@@ Line 397: / Line 397: @@
 |}
-#### Number
+====Number====
 By default, Tinnermockaar nouns might be either singular (referring to a single object) or collective (referring to a group of non-distinct objects or to an uncountable substance); this is a lexical property that cannot be determined from affixes alone.
@@ Line 483: / Line 483: @@
 Other than that, Tinnermockaar pronouns only differ from nouns in that they hardly ever take the 'ergative' ''-cə'' marker.
+==Syntax==
+Tinnermockaar is a somewhat typologically ambiguous language. As intransitive and transitive verbs differ considerably in their paradigm (as far as argument marking is concerned), it is hard to unambiguously classify it as having a nominative-accusative or an ergative-absolutive alignment, morphological clues suggest a tendency towards the latter although it can be noted that what could be interpreted as an ergative case marker might occasionally be used for intransitive subjects, a feature more in line with a nominative-accusative language. While this sort of typologically ambiguity is sometimes found in natural languages, it might not be out of line for one to question the naturalisticness of this conlang.
+===Word order===
+Tinnermockaar has a fairly flexible word order, although sentences default towards verb-initial orders, mainly VSO (verb-subject-object).  This might be altered to place emphasis, with SVO word orders highlighting the subject and VOS (or, more rarely, OVS) word orders highlighting subjects (a practice referred to as 'subject fronting' which usually also involves dropping case makers for this argument). Oblique complements such as adverbial phrases or benefactives are typically found at the end of the sentence, although they might be placed directly after the verb for greater emphasis.
+Arguments can be dropped, although transitive verbs will be marked for both their arguments unless given in a valency-decreasing voice (reflexive, passive, antipassive). An entire sentence might consist of just a verb, with all its arguments being left implicit.
+Verbs might be expressed as a single ''verbal'' (for generic or past-tense statements) or as an auxiliary verbal followed by a ''nominal'' form of the verb (for present or future tense).
+Modifiers, including the equivalent to relative phrases, come after the element they modify.
+===Present and future tense constructions===
+As previously mentioned, by default a Tinnermockaar verb will refer either to an event in the past or to a generic or habitual statement (this two interpretations usually being distinguished by context alone, although time adverbs could be used to lift any resulting ambiguity).
+In order to speak of a specific event taking place in the present, the auxiliary verb '''''iś''''' must be used, followed by a gerund of the intended verb, typically ending in ''-eynər''. The auxiliary takes all the markings related to mood, subject/theme agreement and aspect. Voice marking might involve both the auxiliary and the gerund, as shown in the following table:
+{| class="wikitable"
+! '''Voice''' !! '''Voice marker in the auxiliary''' !! '''Gerund'''
+|-
+| '''Active''' || None (active as default) || Active (''-eynər'')
+|-
+| '''Reflexive''' || Reflexive (''-as'') || Passive (''-eeccər'')
+|-
+| '''Reciprocal''' || Reciprocal (''-ubbàm'') || Active (''-eynər'')
+|-
+| '''Passive''' || None (marked only in the gerund) || Passive (''-eeccər'')
+|-
+| '''Antipassive''' || None (marked only in the gerund) || Antipassive (''-aettsər'')
+|-
+| '''Causative''' || Reciprocal (''-ééś'') || Active (''-eynər'')
+|}
+For instance, ''eenəccəń'' might be interpreted as 'they hunted' or 'they hunt (regularly)'; adverbs such as ''mimbyr'', 'yesterday' or ''kkaè'', 'often' may be given to further specify one of those interpretations. In order to indicate a current event such as 'they ''are'' hunting', the auxiliary verb construction with ''iś'' will be needed, resulting in ''eenəś ccəńeynər'', with ''iś'' displaying the agreement markers for subject and object while the primary verb is found as an active gerund.
+It should be noted that the verb '''''iś''''' is slightly irregular: telic forms are given as ''-kəəs'' instead of the expected ''-kaś''.
+Future tense can be expressed through a similar construction using the auxiliary verb '''''imind''''' (which might also be used on its own as a verb meaning 'to arrive') with the difference that the auxiliary must be marked as having an irrealis mood. For instance, we might find ''indeenəmind ccəńeynər'' for 'they will hunt'.
+It is worth noticing, however, that many usages which might be covered by a future tense in other languages might be expressed using moods in Tinnermockaar, such as the potential mood to indicate an unrealized possibility or the optative to indicate a desired future state.
+===Negatives===
+Tinnermockaar utilizes two negation strategies depending on whether the arguments of the verb are included in the sentence.
