !! sj !! t !! th !! tj !! u !! v
|-
| /x̟/ || /x̟ʰ/ || /x̟ˣ/ || /t/ || /tʰ/ || /tˣ/ || /ʊ/ || [β̞]
|-
! w !! y !! z !! zh !! zj !! á !! à !! â
|-
| /ʍ/ || /ɉ/ || /θ/ || /θʰ/ || /θˣ/ || /a˥/ || /a˩/ || /a˥˩/
|}
|}
High tone in unmarked on a word's first vowel.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
For notable regional phonologies see also [[:Category:Knrawi IPA guides|Knrawi IPA guides]].
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants
|+ Consonants
|-
|-
!
! colspan="2" |
|
! colspan="2" | [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Relative articulation|Prevelar]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Relative articulation|Postvelar]] !! colspan="2" | [[w:Labialization|Labialized velar]] !! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| [[w:Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] || ([[w:Labialization|mʷ]]) || ([[w:Voiced dental nasal|n̪]]) || [[w:Voiced alveolar nasal|n]] || ([[w:Voiced postalveolar nasal|n̠]]) ([[w:Relative articulation|ŋ̟]]) || colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced velar nasal|ŋ]] || ([[w:Relative articulation|ŋ̠]]) || colspan="2" | ([[w:Labialization|ŋʷ]])
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[w:stop consonant|Stop]]
! Plain
| colspan="2" | ([[w:Voiceless bilabial stop|p]]) || colspan="2" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || colspan="2" | [[w:Relative articulation|k̟]] || colspan="2" | [[w:Relative articulation|k̠]] || colspan="2" | [[w:Labialization|kʷ]]
|-
! [[w:Aspirated consonant|Aspirated]]
| ([[w:Aspirated consonant|pʰ]]) || (pˣ) || [[w:Aspirated consonant|tʰ]] || tˣ || [[w:Aspirated consonant|k̟ʰ]] || k̟ˣ || [[w:Aspirated consonant|k̠ʰ]] || k̠ˣ || [[w:Aspirated consonant|kʷʰ]] || kʷˣ
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[w:fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! Plain
| ([[w:Voiceless bilabial fricative|ɸ]]) || ([[w:Voiced bilabial fricative|β]]) || [[w:Voiceless dental fricative|θ]] || ([[w:Voiced dental fricative|ð]]) || [[w:Relative articulation|x̟]] || ([[w:Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]]) || colspan="2" | [[w:Relative articulation|x̠]]
|-
! [[w:Aspirated consonant|Aspirated]]
| ([[w:Aspirated consonant|ɸʰ]]) || (ɸˣ) || [[w:Aspirated consonant|θʰ]] || θˣ || [[w:Aspirated consonant|x̟ʰ]] || x̟ˣ || colspan="4" | || [[w:Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan="2" | ([[w:Voiced bilabial approximant|β̞]]) || colspan="2" | [[w:Voiced alveolar approximant|ɹ]] || ([[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]) || [[w:Ɉ (IPA)|ɉ]] || colspan="2" | || ([[w:Voiced labial–velar approximant|w]]) || [[w:Voiceless labial–velar fricative|ʍ]] || ([[w:Creaky-voiced glottal approximant|ʔ̞]])
|}
|}
*All sonorants can be syllabic.
**Syllabic [β̞] and /ɉ/ are fricated in most regions and in standard and Royal Knrawi.
**In some regions and in standard (but not Royal) Knrawi all sonorants are syllabified before consonants or word boundaries except before syllabic vowels/consonants.
*Alveolar consonants become bilabial adjacent to /m/, /ʊ/, and labialized consonants.
**/n/ becomes what is notated here as [mʷ], but is merged into [m] in most regions and in standard Knrawi.
*In most regions /k̟ˣ/ and /x̟ˣ/ are realized as [t͡ʃˣ] and [ʃˣ].
*In most regions and standard (but not Royal) Knrawi /ŋ/ assimilates to following velar consonants, and /n/ assimilates to following dental and postalveolar consonants.
*In standard Knrawi both also assimilate to preceding consonants.
*/ɪ/, /ʊ/, and /a/ are realized as [j], [w], and [ʔ̞] postvocalically.
