View source for Ash

{{Infobox language
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|notice = IPA
}}

==Introduction==

'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.

The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.

==Phonology==

===Phonemes===

Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.

{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a~Ø i~j~Ø u~w~Ø/}}
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|/p~β t~ð k~ɣ/}}
|-
! Affricate
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ~ɬ t͡s~s/}}
|-
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}}
|-
! Nasal
| {{IPA|/m~˜ n~˜ ŋ~˜/}}
|}

The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair or triplet given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.

===Romanisation===

The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters as well as the apostrophe to mark syllabic consonants:

{| class="wikitable"
| a
| ã
| e
| ẽ
| y
| o
| õ
| w
| b
| d
| g
| l
| s
| h
| m
| n
| ŋ
| ʼ
|}

An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:

{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ka//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.ta.ka/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.ʁɐ]}}
| → ''oahdaga'' "during the day"
|}

===Syllable structure===

A cluster cannot exceed two consonants and must be of one of the following configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
| CC
| Both consonants are the same
|-
| FP
| Fricative followed by plosive
|-
| NP
| Nasal followed by plosive
|-
| PN~FN
| Plosive or fricative followed by nasal
|}

===Prosody and stress===

Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, unless at the end of a word, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.

===Phonological processes===

Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.

* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* /h~ʔ/ (and plosives before nasals) is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals and affricates.
* Affricates are fricatives intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).

<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
| [ɲ.ɲ]
| [m.m]
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ç.ç]
| [ʍ.ʍ]
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| [s̠.s̠]
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
|}
</div>
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| /h.P/ [ħ.P]
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| /t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]
|}
</div>
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ħ.P]
| [ʔ.P͡F]
| /ʔ.ᴰN/
|}
</div>
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵇm]
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| [ʔ.ᶢŋ]
|}
</div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>

==Morphology==

Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.

=== Verbs ===

The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="4" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
|-
| Deixis
| TV
| Preverbs
| Incorp.
| Class.
| '''Root'''
| Der.
| State
| Mood
| Inv.
| Converb.
|}

TV refers to transitive-volitional marking, as the two categories are entwined.

====Stems====

Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine":

{| class="wikitable"
! 
! Stative
! Active
! Transitional
|-
! Indicative
| '''''oada'''''
| ''oahda''
| ''oadna''
|-
! Optative
| ''oase''
| ''oadse''
| ''oadne''
|}

All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.

====Derived verbs====

Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'', the potential ''-d-'' and the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), transitional and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":

{| class="wikitable"
! 
! Stative
! Active
! Transitional
|-
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' "eat"</center>
| ''oona''
|-
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' "feed"</center>
| ''oena''
|-
! Potential
| colspan="2" | <center>''ooda'' "edible"</center>
| ''odna''
|-
! Frequentative
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' "gorge"</center>
| ''osdna''
|}

Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ʼmmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.

===Nominals===

Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in converbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).

The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
| ''ʼmmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
|}

Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below).

===Converbs===

Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.

Some prominent converbialising suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Suffix
! Example
|-
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''mehda'' "by the fire"
|-
! Durative
| ''-ga''
| ''oadnaga'' "in the morning"
|-
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''eeba'' "in order to see"
|}

===Deixis===

The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question.

The deictic stems are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! Neutral
| Ø- (unmarked)
|-
! Proximal
| ''e-''
|-
! Distal
| ''o-''
|}

Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Despite their conventional romanisation ''ee'' and ''oo'' are not pronounced *[-i̯eː-] and *[-u̯oː-]. They are respectively irregularly reduced forms of *''eyye'' and *''owwo'' that tend to blend into the next word, often as [-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-] and [-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-], but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as [-ɪw-] and [-ʊj-]. This also goes for the proximal-proximal reflexive prefix ''ee-'' (reduced from *''eye-'') and the distal-distal counterpart ''oo-'' (reduced from *''owo-''). However, in converbs such as the locative ''eeda'' "here" the underlying form is different and so the pronunciation is the expected [-i̯eː.ðɐ] (compare this to ''ee go'' [-e̞ːɪ̯‿ɣʷʊ]~[-e̞ːɪ̯‿ɣʷo̞], where the clitic is attached to the free-floating nominal and not the root). They can be thought of as *''ey'' and *''ow'' but due to their exceptionality and for consistency with the use of ''e'' and ''o'' for semivowels elsewhere (as in ''ae'' and ''ao'') it has been decided that they be spelled the way they are.

===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===

While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct).

In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.

Conjunct is marked by the suffix ''-s'' and disjunct is unmarked.

====Simple intransitives====

In simple statements proximal deixis combined with a conjunct verb denotes a first person, while combined with a disjunct verb it denotes a second person, whereas in questions this is flipped. Distal deixis or an explicit nominal denotes a third person in both cases. Note that there is no number distinction and so for example first person can imply both "I" and "we" but for the sake of space only one translation is given for each example.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Declarative
! colspan="2" | Interrogative
|-
! Proximal
! Distal
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
! Conjunct
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| -
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| -
|-
! Disjunct
| ''(ee go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(oo go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
|}

====Simple transitives====

Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" |  Proximal
! colspan="2" |  Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| ''(ee go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oo go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| ''(ee go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee go) assee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oo go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}

The interrogative patterns the same way except for the first and second person again being flipped. As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.

