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=Phonology= | =Phonology= | ||
The Latin transliteration of | The Latin transliteration of Da uses an alphabet of 16 letters: | ||
A /a, ɐ/ D /d/ E /e, ɛ/ H /h/ I /i, ɪ/ K /k/ L /l/ M /m/ N /n/ O /o/ P /p/ R /r/ S /s/ T /t/ U /u, ʊ/ X /ʃ/ . | A /a, ɐ/ D /d/ E /e, ɛ/ H /h/ I /i, ɪ/ K /k/ L /l/ M /m/ N /n/ O /o/ P /p/ R /r/ S /s/ T /t/ U /u, ʊ/ X /ʃ/ . | ||
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| I am learning Da. | | I am learning Da. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Panudátú luxa pankoru | |''Panudátú luxa pankoru kai, Tu harxa luex Meru kea Tuo kartú daesia Tú snitet o atat mou panteo.'' | ||
|The Lord so loved the world... | |The Lord so loved the world... | ||
|- | |- | ||
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==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
Da is an SVO language. Verbs are placed after the subject, adjectives follow the noun, and adverbs follow the verb. | |||
It is not uncommon, however, to place a word or phrase in front of the sentence for additional emphasis. E.g. one would say ''Kasunoté du mie kasexhaohute'' (Today I am going to the store) instead of ''Du mia kasexhaohute kasunoté'' (I am going to the store today). | It is not uncommon, however, to place a word or phrase in front of the sentence for additional emphasis. E.g. one would say ''Kasunoté du mie kasexhaohute'' (Today I am going to the store) instead of ''Du mia kasexhaohute kasunoté'' (I am going to the store today). | ||
Da adjectives are virtually indistinguishable from intransitive verbs. | |||
Da makes an extensive use of supines and subordinate clauses. | |||
===Noun=== | ===Noun=== | ||
A | A Da noun has four cases, each marked with its distinctive ending. Da nouns have no genders. | ||
====''Nominative''==== | ====''Nominative''==== | ||
A noun in Nominative has zero ending: ''su'' (water),'' dunotó'' (toy), ''punsé'' (tree), ''kokemihan'' (airplane). Note that with words in Nominative, the stress is always on the last syllable. | A noun in Nominative has zero ending: ''su'' (water),'' dunotó'' (toy), ''punsé'' (tree), ''kokemihan'' (airplane). Note that with words in Nominative, the stress is always on the last syllable. | ||
Nominative is used for the subjects of a sentence or a subordinate clause. Nominative is not used when two nouns are linked with the copula ''oe'': ''Ku oe mene du síxao sorsunoté''! -- You are the man I saw yesterday!. Instead, Da speakers use | Da composite verbs may have several subjects, all in nominative. This usually applies to causative verbs. | ||
Nominative is used for the subjects of a sentence or a subordinate clause. Nominative is not used when two nouns are linked with the copula ''oe'': ''Ku oe mene du síxao sorsunoté''! -- You are the man I saw yesterday!. Instead, Da speakers use instrumental in this case and may omit "oe" completely: Ku mene du síxao sorsunoté. | |||
====''Accusative''==== | ====''Accusative''==== | ||
A noun in the Accusative case receives the ending ''-u'': ''sú'', ''dunotou'', ''punseu'', ''kokemihanu''. Note that if the word root already ends with ''-u'', ''u'' is not doubled but instead it receives the accent mark. | A noun in the Accusative case receives the ending ''-u'': ''sú'', ''dunotou'', ''punseu'', ''kokemihanu''. Note that if the word root already ends with ''-u'', ''u'' is not doubled but instead it receives the accent mark. | ||
Accusative denotes the direct object of a transitive -a verb, and follows the verb. In composite verbs (and the majority of verbs in | Accusative denotes the direct object of a transitive -a verb, and follows the verb. In composite verbs (and the majority of verbs in Da are composite) the ''signature'' of the verb is defined by its parts that and with -a (as long as the composite word does not include the object as well). Thus a composite verb with several -a components can have several direct objects. Vice versa, an intransitive verb (an -e verb) never has direct objects. | ||