+If either the subject or the object of the verb are present in the sentence (aside from being referenced by verbal prefixes), then negation is most commonly marked by using the negative 'number' suffix on the relevant noun. For instance, the negation of ''əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv'' (the man sees a woman) might be given as any of the following:
+* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr'''xoò'''-cə nacv'' (negating the subject, literally 'No man sees a woman')
+* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv'''xoòt''''' (negating the object, literally 'The man sees no woman')
+Colloquially, negating both elements (still keeping a negative meaning) is also an option, although this wording might be perceived as non-standard.
+* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr'''xoò'''-cə nacv'''xoòt'''''.
+Since the negative marker ''-xoò(t)'' takes the position of number markers, it might get in the way of expressing certain finer distinctions or imply an unwanted degree of totality in the negation. For instance the wording ''əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacvxoòt'' (~ the man sees no woman) may be taken to imply that that the subject is not seeing any woman so it wouldn't be appropriate to indicate that the man doesn't see ''a'' woman in particular (possibly being able to see others) .
+An alternative method involves using the negative particle ''xav'' which must always precede the primary verb of the sentence - before the verbal if there is no auxiliary and between the auxiliary and the gerund otherwise:
+* ''Əmbaś '''xav''' jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv'' (negating the verb, literally ''The man doesn't see a woman').
+This second strategy is required for verbs lacking a explicit subject or object. It should be noted that using ''xav'' and avoiding explicit pronouns is by far a more common strategy than using explicit pronouns that might take the ''-xoò(t)'' prefix, although the latter option might be occasionally be used for emphasis:
+* '''''Xav''' ijeekajaacc'' (I didn't see you, most common wording with negation using ''xav'' and implicit pronouns)
+* ''Ijeekajaacc haańà'''xoòt''''' ('''''''I''''' didn't see you, explicit negated first person pronoun for emphasis)
+* ''Ijeekajaacc tsidi'''xoòt''''' (I didn't see '''''you''''', explicit negated first person pronoun for emphasis)
+If both negation strategies are combined (something seldom found), the result is typically interpreted as a '''positive''':
+* ''Əmbaś '''xav''' jaacceynər nacv'''xoòt''' mpànvvr-cə'' (negating the verb and the object, understood as meaning 'No woman isn't seen by the man').
+===Interrogatives===
+Polar questions (those that can be answered in English with 'yes' or 'no) are formed in the same way as declarative sentences other than requiring the interrogative mood prefix ''kkaah-''. To continue with the prior example, the polar question 'Does the man see the woman?' may be translated as '''''Kkaah'''əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv?''.
+Other questions, such as the ones formed in English using the 'wh-words' (like 'who' or 'what') generally do '''not''' require the interrogative prefix ''kkaah-''. Interrogative pronouns like ''đvv'' (what, used for inanimates) and ''đey'' (who, used for animates) behave like regular nominals and, unlike personal pronouns, inflect for case a usual. For instance, we might have:
+* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər '''đey-cə''' nacv?'' (Who sees a woman?)
+* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə '''đey'''?'' (Who does the man see?)
+Tinnermockaar does not have a 'wh-fronting' rule like English requiring interrogative pronouns to be moved to the beginning of the sentence, although Tinnermockaar's flexible word order does allows this order, which comes out as somewhat more emphatic. As usual, the ergative marker ''-cə'' is typically omitted for a fronted subject.
+* '''''Đey''' əmbaś jaacceynər nacv?'' (Who sees a woman?)
+The interrogative mood marker might be combined with an interrogative pronoun in order to make a wh-question about an uncertain event. For instance '''''Kkaah'''əmbaś '''đey-cə''' nacvvr?'' might be translated as 'Does anyone see the woman? If so, who?'. Such combined questions would expect either a negative answer (''Xav əmbaś'' ~ No one does) or the answer to the question word (''Mpànvvr'' ~ the man).
+====Yes/no answers====
+Polar questions are typically answered by repeating the verb (adjusting argument agreement markers if needed) or the auxilliary, preceded by ''xav'' if negative.
+For instance, the expected answers for ''Kkaatsəńỳś jaacceynər?'', 'Do you see me?' will be either ''Ijeeś'' (I do [see you]) or ''Xav ijeeś'' (I do not [see you]).
+===Imperatives===
+Imperatives (sentences given an order to a second person) are formed using an auxiliary verb (''ittsat'', root ''-ttsat'') and gerunds, in a construction not disimilar from those used for expressing the present and future tense.
+Imperatives are generally considered polite for Tinnermockaar speakers, speakers might issue direct commands rather than requiring some workaround construction for politeness like English usually does (compare the blunt sounding ''"Do it!"'' with gentler formulae such as ''"Could you do it?"'' or ''"Would you mind doing it?"'').