**In some regions this also applies across word boundaries.
*The conditions for approximants (not including non-syllabic vowels) being fortified to fricatives varies by region.
**In standard Knrawi they are fortified on word boundaries and after nonsyllabic vowels.
**In Royal Knrawi fortition does not occur except in syllabic [β̞] and /ɉ/ which are realized as [β̍] and [ɣ̍].
*[β̞] and [w] (but not [β]) are merged in most regions and in standard (but not Royal) Knrawi.
**In standard Knrawi the merged value is [w].
*In some regions,
**Bilabial fricatives are realized as labiodental.
**Alveolar consonants are realized as dental or vice versa.
**Prevelar stops and fricatives (or only aspirated ones) are realized as postalveolar affricates and fricatives.
***In fewer of these regions /ŋ/ assimilates to following postalveolar consonants as [n̠], merging with /n/.
**Prevelar stops and fricatives are realized as velar before other prevelar consonants, and postalveolar affricates and fricatives otherwise.
**Prevelar and postvelar consonants are realized as palatal and velar, postalveolar (as above) and velar, or velar and uvular.
***Royal Knrawi realizes prevelar and postvelar consonants as velar and uvular.
**[j] and [ɉ] are merged.
**/m/ and [mʷ] are realized as [ŋʷ] and [m]; this is the realization in Royal Knrawi.
**non-labial /ɹ/ is realized as [l] or [r].
**/ʍ/ is realized as [xʷ], [hʷ], [ɸʷ], [w], or others.
**[h] is realized as [ɦ] or [∅].
**[ʔ̞] is realized as [ʔ], [ɦ], or [∅].
**Geminated sonorants are glottalized, generally with creaky voice.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 47: Line 119:
|+ Vowels
|+ Vowels
|-
|-
!
! !! [[w:Front vowel|Front]] !! [[w:Central vowel|Central]] !! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]
|
|-
! [[w:Close vowel|High]]
| [[w:Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|ɪ]] || || [[w:Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]
|-
! [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
| || ([[w:Mid central vowel|ə]])
|-
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Low mid]]
| ([[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]) || || ([[w:Open-mid back rounded vowel|ɔ]])
|-
! [[w:Open vowel|Low]]
| [[w:Open front unrounded vowel|a]]
|}
|}
*[ɛ] and [ɔ] are unstressed allophones of /ɪ/ or /a/ and /ʊ/ or /a/ respectively.
**The conditions in which unstressed /a/ becomes [ɛ] or [ɔ] varies by region.
***In standard Knrawi [ɛ] is the realization adjacent to coronal and glottal consonants or when the previous vowel is [ɔ], and [ɔ] is the realization otherwise.
***In Royal Knrawi unstressed /a/ is instead realized as [ə] in all environments.
*/ɪ/, /ʊ/, and /a/ are realized as [j], [w], and [ʔ̞] postvocalically.
**In most regions and in standard and Royal Knrawi this does not apply after syllabic consonants.
**In some regions this also applies across word boundaries.
*Epenthetic [ə] is placed between
**voiceless consonants and /h/ or /x̠/ (except /hh/ and /x̠x̠/).
***In standard Knrawi an exception is /hx̠/ and /x̠h/ clusters.
**aspirated consonants and non-nasal consonants.
**C₁CC₁, #CC₁, and C₁C# clusters with the C₁ being less sonorous than C (unless is syllabic).
***Roots with only epenthetic vowels can only have high lexical tone.
*In some regions,
**Unstressed /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ are realized as [e] and [o] (with /a/ still having [ɛ] and [ɔ] realizations).
**Stressed /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ are realized as [i] and [u] or [ə] and [u].
**[ɛ] and [ɔ] are realized as [e̞] and [o̞].


