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{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|image = | |image = Natalician_Flag_Updated.png | ||
|imagesize = 185px | |imagesize = 185px | ||
|imagecaption = Flag of the Natalician Republic | |imagecaption = Flag of the Natalician Republic | ||
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| l | | l | ||
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|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| | ||
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! colspan="2" | [[w:Flap consonant|Flap]] | ! colspan="2" | [[w:Flap consonant|Flap]] | ||
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The Natalician vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: [[Vowel#Backness|front and back]], rounded and unrounded and [[Vowel#Height|vowel height]]. | The Natalician vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: [[Vowel#Backness|front and back]], rounded and unrounded and [[Vowel#Height|vowel height]]. | ||
==== | ====Note==== | ||
When the vowels /i/, /u/ precede or succeed another vowel, they become /j/, /w/ respectively. If both vowels meet one another, only the /i/ will transform into a /j/ which the /u/ remains unchanged. | |||
==== Vowel harmony ==== | ==== Vowel harmony ==== | ||
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| style="border-left: 0;" | '''u''' | | style="border-left: 0;" | '''u''' | ||
|- style="text-align: center;" | |- style="text-align: center;" | ||
! Type Ĭ (Backness + Rounding) | |||
| colspan="3" | '''i''' || colspan="2" | '''ü''' || colspan="1" | '''a''' || colspan="2" | '''u''' | |||
|- | |||
! Type Ĕ (Backness) | ! Type Ĕ (Backness) | ||
| colspan="5" | '''e''' || colspan="5" | '''o''' | | colspan="5" | '''e''' || colspan="5" | '''o''' | ||
|- style="text-align: center;" | |- style="text-align: center;" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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# '''Native, non-compound words''', e.g. ''Ela'' "then", ''Čela'' "drink", ''Äga'' "by" | # '''Native, non-compound words''', e.g. ''Ela'' "then", ''Čela'' "drink", ''Äga'' "by" | ||
# '''Native compound words''', e.g. '' | # '''Native compound words''', e.g. ''Pave'' "for what" | ||
# '''Foreign words''', e.g. many English loanwords such as '''Sertifikäht''' (certificate), '''Hospital''' (hospital), '''Komphuter''' (computer) | # '''Foreign words''', e.g. many English loanwords such as '''Sertifikäht''' (certificate), '''Hospital''' (hospital), '''Komphuter''' (computer) | ||
# '''Invariable prefixes / suffixes:''' | # '''Invariable prefixes / suffixes:''' | ||
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! scope="col" | Meaning in English | ! scope="col" | Meaning in English | ||
! scope="col" | Remarks | ! scope="col" | Remarks | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''–(v)iš''' | | '''–(v)iš''' | ||
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* The letter that is called ''Girbit El'' ("Silent L"), written {{angbr|Ł}} in Natalician orthography, represents vowel lengthening. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, always follows a vowel and always preceeds a consonant. The vowel that preceeds it is lengthened. | * The letter that is called ''Girbit El'' ("Silent L"), written {{angbr|Ł}} in Natalician orthography, represents vowel lengthening. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, always follows a vowel and always preceeds a consonant. The vowel that preceeds it is lengthened. | ||
* The letter {{angbr|H}} in Natalician orthography represents two sounds: The /h/ sound, and the /j/ sound. If the letter {{angbr|H}} is located at the beginning of the word, it takes the /h/ sound, otherwise it takes the /j/ sound. (e.g. ''Hiloh'' /hi.loj/'' "Hello", ''Konah /ko.naj/'' "Beautiful", ''Haz /haz/ "This") | * The letter {{angbr|H}} in Natalician orthography represents two sounds: The /h/ sound, and the /j/ sound. If the letter {{angbr|H}} is located at the beginning of the word, it takes the /h/ sound, otherwise it takes the /j/ sound. (e.g. ''Hiloh'' /hi.loj/'' "Hello", ''Konah /ko.naj/'' "Beautiful", ''Haz /haz/ "This") | ||
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===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
{| class=wikitable | {| class=wikitable | ||
! | ! | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!Object Pronoun / Possessive Determiner | !Object Pronoun / Possessive Determiner | ||
|''(V)In'' ||''(V) | |''(V)In'' ||''(V)U'' ||''Süs'' ||''Nameš'' ||''Daša'' ||''Soz'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Possessive Pronoun | !Possessive Pronoun | ||
|'' | |''(V)Ini'' ||''(V)Onu'' ||''Süzü'' ||''Nameše'' ||''Dašo'' ||''Sozun'' | ||
|} | |||
The pronouns ''(V)In'', ''(V)U'', ''(V)Ini'' and ''(V)Onu'' will use the V if the preceding noun ends with a vowel. In a sentence, the possessive determiner will always succeed the object. The object pronoun usually comes after the verb: | |||
* ''Haz ensei ianzak '''in''''' - This is '''my''' food | |||
* ''Iandaita ťimana '''vin''''' - You ate '''my''' grape | |||
* ''Rimtiz '''soz''' kołru'' - I saw '''them''' yesterday | |||
===Verbs=== | |||
====Stems of verbs==== | |||
Many stems in the dictionary are indivisible; others consist of endings attached to a root. | |||
====Verb-stems from nouns==== | |||
The verb-stem ''Maršo-'' "Build" is the adjective ''Mar'' "A build" with the suffix ''-šo''. Many verbs are formed from nouns or adjectives with ''-šĕ'': | |||
:{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Noun !! Verb | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ''Ergem'' "negativity" || ''Ergem'''še'''-'' "negate" | |||
|- | |||
| ''To'' "two" || ''To'''šo'''-'' "Two-ify", that is, "get married" | |||
|- | |||
| ''Kel'' "word" || ''kel'''še'''-'' "say" | |||
|} | |||
====Voice==== | |||
A verbal root, or a verb-stem in ''-šĕ'', can be lengthened with certain '''extensions'''. If present, they appear in the following order, and they indicate distinctions of '''[[Grammatical voice|voice]]''': | |||
:{|class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Extensions for voice | |||
|- | |||
! Voice !! Ending !! Notes | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
|''-(ĭ)r''||rowspan=2| | |||
|- | |||
!Reciprocal | |||
|''-dĕ'' | |||
|- | |||
!rowspan=4|Causative | |||
|''-(ĕ)m''||after polysyllabic stems in a vowel | |||
|- | |||
|''-(&)z''||in other cases | |||
|- | |||
|''-rĕb''||after some monosyllabic stems | |||
|- | |||
| ||there are some other exceptional forms as well. | |||
|- | |||
! [[Passive voice|Passive]] | |||
|''-(ĭ)v''||after stems ending in a consonant other than ''-v''; otherwise, same as reflexive. | |||
|} | |||
These endings might seem to be ''inflectional'' in the sense of the {{section link||Introduction}} above, but their meanings are not always clear from their particular names, and dictionaries do generally give the resulting forms, so in this sense they are ''constructive'' endings. | |||
The causative extension makes an intransitive verb transitive, and a transitive verb '''factitive'''. Together, the reciprocal and causative extension make the '''repetitive''' extension ''-(i)ştir''. | |||
:{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Verb Root/Stem !! New Verb !! Voice | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2 | ''Dol'' "Send" | |||
| ''Dolur'' "Share" || ''-ur'' (reciprocal) | |||
|- | |||
| ''Doluv'' "Be sent" || ''-uv'' (reflexive) | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2 | ''Ver'' "Fix (something)" | |||
| ''Veriv'' "wash oneself" || ''-iv'' (reflexive) | |||
|- | |||
| ''yıkanıl'' "be washed" || ''-n'' (reflexive) + ''-ıl'' (passive) | |||
|- | |||
| ''kayna'' "(come to a) boil" || ''kaynat'' "(bring to a) boil" || ''-t'' (causitive) | |||
|- | |||
| ''öl'' "die" | |||
| ''öldür'' "kill" || ''-dür'' (causitive) | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
:''öldür'' "kill" | |||
| ''öldürt'' "have (someone) killed" || ''-t'' (causitive, factitive) | |||
|- | |||
| ''ara'' "look for" | |||
| ''araştır'' "investigate" || ''-ş'' (reciprocal) + ''-tır'' (causitive) = (repetitive) | |||
|} | |||
====Negation and potential in verb-stems==== | |||
A dictionary-stem is '''positive'''; it can be made: | |||
*'''negative''', by addition of ''-me''; | |||
*'''impotential''', by addition of ''-e'' and then ''-me''. | |||
Any of these three (kinds of) stems can be made '''potential''' by addition of ''-e'' and then ''-bil''. The ''-bil'' is not enclitic, but represents the verb ''bil-'' "know, be able"; the first syllable of the impotential ending represents an obsolete verb ''u-'' "be powerful, able" [[#References|Lewis]] [VIII,55]. | |||