+Orders where the second person takes the role of a subject (be it of a transitive or intransitive verb) require the active gerund, as in ''Iìttsat mindeynər'' for 'Come!' or ''Ətsèttsat jaacceynər mpànvvr!'' for 'See the man!'.
+Imperatives where the second person is required to take the role of a transitive direct object are formed in the same way but using the passive gerund. Note, however, that the auxiliary verb will still be conjugated as a transitive verb in this case. For instance, we might have ''Əncettsat jaacceeccər mpànvvr-cə!'' for 'Be seen by the man!', with the auxiliary taking the prefix ''ənce-'' marking it as a transitive verb with a singular third person animate subject and a second person object.
+It should be observed that passive imperatives still represent a command the second person must actively seek to accomplish. The previous example, ''Əncettsat jaacceeccər mpànvvr-cə!'', implies that the listener must to do something to ensure the man sees them, rather than placing responsibility on the man (the latter might indicated instead using a jussive mood construction).
+Antipassive gerunds are required for orders with an antipassive meaning. In this case, the auxiliary verb is conjugated as an intransitive verb and does not require the ''-àk'' marker. For instance, ''Iìttsat ccəńaettsər!'' translates to 'Hunt (something)!'.
+Negative imperatives are formed by preceding the auxiliary verb with the negative particle ''xav'' (rather than placing it between the auxiliary and the main verb as in present/future-tense constructions). Thus, ''Xav iìttsat ccəńaettsər!'' becomes 'Do not hunt!'.
+It is worth remembering that many imperative-like constructions might be formed through verbal mood markers instead, including jussive for indicating a mandatory state (but not one that necessarily requires the second person to take an action towards) and the optative mood for wishes. Compare the following:
+* ''Əncettsat jaacceeccər mpànvvr-cə!'' (using a passive imperative) - 'Be seen by the man!' (orders the speaker to ensure that the other person sees them).
+*  ''Əcaantəncejaacc mpànvvr-cə!'' (using a jussive form of ''əncejaacc'', 'he sees you') - 'The man must see you!' (the requirement is not necessarily the listener's responsibility, pressumably both parties will be required to comply).
+* ''Iìttsat ccəńaettsər!'' - 'Hunt something!' (a command, using an imperative construction).
+* ''Eytiìccəńàk!'' - 'May you hunt something!' (a wish, using the optative voice).
+===Possessives===
+Possession is marked with the particle ''əl'' which is placed between the possession and the possessor as in ''havpeeməərdər əl mpànvvr'' for 'some of the copper (''havpeeməərdər'') of the man (''mpànvvr'')' or 'some of the man's copper'.
+The same pattern might be used alongside pronouns, such as ''əl tsidi'' for 'your(s)'.
+===Noun copula===
+Sentences where a noun is equated with another, such as 'X is Y' are typically expressed using the verbal ''an'', whose highly irregular conjugation was showcased earlier on.
+Although ''an'' acts as a verb in this construction, it might only take mood and person prefixes (no aspect, voice or tense marking). ''An'' constructions are not necessarily taken to be habitual or past-tense as sentences with bare verbal usually are; its interpretation in regards to tense is usually left to context although time adverbs might be added if necessary.
+If ''X'' and ''Y'' are both nouns, the sentence is given as ''an X Y''. For instance, 'the man is a hunter' might be given as ''an mpànvvr ccəńi'' (ATTR man\\DEF hunter) although, depending on the context, the sentence might also be interpreted as 'the man was a hunter' or similar variations.
+Pronouns are usually omitted, being marked instead in the conjugation of ''an''. It should be noted, however, that ''an'', nearly all other Tinnermockaar verbs, fails to distinguish number and animacy in the third person. Even though number is unmarked in the verb, it will be marked on the noun that appears as the remaining argument in the copula, so, for instance, the following sentences with ''ccəńiga'', the plural form of ''ccəńi'' (hunter), will necessarily have a plural interpretation:
+* ''Əńaàn ccəńiga.'' - We (exclusive) are hunters.
+* ''Amyńan ccəńiga.'' - We (inclusive) are hunters.
+* ''Tsaan ccəńiga.'' - You all are hunters.
+* ''An ccəńiga.'' - They are hunters.
+Negatives are formed as usual with the particle ''xav'': as in ''xav əńaàn ccəń'' for 'I am not a hunter'.
+Interrogatives also work as usual, with the interrogative mood prefix ''kkaah-'' being required for polar questions.
+* ''Kkaahan ccəńiga?'' - Were they hunters?