===Pitch accent===
===Pitch accent===
Line 55: Line 156:
|+ Tones
|+ Tones
|-
|-
!
! High !! Low !! Falling
|
|-
| ˥ || ˩ || ˥˩
|}
|}
*Some regions also have a separate grammatical low falling tone and realize the falling tone as high falling, see [[Knrawi#Nouns and pronouns|Nouns and pronouns]].
*Roots with only epenthetic vowels can only have high lexical tone.
Only a word's stressed syllable bears tone; other syllables' pitch depends on intonation.
Lexical falling tone in native words is rare, but grammatical falling tone is more common.


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
Stress is root-final in native verbs, root-initial in native nouns, and variable in all other words but tending toward root-initial.
Most affixes shift stress by one syllable toward them, and due to this most words have mobile stress.


====Intonation====
====Intonation====
Declarative sentences generally have a falling pitch throughout, but volume and pitch range can be used for emphasis.
In questions the particle ''wuj'' and/or the demonstrative ''wi'' (and other relative/interrogative demonstratives) may also be emphasized with a sharp falling pitch followed by higher pitch in the following word.


====Rhythm====
====Rhythm====
Syllables are generally mora-timed, with syllables containing long and overlong vowels having two and three morae; in recitations, continuant coda consonants or coda clusters with them may have their own mora, and overlong syllables may instead have four morae.
Syllables are generally mora-timed, with syllables before non-syllabic vowels having two morae; in some recitation traditions, stressed syllables have one extra mora.


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Syllables are at most (C(C₁))V((C₂)C), with C₁ being a non-lateral approximant and C₂ being C₁ or /ʔ/, but these maximum syllables are very rare. There are no restrictions on what clusters can occur.
Syllables are at most (C(C₁))V((C₁)C), with C₁ being more sonorous than the adjacent consonant and syllabic consonants functioning as V.
 
Clusters with syllabic consonants are as onset-heavy as possible unless a stress shift occurs; an exception is some regions in which two-sonorant clusters syllabify the first sonorant unless following a syllabic vowel/consonant.
 
In most regions (but not Royal Knrawi) syllabicity is lost next to vowels unless a stress shift occurs.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Alignment===
===Alignment===
Knrawi has nominative-accusative morphosyntactic alignment.
Knrawi has nominative-accusative morphosyntactic alignment. In some regions relative clauses have ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment, and in some others some verbs (generally inherently passive or non-volitive verbs, but varying within these regions) always have ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment; for both of these accusative and locative marking act as absolutive and ergative marking respectively, with true locatives being disambiguated by adpositions.
 
===First and third person===
First and third person are treated as the same category; where disambiguation is needed, an unstressed form of ''it'' "head" is used as a first-person marker after the relevant verb or possessive.
 
===Compounding===
Compounding is frequent and very productive, but in most words is limited to two roots. Stress in ad hoc compounds shifts left from the last word's original stress, but in many older compounds is either initial or final as a non-compound word of the same part of speech, or have irregular stress.
 
In some regions productive compounds are not limited to two roots, instead either being limited to three or having no limit.


===Nouns and pronouns===
===Nouns and pronouns===
Nouns are marked for case, portion, and definiteness/number.