For example, the verb ''mia'' (to move) may take an object -- the thing that is being moved. Therefore, the composite verb ''daemia'' (to think, lit. "to move in one's head") also takes a direct object, and, unlike in English, the phrase ''Du daemia kú'' (I am thinking '''of''' you) needs no prepositions. | For example, the verb ''mia'' (to move) may take an object -- the thing that is being moved. Therefore, the composite verb ''daemia'' (to think, lit. "to move in one's head") also takes a direct object, and, unlike in English, the phrase ''Du daemia kú'' (I am thinking '''of''' you) needs no prepositions. | ||
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Nouns in Genitive have the ending ''-o''. As with other endings, if the root ends with an ''o'', it is not doubled but receives the accent mark. Nouns in Genitive describe other nouns and follow them. They usually are placed after adjectives describing the same noun. | Nouns in Genitive have the ending ''-o''. As with other endings, if the root ends with an ''o'', it is not doubled but receives the accent mark. Nouns in Genitive describe other nouns and follow them. They usually are placed after adjectives describing the same noun. | ||
Genitive in | Genitive in Da carries a wide range of semantic meanings, from possession to having a quality to being related to the main word in some way or another. Overall the range of cases when Genitive is used in Da is similar to those where you use possessive or the preposition "of" in English. | ||
Da nouns in Genitive can also serve as a Verb of a sentence, replacing the use of a copula. Genitive in this role expresses belonging to a group ("is a" relationship), e.g.: ''Du meno!'' (I am a man!), ''Ka punseo dea'' (This is a tall tree) etc. | |||
====''Locative / Instrumental''==== | ====''Locative / Instrumental''==== | ||
Locative / Instrumental nouns receive the ending ''-e''. | Locative / Instrumental nouns receive the ending ''-e''. | ||
When used as Locative, it indicates place or time: ''sue'' (in water), ''punseolane'' (in a forest), '' | When used as Locative, it indicates place or time: ''sue'' (in water), ''punseolane'' (in a forest), ''kokemihane'' (on an airplane), ''sorsunoté'' (yesterday), ''xorté'' (soon; lit. "in a short time"). Usually locative does not denote possession; e.g. compare ''Ku du áthate taoruolanu ká'' (Give me this book, i.e. for me to have) vs. ''Ku tita tyute taoruolanu ká'' (Bring this book to me, i.e. to my place). | ||
If the location needs to be specified more precisely, e.g. "'''on''' the desk" vs. "'''under''' the desk", or "'''near''' the house" vs. "'''in''' the house", Cha uses a position indicator + Genitive to express that: ''tyé taoruo'' (on the desk, lit. "on top of the desk"), ''tyere taoruo'' (under the desk), ''nere huo'' (outside the house), ''nertenke huo'' (around the house), ''né huo'' (in / inside the house), ''hue'' (at the house, home). As you can see, all these constructions follow the pattern "at" (expressed as Locative) "position" (e.g. top, under, outside etc.) "of" (expressed as Genitive) original word. The position indicators are grammatically nouns, although they are usually translated into English as prepositions. | If the location needs to be specified more precisely, e.g. "'''on''' the desk" vs. "'''under''' the desk", or "'''near''' the house" vs. "'''in''' the house", Cha uses a position indicator + Genitive to express that: ''tyé taoruo'' (on the desk, lit. "on top of the desk"), ''tyere taoruo'' (under the desk), ''nere huo'' (outside the house), ''nertenke huo'' (around the house), ''né huo'' (in / inside the house), ''hue'' (at the house, home). As you can see, all these constructions follow the pattern "at" (expressed as Locative) "position" (e.g. top, under, outside etc.) "of" (expressed as Genitive) original word. The position indicators are grammatically nouns, although they are usually translated into English as prepositions. | ||