Saxuma

Saxuma /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized Sasiouma and historically known as Saras Wima ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 5000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasaois, and an autonomous zone of the Hellenic Republic. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, flexible word order, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasaios speak Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasaios - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasaios and considered official history by the town government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by User:Anisette Biscotti, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant Inventory

	Labial		Alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Glottal
	Voiceless	Voiced	Voiceless	Voiced	Voiceless	Voiced	Voiceless	Voiced	Voiceless
Nasals	m		n		ɲ
Plosives	p	b	t	d	c		k	g	ʔ
Fricatives	ɸ~ɸʷ	v⁓β	s⁓t͡s	z⁓d͡z	ç ɕ	ʑ⁓d͡ʑ	x⁓h
Liquids			r̥	l		ʎ
Glides	(ʍ)	w				j

• /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when adjacent to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when preceding a velar plosive.
• Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
• All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
• /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
• /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
• /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
• The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
• When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
• Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
• Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

Vowels

Vowel Inventory

	Front	Back
High	i iː (y)	u uː
Mid	ɛ~e eː	o oː
Low	aː a~ɑ

Diphthongs	Front-initial	Back-initial
	ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o	aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo

• Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
  • Front-initial diphthongs must be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
  • Back-initial diphthongs are usually pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
• In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
• Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
• Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
• /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
• Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

Phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.

Permissible coda-onset sequences

		Following Onset
p	t	k	b	d	g	m	n	ɸ	v	s	z	ɕ	ʑ	r	l	w	j
Preceding Coda	p	[ʔp]	[ʔt]	[ʔk]	[ʔb]	[ʔd]	[ʔg]	[ʔm]	[pn]	[pɸ]	No	No	No	No	No	No	[pl]	[pw]	[pj]
	t	[ʔp]	[ʔt]	[ʔk]	[ʔb]	[ʔd]	[ʔg]	[tm]	[ʔn]	[tɸ]	No	No	No	No	No	No	[ʔl]	[tw]	[c]
	k	[ʔp]	[ʔt]	[ʔk]	[ʔb]	[ʔd]	[ʔg]	[km]	[kn]	[kɸ]	No	No	No	No	No	No	[kl]	[kw]	[c]
	b	[ʔp]	[ʔt]	[ʔk]	[ʔb]	[ʔd]	[ʔg]	[ʔm]	[bn]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[bl]	[bw]	[bj]
	d	[ʔp]	[ʔt]	[ʔk]	[ʔb]	[ʔd]	[ʔg]	[dm]	[ʔn]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[ʔl]	[dw]	[d͡ʑ]
	g	[ʔp]	[ʔt]	[ʔk]	[ʔb]	[ʔd]	[ʔg]	[gm]	[gn]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[gl]	[gw]	[d͡ʑ]
	m	[mp]	No	[mk]	[mb]	No	[mg]	[mm]	[mn]	No	[mv]	[mt͡s]	[md͡z]	[mɕ]	[md͡ʑ]	[mbr]	[ml]	[mw]	[mj]
	n	No	[nt]	[ŋk]	[mb]	[nd]	[ŋg]	[mm]	[mn]	No	[mv]	[nt͡s]	[nd͡z]	[ɲɕ]	[ɲd͡ʑ]	[nr]	[nl]	[nw]	[ɲ]
	s	[sp]	[st]	[sk]	[sb]	[sd]	[sg]	[sm]	[sn]	[sɸ]	No	No	No	No	No	[sr]	No	[sw]	[ɕ]
	z	No	No	[zk]	[zb]	No	No	No	[zn]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[zl]	[zw]	[ʑ]
	ɕ	[ɕp]	[ɕt]	[ɕk]	[ɕb]	[ɕd]	[ɕg]	[ɕm]	[ɕɲ]	[ɕɸ]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[ɕw]	[ɕ]
	ʑ	No	No	[ʑk]	[ʑb]	No	No	No	[ʑɲ]	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[ʑʎ]	[ʑw]	[ʑ]
	x	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	[ɸ]	[ç]
	r	No	No	No	No	No	No	[rn]	[rm]	[rɸ]	[rv]	No	No	No	No	No	No	[rw]	[rj]

Pitch Accent

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, kubá [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. kúba [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as kalán 'to cry' vs. kálan 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now kobá and beverage is now kō.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

• Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, kan [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as baw [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as u ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
• If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. émin [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, xeyáyem [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and zigará [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
• If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. enâ [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. bābá [bâːˈbá] ("various").
  • When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, enâ would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and bābá as [ba.àˈbá].