{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Noun affixes
|+ Noun affixes
|-
|-
!
! !! {{gcl|SGV}} !! {{gcl|PTV}}
|
|-
! {{gcl|NOM}}/{{gcl|DAT}}
| -g || -ri
|-
! {{gcl|ACC}}
| ∅ || zi-
|-
! {{gcl|LOC}}
| sg -g || sr -ri
|}
|}
*''Sg'' and ''sr'' bear the same tone as their noun.
*In some regions, ''sg'' and ''sr''
**Bear high stress when an adposition is present.
**Are unused when an adposition is present.
As in Soc'ul', plurality and indefiniteness are treated as one category, and in words with modifiable tone it is marked with low tone.
The genitive case is affixed as if accusative, and in words with modifiable tone is marked with falling tone. This tone takes priority over lexical or grammatical low tone, except in some regions where the two (and/or combined lexical and grammatical falling tone) combine into a low falling tone.
All native proper nouns and most other proper nouns bear plural tone.
====Pronouns====
Pronouns do not exist independently (except see [[Knrawi#First and third person|First and third person]] and [[Knrawi#Possession|Possession]]); the person of dropped nouns are instead only shown through verb agreement.
The demonstrative ''shir'' and relative/interrogative demonstrative ''wi'' can also be used as pronouns.


====Possession====
====Possession====
Possession is marked with the genitive case plus ''rn̂'' and ''jîi'' following the possessed noun for first/third-person and second-person possessors respectively. These markers are optional with sufficient context.


====Noun negation====
In some regions ''rn̂'' and ''jîi'' are instead high-tone ''rn'' and ''jii'', or bear the possessor's tone; the Royal Knrawi forms are tone-assimilating.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs agree in person with both agent and patient, and mark aspect and mood.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Verb inflections
|-
! colspan="2" | !! {{gcl|IND}} !! {{gcl|SUBJ}} !! {{gcl|IMP}} !! {{gcl|JUS}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| ∅ || -ha || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || hu
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| -aj || -j || ju -j
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| m- || yi- || hu || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| sr- || y- || y- yu
|}
*Subjunctive mood is often also used for future marking.
*''Hu'', ''ju'', and ''yu'' bear the verb's tone.
*Jussive and imperative ''hu'' precede and follow their verb respectively, and dative nouns must be placed between jussive ''hu'' and the verb.
In verbs with modifiable tone imperfective aspect is marked with falling tone; in some regions verbs with modifiable lexical low tone are instead marked with low falling tone.
Verbs are passivized with a preceding particle ''r'' which bears the verb's tone; in most regions and in standard Knrawi ''r'' precedes jussive ''hu'', but in some regions and in Royal Knrawi directly precedes the verb, and in some regions passivization is instead marked with passive copulae.
Infinitive and relative verbs are marked with ''i-'', iterative/durative verbs are marked with ''-qm'' (in some regions and in standard Knrawi directly after the verb root, and in other regions after other suffixes, and in Royal Knrawi instead a separated following particle ''qm''), and abilitative and conditional verbs are marked with a preceding particle ''nĝ''.
Questions are marked with a particle ''wuj'' at either the beginning or end (as in standard and Royal Knrawi) of the clause. See also [[Knrawi#Pronouns|Pronouns]].