+* ''Tsaan đey?'' - Who are you?
+Imperatives for the copula are rare but they might be formed by using ''ittsat'' (usually an auxiliary) on its own:
+* ''Iìttsat ccańi!'' - Be a hunter!
+===Relative clauses===
+The attributive verbal ''an'' is also used for Tinnermockaar's equivalent to relative clauses, sharing the same limitations such as being unable to state tense and aspect. It should be noted that, should the need arise, these limitations can be circumvented by saying the phrases independently. For instance, English 'The man ''who the woman saw'' is hunting' would generally be expressed through a construction that could be roughly interpreted as 'the ''seen-by-the-woman'' man is hunting', which fails to capture explicitly whether the woman is observing him in the present or whether she saw him in the past; should that distinction prove crucial to the discourse speakers might describe the situation through two separate phrases instead: 'The woman saw the man. / He is hunting.'.
+Relative constructions where the inner sentence is comprised of a copula between nouns are formed simply by following the antecedent with ''an'' and the nominal to which it is equated: ''mpànvvr an ccəńi'' for 'the man who is a hunter' (or 'who was a hunter').
+Otherwise, ''an'' must be followed by a participle. The choice of participle depends on the syntactic role of the antecedent within the relative clause, using active participles (suffix ''-yrbba'') when it appears as a subject or the passive participle (suffix ''-àkka'') when it appears as a direct object (other roles are not supported and require the speaker to use separate clauses instead). Examples include:
+* ''mpànvvr an mindyrbba'' - the man who arrived / who is arriving / who is going to arrive
+* ''mpànvvr an ccəńyrbba'' - the man who hunted / is hunting / is going to hunt
+* ''mpànvvr an ccəńàkka'' - the man who was hunted / is hunted / will be hunted
+Other arguments can be introduced to the relative clause using ''əl'' for a subject (as if it was a possessive) or ''ttə'' for a direct object:
+* ''mpànvvr an ccəńyrbba ttə ahuulə'' - the man who hunted a wolf
+* ''mpànvvr an ccəńàkka əl ahuulə'' - the man who a wolf hunted
+Relative clauses are negated by placing ''xav'' before ''an'': ''mpànvvr xav an mindyrbba'' for 'the man who didn't arrive'.
+====Alternative relative clause construction====
+Modern Tinnermockaar seems to be in the process of developing an alternate construction for relative clauses where the attributive ''an'' is not followed by a participle but by a full verb as in ''mpànvvr an ovrccəń'' for 'the man who hunts it' rather than standard ''mpànvvr an ccəńyrbba'' (~ the hunting man).
+This construction, however, is still perceived as non-standard and is often relegated to informal situations.
+==Numerals==
+Tinnermockaar has a fairly simple base-10 numeration system. Numerals follow the noun to which they apply, which must still bear grammatical number suffixes as usual, as in singular ''mpànv pè'' for 'one man', paucal ''mpànvbà cynə'' for 'three men' and plural ''mpànvga bbov'' for 'eight men'.
+There is no numeral for 'zero' as null quantities are expressed through the 'negative' grammatical number instead: ''mpànvxoòt'' for 'no men' or 'zero men'.
+Numbers from 1 to 10  are expressed as follows:
+{| class="wikitable"
+! '''Number''' !! '''Tinnemockaar'''
+|-
+| '''1''' || ''pè''
+|-
+| '''2''' || ''ccer''
+|-
+| '''3''' || ''cynə''
+|-
+| '''4''' || ''pyyr''
+|-
+| '''5''' || ''zynə''
+|-
+| '''6''' || ''bbav''
+|-
+| '''7''' || ''kkuu''
+|-
+| '''8''' || ''bbov''
+|-
+| '''9''' || ''hav''
+|-
+| '''10''' || ''hati''
+|}
+Multiples of ten are formed by adding the 'tens' digit after ''hati'' as in ''hati ccer'' (ten-two) for 20. The units can then be stated by adding the conjunction ''aa'' (and) and the appropriate digit, as in ''hati hav aa cynə'' (ten-nine and three) for 93. The same pattern applies to larger numbers with ''attè'' for 'hundreds' and ''gumbə'' for 'thousands'. For example, the number 1234 will be given as ''gumbə aa attè ccer aa hati cynə aa pyyr'', literally 'thousand and hundreds-two and tens-three and four'.
 [[Category:Tinnermockaar]]
 [[Category:Languages]]
 [[Category:Conlangs]]

Tinnermockaar: Difference between revisions

Tinnermockaar (view source)

Revision as of 05:31, 22 September 2024