W-ablaut

The w-ablaut is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:

• a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
• i → yu
• u → ū
• e → yo
• o → ō

Orthography

Romanization

Saxuma Romanization

Romanization	a	b	c	d	dy	e	f	g	gy	h	hy	i	j	k	ky	l	ly	m	n	ny	o	p	q	r	s	sy	t	ty	u	v	w	x	y	z	zy
IPA	a	b	c	d	d͡ʑ	ɛ	ɸ	g	d͡ʑ	x	ç	i	ʑ	k	c	l	ʎ	m	n	ɲ	o	p	ʔ	r̥	s	ɕ	t	c	u	v	w	ɕ	j	z	ʑ

• Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
  • In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, leyo ("world") is equivalent to léyo, and mabu ("to learn") is equivalent to mabú
• Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, niqí is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

Morphology

Pronouns

Saxuma Pronouns

	1st Person				2nd Person		3rd Person
	singular	plural			singular	plural	neuter singular	feminine singular	masculine singular	plural
		generic	inclusive	exclusive
Direct	me	ma	mazén	mawís	zu	tex	dē	le	in	ca
Absolutive	mek	maká			zuká	texka	dēka	lek	inka	daqá
Genitive	omé	wimá			unú	uséx	urê	olé	ohín	urá
Construct	myo	maw			zū	tero	desu	leyu	inu	caw
Dative-Superessive	bome	bemá			bay	batéx	bade	bose	bagín	bacá

Verb Morphology

There are twelve verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

• The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
• The -SA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s- or -x-.
• The -FA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
• The -RA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -r-.
• The -LA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l-.
• The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
• The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.
• The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
• The -R conjugation includes all verbs ending in -r.
• The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
• The -W conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
• The -Y conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.

The Negative, -NA

-NA, the negative ending, negates the verb it attaches to.

Sigu palas.

The rabbit runs.

Signa palas.

The rabbit does not run.

How to conjugate -NA

Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.

lesó → lesoná

enjí → enjiná

sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].

myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]

exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.

safá → sawná

ralí → rawná

-RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.

kurú → kuxná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.

ekán → ekanná

rum → rumná

sarás → sarasná

oxâ → oxāná

aw → awná

way → wayná

-R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.

elér → elexná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.

enák → enawná

hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:

Negative -NA conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Negative -NA
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesoná
	Weak	sigú	signá
-SA		exí	exná
-FA		safá	sawná
-RA		kurú	kuxná
-LA		ralí	rawná
-N		ekán	ekanná
-S		sarás	sarasná
-R		elér	elexná
-T		enák	enawná
-H		oxâ	oxāná
-W		law	lawná
-Y		way	wayná

The Causative, -BI

-BI, the causative ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.

In sigbi palas.

He makes the rabbit run.

How to conjugate -BI

-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú

enák → enacú

hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

Causative -BI conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Causative -BI
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesobí
	Weak	sigú	sigbí
-SA		exí	exbí
-FA		safá	sawbí
-RA		kurú	kuxbí
-LA		ralí	rawbí
-N		ekán	ekanbí
-S		sarás	sarasbí
-R		gir	gixbí
-T		enák	enacú
-H		oxâ	oxābí
-W		law	lawbí
-Y		way	waybí

The Inchoative, -WAY

-WAY, the inchoative ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.

Sigway palas.

The rabbit is starting to run. or The rabbit is about to run.

How to Conjugate -WAY

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.

law → lawáy

ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Inchoative -WAY
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesowáy
	Weak	sigú	sigwáy
-SA		exí	exfáy
-FA		safá	sawfáy
-RA		kurú	kuxfáy
-LA		ralí	rawáy
-N		ekán	ekanwáy
-S		sarás	sarasfáy
-R		elér	elexfáy
-T		enák	enawfáy
-H		oxâ	oxāfáy
-W		law	lawáy
-Y		way	waywáy

The Prospective, -KUN

-KUN, the prospective ending, indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.

Garu le ba be ohin.

She arrives at his house.'

Gaxkun le ba be ohin.

She is/was about to arrive at his house.