====Copula====
====Copula====
Line 95: Line 279:
|+ Copulae
|+ Copulae
|-
|-
!
! colspan="4" rowspan="3" | !! colspan="8" | {{gcl|FIN}} !! colspan="8" | {{gcl|INF}}/{{gcl|REL}}
|
|-
! colspan="4" | {{gcl|PFV}} !! colspan="4" | {{gcl|IPFV}} !! colspan="4" | {{gcl|PFV}} !! colspan="4" | {{gcl|IPFV}}
|-
! {{gcl|IND}} !! {{gcl|SUBJ}} !! {{gcl|IMP}} !! {{gcl|JUS}} !! {{gcl|IND}} !! {{gcl|SUBJ}} !! {{gcl|IMP}} !! {{gcl|JUS}} !! {{gcl|IND}} !! {{gcl|SUBJ}} !! {{gcl|IMP}} !! {{gcl|JUS}} !! {{gcl|IND}} !! {{gcl|SUBJ}} !! {{gcl|IMP}} !! {{gcl|JUS}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" | {{gcl|ACT}}
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| su || suh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || hus
| sû || sûh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || hûs
|isu || isuh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || ihus
|îsu || îsuh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || îhus
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| saj || suj || sjuj
| sâj || sûj || sjûj
|isaj || isuj || isjuj
|îsaj || îsuj || îsjuj
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| ms || yis || suhú || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| m̂s || yîs || suhû || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|ims || iis || isúhu || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|îms || îis || isûhu || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| srs || ys || ysú
| sr̂s || ŷs || ysû
|isrs || is || isu
|îsrs || îs || îsu
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" | {{gcl|PASS}}
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| vù || vùh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || hùv
| ràj || vùj || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || jvùj
| mv̀ || yìr || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || vuhù
| sr̀ || yr̀ || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || yvù
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| vû || vûh || hûv
| râj || vûj || jvûj
| mv̂ || yîr || vuhû
| sr̂ || yr̂ || yvû
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| rìu || rìuh || hùvi || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| rìaj || rìuj || jrìuj || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| mvì || yìri || riùhu || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| srì || yrì || yrìu || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| rîu || rîuh || hîuv
| rîaj || rîuj || jrîuj
| mvî || yirî || riûhu
| srî || yrî || yrîu
|-
! rowspan="8" | {{gcl|ITER}}/{{gcl|DUR}}
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|ACT}}
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| suq || suqh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || husq
| saqj || suqj || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || sjuqj
| msq || yisq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || suhúq
| srsq || ysq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || ysúq
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| sûq || sûqh || hûsq
| sâqj || sûqj || sjûqj
| m̂sq || yîsq || suhûq
| sr̂sq || ŷsq || ysûq
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| isuq || isuqh || ihusq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| isaqj || isuqj || isjuqj || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| imsq || iisq || isúhuq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| isrsq || isq || isuq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| îsuq || îsuqh || îhusq
| îsaqj || îsuqj || îsjuqj
| îmsq || îisq || îsûhuq
| îsrsq || îsq || îsuq
|-
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|PASS}}
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| vùq || vùqh || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || hùvq
| ràqj || vùqj || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || jvùqj
| mv̀q || yìvq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || vuhùq
| sv̀q || yv̀q || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" | || yvùq
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| vûq || vûqh || hûvq
| râqj || vûqj || jvûqj
| mv̂q || yîvq || vuhûq
| sv̂q || yv̂q || yvûq
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|1}}/{{gcl|3}}
| rìuq || rìuqh || huvìq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| rìaqj || rìuqj || jrìuqj || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| mvìq || yìriq || riùhuq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
| srìq || yrìq || yrìuq || rowspan="2" style="background-color:#D0D0D0" |
|-
! >{{gcl|2}}
| rîuq || rîuqh || huvîq
| rîaqj || rîuqj || jrîuqj
| mvîq || yîriq || riûhuq
| srîq || yrîq || yrîuq
|}
|}
*In some regions,
**The passive forms of the copula are instead high-tone.
**The passive imperfective forms of the copula are instead low falling-tone.
Adpositions are often affixed to the copula, and "to have" and "to become" are formed by prefixing ''riq''/''vuq'' and suffixing ''khuy''/''jiyu'' respectively.


====Serial verbs====
====Serial verbs====
Verbs are often serialized in non-formal speech, in which the verbs' agreement marking may or may not match. In most serial verbs the components are compounded when possible but retain their meaning when separated.
Aspect-mood marking and preceding particles are applied to the first verb in the serialization. Following particles are applied after either the first (as in most regions) or last verb (as in some regions and standard and Royal Knrawi).
Serialization is especially common when the first verb is an intransitive or sensory verb.


===Adjectives and adverbs===
===Adjectives and adverbs===
Adjectives and adverbs do not take any marking, and are generally compounded with the word they modify when possible unless emphasized.
Adverbs are not their own class of words, but are derived from other parts of speech (see [[Knrawi#Part-of-speech modifiers|Part-of-speech modifiers]]).
Comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs are formed by placing the second compared word after with the preposition ''srai''; in some regions ''khuy'' and ''jiyu'' (for first/third and second person respectively) are used in place of ''srai'', either as a preposition or a postposition. See also (see [[Soc'ul'#Reduplication|Reduplication]]).