So far then, there are six kinds of stems: | |||
:{|class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Paradigm for stems negative, impotential and potential | |||
|- | |||
! ||English infinitive||English finite form | |||
|- | |||
|''gel-''||"come"||"come" | |||
|- | |||
|''gelme-''||"not come"||"do not come" | |||
|- | |||
|''geleme-''||"be unable to come"||"cannot come" | |||
|- | |||
|''gelebil-''||"be able to come"||"can come" | |||
|- | |||
|''gelmeyebil-''||"be able to not come"||"may not come" | |||
|- | |||
|''gelemeyebil-''||"able to be unable to come"||"may be unable to come" | |||
|} | |||
Such stems are not used for aorist forms, which have their own peculiar means of forming negatives and impotentials. | |||
Note that ''-ebil'' is one of several verbs that can be compounded to enhance meaning. See [[#Auxiliary verbs|Auxiliary verbs]]. | |||
===Bases of verbs=== | |||
The '''characteristics''' with which verb-'''bases''' are formed from '''stems''' are given under {{section link||Inflectional suffixes}}. Note again that aorist verbs have their own peculiar negative and impotential forms. | |||
The '''progressive''' base in ''-mekte'' is discussed under {{section link||Verbal nouns}}. | |||
Another base, namely the '''necessitative''' (''gereklilik''), is formed from a verbal noun. | |||
The characteristic is ''-meli'', where ''-li'' forms adjectives from nouns, and ''-me'' forms gerunds from verb-stems. | |||
A native speaker may perceive the ending ''-meli'' as indivisible; the analysis here is from [[#Lewis]] [VIII,30]). | |||
The '''present''' base is derived from the ancient verb ''yorı-'' "go, walk" [[#Lewis]] [VIII,16]; this can be used for ongoing actions, or for contemplated future actions. | |||
The meaning of the '''aorist''' base is described under [[#Participles|#Adjectives from verbs: participles]]. | |||
There is some irregularity in first-person negative and impotential aorists. The full form of the base ''-mez'' (or ''(y)emez'') reappears before the interrogative particle ''mi'': | |||
:''Gelmem'' "I do not come" (cf. ''Gelmez miyim'' "Do I not come?"); | |||
:''Gelmeyiz'' "We do not come" (cf. ''Gelmez miyiz'' "Do we not come?") | |||
The '''definite past''' or ''di''-past is used to assert that something did happen in the past. | |||
The '''inferential past''' or ''miş''-past can be understood as asserting that a past participle is applicable ''now''; hence it is used when the fact of a past event, as such, is not important; in particular, the inferential past is used when one did not actually witness the past event. | |||
A newspaper will generally use the ''di''-past, because it is authoritative. The need to indicate uncertainty and inference by means of the ''miş''-past may help to explain the extensive use of ''ki'' in the newspaper excerpt at [[Turkish vocabulary#The conjunction ki]]. | |||
The '''conditional''' (''şart'') verb could also be called "hypothetical"; it is used for remote possibilities, or things one might wish for. (See also [[#Compound bases]].) | |||
The various bases thus give distinctions of tense, aspect and mood. These can be briefly tabulated: | |||
:{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ First-person singular verbs | |||
! Form !! Suffix !! Verb !! English Translation | |||
|- | |||
| Progressive || ''-mekte'' | |||
|''gelmekteyim''||"I am in the process of coming" | |||
|- | |||
| Necessitative || ''-meli'' | |||
|''gelmeliyim''||"I must come" | |||
|- | |||
| Positive || ''-(i/e)r'' | |||
|''gelirim''||"I come" | |||
|- | |||
| Negative || ''-me(z)'' | |||
|''gelmem''||"I do not come" | |||
|- | |||
| Impotential || ''-(y)eme(z)'' | |||
|''gelemem''||"I cannot come" | |||
|- | |||
| Future || ''-(y)ecek'' | |||
|''geleceğim''||"I will come" | |||
|- | |||
| Inferential Past || ''-miş'' | |||
|''gelmişim''||"It seems that I came" | |||
|- | |||
| Present/Imperfective || ''-iyor'' | |||
|''geliyorum''||"I am coming" | |||
|- | |||
| Perfective/Definite Past || ''-di'' | |||
|''geldim''||"I came" | |||
|- | |||
| Conditional || ''-se'' | |||
|''gelsem''||"if only I came" | |||
|} | |||
===Questions=== | |||
The interrogative [[#Particles|particle]] ''mi'' precedes predicative (type-I) endings (except for the 3rd person plural ''-ler''), but follows the complete verb formed from a verbal, type-II ending: | |||
:''Geliyor musunuz?'' "Are you coming?" (but: ''Geliyorlar mı?'' "Are they coming?") | |||