How to conjugate -KUN

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.

enjí → enjikún

ten → tenkún

aw → awkún

way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.

• Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.

damá → damkún

riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.

kosá → koqún

exí → eqún

kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.

ralí → rawkún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.

safá → sawqún

-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.

herúx → heruqún

sarás → saraqún

gir → giqún

enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.

oxâ → oxaqún

pē → peqún

xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Prospective -KUN
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesokún
	Weak	sigú	sigkún
-SA		exí	eqún
-FA		safá	sawqún
-RA		kurú	kuqún
-LA		ralí	rawkun
-N		ekán	ekankún
-S		sarás	saraqún
-R		elér	eleqún
-T		enák	enaqún
-H		oxâ	oxaqún
-W		law	lawkún
-Y		way	waykún

The Perfective, -W

-W, the perfective ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.

Sila kajip.

The guest leaves.

Silaw kajip.

The guest has left.

How to conjugate -W

All regular, -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.

lesó → lesô

sigú → sigû

exí → exyú

safá → safáw

kurú → kurû

ralí → ralyú

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.

ekán → ekánla

rum → rúmla

-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.

elér → elyósa

yos → yôsa

bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.

enák → enatáw

hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.

oxâ → oxáwsa

orî → oryúsa

xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.

aw → ála

ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.

way → wayú

See the summary table below.

Perfective -W conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Perfective -W
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesô
	Weak	sigú	sigû
-SA		exí	exyú
-FA		safá	safáw
-RA		kurú	kûsa
-LA		ralí	ralyú
-N		ekán	ekánla
-S		sarás	saráwsa
-R		elér	elyósa
-T		enák	enatáw
-H		oxâ	oxáwsa
-W		law	lála
-Y		way	wayú

The Habitual, -AX

-AX, the habitual ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.

Me lesó lyu don.

I read many books.

Me lesowáx lyu don.

I have been reading many books.

Mujú aska.

The fish swims.

Mujwáx aska.

Fish swim [in general].

How to conjugate -AX

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:

• Verbs with final -a append -x.
• Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
• Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
• Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.

enjí → enjiyáx

lesó → lesowáx

lewá → lewáx

ekán → ekanáx

way → wayáx

gir → giráx

saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.

ralí → ralyáx

kurú → kurwáx

wakí → wakyáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.

enák → enatáx

hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.

oxâ → oxaháx

mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.

maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Habitual -AX
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesowáx
	Weak	sigú	sigwáx
-SA		exí	exyáx
-FA		safá	safáx
-RA		kurú	kurwáx
-LA		ralí	ralyáx
-N		ekán	ekanáx
-S		sarás	sarasáx
-R		elér	eleráx
-T		enák	enatáx
-H		oxâ	oxaháx
-W		law	laláx
-Y		way	wayáx

Summary

Verb conjugations by class and inflection

Class		Example Stem	Negative -NA	Causative -BI	Inchoative -WAY	Prospective -KUN	Perfective -W	Habitual -AX	Attributive -LA
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesoná	lesobí	lesowáy	lesokún	lesô	lesowáx	lesolá
	Weak	sigú	signá	sigbí	sigwáy	sigkún	sigû	sigwáx	siglá
-SA		exí	exná	exbí	exfáy	eqún	exyú	exyáx	yosá
-FA		safá	sawná	sawbí	sawfáy	sawqún	safáw	safáx	sawsá
-RA		kurú	kuxná	kuxbí	kuxfáy	kuqún	kûsa	kurwáx	kūsá
-LA		ralí	rawná	rawbí	rawáy	rawkún	ralyú	ralyáx	ralá
-N		ekán	ekanná	ekanbí	ekanwáy	ekankún	ekánla	ekanáx	ekanlá
-S		sarás	sarasná	sarasbí	sarasfáy	saraqún	saráwsa	sarasáx	sarawsá
-R		elér	elexná	elexbí	elexfáy	eleqún	elyósa	eleráx	elyosá
-T		enák	enawná	enacú	enasfáy	enaqún	enatáw	enatáx	enaxá
-H		oxâ	oxāná	oxābí	oxafáy	oxaqún	oxáwsa	oxaháx	oxawsá
-W		law	lawná	lawbí	lawáy	lawkún	lála	laláx	lalá
-Y		way	wayná	waybí	waywáy	waykún	wayú	wayáx	waylá

See Also

• Category:Saxuma words