===Adpositions===
===Adpositions===
All locative adpositions are prepositions except ''sjer''/''nari'' "with"; ''sjer''/''nari''and all lative adpositions are postpositions. Prepositions follow the locative particle (see [[Knrawi#Nouns_and_pronouns|Nouns and pronouns]]), and in most regions (but not in Royal Knrawi) ''riq''/''vuq'' "at" is only used for emphasis.
All unaffixed adpositions bear the tone of the word they modify, and adpositions can be affixed to verbs (see also [[Knrawi#Copula|Copula]]).
Most adpositions have suppletive forms for first/third- and second-person (when affixed to verbs, agreeing with the verb's patient), but in some regions the second-person forms are either unused outside of verbs or absent entirely.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
Line 112: Line 421:
|-
|-
! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6
! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6
|-
| tì || qûat || càvu || shuga || kaau || fùch
|-
|-
! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 11 !! 12
! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 11 !! 12
|-
| m̀vis || khain || kàtiu || huc || chaua || ycham
|-
|-
! 13 !! 14 !! 15 !! 16 !! 17 !! 18
! 13 !! 14 !! 15 !! 16 !! 17 !! 18
|-
| tìm || quâpm || cavùm || shugám || kaáum || fuchm̀
|-
|-
! 19 !! 20 !! 21 !! 22 !! 23 !! 24
! 19 !! 20 !! 21 !! 22 !! 23 !! 24
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | 576 !! colspan="2" | 13,824 !! colspan="2" | 331,776
| mvìsm || khaímm || katìum || hucḿ || chaúam || ychámm
|}
|-
! 25 !! 48 !! 576 !! 13,824 !! colspan="2" | 331,776
|-
| ychámm hn tì || qûat ychámm || sûign || suîgmm || colspan="2" | ychámm suîgmm
|}
|}


Nouns are not marked for number when using numerals.
Number marking is optional when using numerals.
 
===Negation===
All negation is marked with ''hàr''. ''Hàr'' cannot precede its clause's verb, so negated nouns and adjectives must be backed.
 
Prohibitive sentences instead use ''hàj''.
 
===Evidentiality===
Clauses are marked for evidence by verb affixes or clause-final particles which bear the verb's tone (or both in the case of ''i- az'').
 
There are six non-reportative evidentials: visual witness ''i-'', auditory witness ''ya-'', nonvisual/auditory witness ''-g'', certain inferred ''pwi'', uncertain inferred ''su'', and direct participation ''i- az''. The dubitative particle ''muai'' (bearing the verb's tone) can also take the place of a clause's evidential.
 
Clauses with gnomic, imperative, and jussive verbs are unmarked.
 
====Reportative evidentials====
Reportative clauses are marked with ''-tj'' unless the source person is the speaker or listener, closely related to the speaker, divine (especially a god or god-king), or well-known by the speaker, where particles bearing the verb's tone are used.
 
Speaker and listener sources use ''tjaq'' and ''tjer'' respectively. Closely related source particles mark generation relative to the speaker: ''tjim'' for sources one or more generations younger, ''tjaa'' for sources of the same generation, ''pjugi'' for sources one generation older, and ''tjew'' for sources two or more generations older; divine sources also use ''tjew''. Well-known, non-closely/directly related sources use ''pjuiu''. In some regions ''pjuiu'' can also be used for sources well-known to the listener.