:''Geldiniz mi?'' "Did you come?" | |||
===Optative and imperative moods=== | |||
Usually, in the '''optative''' (''istek''), only the first-person forms are used, and these supply the lack of a first-person '''imperative''' (''emir''). | |||
In common practice then, there is one series of endings to express something wished for: | |||
:{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Merged Optative & Imperative Moods | |||
|- | |||
! Number !! Person !! Ending !! Example !! English Translation | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=3 | Singular | |||
! 1st | |||
| ''-(y)eyim'' ||''Geleyim''||"Let me come" | |||
|- | |||
! 2nd | |||
| — || ''Gel'' ||"Come (you, singular)" | |||
|- | |||
! 3rd | |||
| ''-sin'' || ''Gelsin''|| "Let [her/him/it] come" | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=3 | Plural | |||
! 1st | |||
| ''-(y)elim'' || ''Gelelim'' ||"Let us come" | |||
|- | |||
! 2nd | |||
| ''-(y)in(iz)'' || ''Gelin'' ||"Come (you, plural)" | |||
|- | |||
! 3rd | |||
| ''-sinler'' || ''Gelsinler''||"Let them come" | |||
|} | |||
===Copula=== | |||
{{main article|Turkish copula}} | |||
The copula in Turkish appears in only two variants―''*imek'', a defective verb often attached to the noun, and ''olmek'', which is a detached regular auxiliary verb. | |||
''*Imek'', derived from the ancient verb ''er-'' [[#Lewis]] [VIII,2], survives in Turkish only in the inferential past, perfective, and conditional: | |||
*''imiş'', | |||
*''idi'', | |||
*''ise''. | |||
The form ''iken'' given under [[#Adverbs from verbs]] is also descended from ''er-''. | |||
Since no more bases are founded on the stem ''i-'', this verb can be called defective. In particular, ''i-'' forms no negative or impotential stems; negation is achieved with the [[#Adverb of negation]], ''değil'', given earlier. | |||
The ''i-'' bases are often turned into base-forming suffixes without change in meaning; the corresponding suffixes are | |||
*''-(y)miş'', | |||
*''-(y)di'', | |||
*''-(y)se'', | |||
where the ''y'' is used only after vowels. For example, ''Hasta imiş'' and ''Hastaymış'' both mean, "Apparently/Reportedly, he/she/it is ill". | |||
The verb ''i-'' serves as a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]]. When a copula is needed, but the appropriate base in ''i-'' does not exist, then the corresponding base in ''ol-'' is used; when used otherwise this stem means "become". ''Idir'', a variant of ''imek'', is used for emphasis. | |||
The verb ''i-'' is irregular in the way it is used in questions: the particle ''mi'' always precedes it: | |||
:''Kuş idi'' or ''Kuştu'' "It was a bird"; | |||
:''Kuş muydu?'' "Was it a bird?" | |||
===Compound bases===<!-- This section is linked from [[Grammatical mood]] --> | |||
The bases so far considered can be called "simple". A base in ''i-'' can be attached to another base, forming a compound base. One can then interpret the result in terms of English verb forms by reading backwards. The following list is representative, not exhaustive: | |||
*Past tenses: | |||
**'''continuous past:''' ''Geliyordum'' "I was coming"; | |||
**'''aorist past:''' ''Gelirdim'' "I used to come"; | |||
**'''future past:''' ''Gelecektim'' "I was going to come"; | |||
**'''pluperfect:''' ''Gelmiştim'' "I had come"; | |||
**'''necessitative past:''' ''Gelmeliydim'' "I had to come"; | |||
**'''conditional past:''' ''Gelseydim'' "If only I had come." | |||
*Inferential tenses: | |||
**'''continuous inferential:''' ''Geliyormuşum'' "It seems (they say) I am coming"; | |||
**'''future inferential:''' ''Gelecekmişim'' "It seems I shall come"; | |||
**'''aorist inferential:''' ''Gelirmişim'' "It seems I come"; | |||
**'''necessitative inferential:''' ''Gelmeliymişim'' "They say I must come." | |||
By means of ''ise'' or ''-(y)se'', a verb can be made '''conditional''' in the sense of being the hypothesis or protasis of a complex statement: | |||
:''önemli bir şey yapıyorsunuz'' "You are doing something important"; | |||
:''Önemli bir şey yapıyorsanız, rahatsız etmeyelim'' "If you are doing something important, let us not cause disturbance." | |||
The simple conditional can be used for remote conditions: | |||
:''Bakmakla öğrenilse, köpekler kasap olurdu'' "If learning by looking were possible, dogs would be butchers." |
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