===Derivational morphology===
===Derivational morphology===
====Part-of-speech modifiers====
====Part-of-speech modifiers====
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are derived with ''gu-'', ''-kej'', ''mau-'', and ''-jr'' respectively.
Agentive nouns are derived either from ''gu-'' or ''guqa-''; in some regions ''guqa-'' is instead a suffix ''-guqa''.
Causative ''wai'' (bearing the modified word's tone) can be applied before any part of speech. It is also used with some verbs as a non-shifting prefix ''wai-'' to derive new meanings; in some regions ''wai-'' is used on all verbs instead of particle ''wai'', and in some of those regions may be stress-shifting.


====Reduplication====
====Reduplication====
Most words (other than nouns and conjunctions, but including some particles) can be fully reduplicated after the word for augmented or intensified meaning. In verbs this can also mark a contrastive meaning, and in adjectives and adverbs it can also mark a comparative or superlative meaning when the thing being compared to is absent in the sentence.
The reduplicated word comes after any particles that would otherwise be directly after the word. Reduplicated verbs only mark agreement on the first verb, and in some regions reduplicated only have any marking of the first component.
Triplication is also used by some speakers for further augmentation/intensification, but this is not considered standard.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 135: Line 480:


===Noun and verb phrases===
===Noun and verb phrases===
All modifiers follow their head noun or verb if not affixed, except some particles. Generally numerators follow adjectives and possessors follow all other modifiers, but otherwise modifier order is flexible.


===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
Line 141: Line 487:
==Example texts==
==Example texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 1===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 1===
'''Thaágg jua r yamúszaq ih r azjnázaq wuicsjḿjr ih r zauákejr. Gufḿqhvi ih guwúiri r̀ iaràm, quatîtg hu qakhúy sugkúkujr.
'''Thaágg jua r yamúszaq hn r azjnázaq wuicsjḿjr hn r zauákejr. Gufḿqhvi hn guwúiri r̀ iaràm, quatîtg hu qakhúy sugkúkujr.


{{interlinear
{{interlinear
|Thaag-g jua r yamús-zaq ih r azjna-zaq {wuícsjm}-jr ih r zauak-jr.
|Thaag-g jua r yamús-zaq hn r azjna-zaq {wuícsjm}-jr hn r zauak-jr.
|person-NOM all PASS free-bear and PASS equal-bear dignified-{{gcl|ADVZ|adverbializer}} and PASS own-{{gcl|ADVZ|adverbializer}}
|person-NOM all PASS free-bear and PASS equal-bear dignified-{{gcl|ADVZ|adverbializer}} and PASS own-{{gcl|ADVZ|adverbializer}}
||display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no|ablist=COMP:comparative:comparison_(grammar)}}
||display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
<br>
<br>
{{interlinear
{{interlinear
|Gu-fmqh-ri ih gu-wui-ri r̀ iaràm, quatît-g hu qa-khuy sug-kuku-jr.
|Gu-fmqh-ri hn gu-wui-ri r̀ iaràm, quatît-g hu qa-khuy sug-kuku-jr.
|NZ-think-NOM.PTV and NZ-good-NOM.PTV PASS give RECP-NZ JUS.3>3 do-toward brother-way-{{gcl|ADVZ|adverbializer}}
|NZ-think-NOM.PTV and NZ-good-NOM.PTV PASS give RECP-NZ JUS.3>3 do-toward brother-way-{{gcl|ADVZ|adverbializer}}
||display-messages=no|italics1=yes|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
||display-messages=no|italics1=yes|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
Line 158: Line 504:


===Conlang Atlas of Language Structures-hosted translations===
===Conlang Atlas of Language Structures-hosted translations===
*[https://cals.info/translation/language/knrawi| CALS translations]
*[https://cals.info/translation/language/standard-knrawi CALS translations]


==Other resources==
==Other resources==
[https://cals.info/language/knrawi/ CALS]
[https://cals.info/language/standard-knrawi/ CALS]


[https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Knrawi_(language) Pollasena Wiki]
[https://pollasena.fandom.com/wiki/Knrawi_(language) Pollasena Wiki]
Dillon
48,824

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/317152...366675"