====Reported speech====

In quotations the conjunct versus disjunct distinction instead focuses on the source of the quote, but only in the subclause. Again this may serve as a proximate-obviative distinction. This means that it is possible to mark distal referents as conjunct in such subclauses.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! Distal
|-
! Conjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
|-
! Conjunct target
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ee go) oada<u>s</u> (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(oo go) oada<u>s</u> (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
! Disjunct target
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ee go) oada (ee go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(oo go) oada (oo go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}

When the source is proximal the target can also be distal in which case it is always disjunct and refers to a third person.

====Indirect involvement====

As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.

{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}

Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.

==Syntax==

The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.

===Valency===

====Transitivity and inversion====

Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ je̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}

|}

Inversion is especially important when the subject is being omitted as person markers do not exist.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=ehhees
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːsɕ]
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=essees
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːsɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
}}

|}

====Reflexivity====

A verb can also be made reflexive by using a deictic marker in the transitivity slot, meaning a distinction is made between proximal and distal reflexivity, corresponding to the spatial deixis of nominals rather than the normally temporal deixis of verbs.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga aesããs
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.ʁɐ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnaga ao go aosãã ma
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.ʁɐ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}

|}

Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between cases when the first and second person implications of the proximal deixis would otherwise collapse or as a proximate-obviative distinction.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee eebadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}

|}

====Incorporation====

There is a limit on two unmarked nominal arguments of a verb. There are two ways to introduce more arguments, one of which is to incorporate the third nominal into the verb.

{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}

====Converbialisation====

The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.

{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmʲi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}

===Animacy===

While there is no explicit marking for animacy, an underlying hierarchy ranging roughly from natural forces at the top to people and animals in the middle and inanimates at the bottom governs certain parts of the grammar. The main aspect of this hierarchy is that inanimate referents cannot act as agents which affects how transitive and inverse marking is interpreted in their presence.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Transitive
! Inverse
|-
! Animate
| ''bahba go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ahhoo''<br />"water is drunk"
| ''*sãã sa assoo''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}

===Topicalisation===

New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus will also receive a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahba</u> ohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ao ossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}

===Subclauses===

Relativisation is done simply by chaining phrases one after another, with no special marking. Subclauses go before main clauses, in which the deictic context is centered around the subject of the subclause.

{{gloss
|phrase=[oo oahdaga bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdaga esseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.ʁɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷo̞ wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ ˈjɪw‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.ʁɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}

This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.

{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}

===Unstressed words===

In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.

====Modality====

Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Negative
! Interrogative
! Emphatic
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa no?''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
|}

====Evidentiality====

Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.

{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Observational
! Quotative
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}

==Locative verbs==

An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some topic markers also exist that do not correspond to a locative verb, such as the oral ''o'', instead related to the active transitive verb ''oo'' "eat". Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".

These are some of those verbs:

{| class="wikitable"
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Semantic range
|-
| ''laa''
| ''la''
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
| ''goo''
| ''go''
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
|-
| ''see''
| ''se''
| :AER
| Air and weather
|-
| ''boo''
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
| ''doo''
| ''do''
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| ''mee''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| —
| ''o''
| :ORAL
| Mouth and food
|}

===Classificatory topicalisation===

An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=՚mmõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=՚mmõõ la
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=՚mmõõ go
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʷʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT
|translation=head (detached from the body)
}}

|}

Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications on the syntax.

{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}

Unstressed locatives also apply to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".

===Conjunction===

In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.

{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷo̞ ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ jɪˈɣʷu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}

===Specification===

To denote motion, an andative ("going") or venitive ("coming") prefix is placed into the verbal classifier slot.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ՚lgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷo̞ ʔɬ̠̩ˈkʷu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ՚ŋgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷo̞ ʔŋ̩ˈɡʷu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
}}

|}

The preverb slot can be used to specify manner, location or direction.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ɲɪˈɣʷu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is below
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷʊ ɲɪɬˈkʷu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves down
}}

|}

===Use with converbs===

Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑː]
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}

|}

==Pragmatics and conventions==

Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than assigning nominal lexemes to them (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐ.ðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water comes gushing down")
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐ.ðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water goes gushing down")
}}

|}

As this example demonstrates, there is no one lexicalised nominal for the concept of a waterfall, but a fitting verb is used depending on the context. Nonetheless the phrase is possible to nominalise if grammatically necessary and sometimes this does result in lexicalisation.

{{gloss
|phrase=<u>dodsa</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone?
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐ‿ɣʷʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡʷo̞ wʊŋˈɡʷu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.IND</u> TOP:ACT Q-CVB:DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
}}

In such cases there may be a clear-cut distinction between such lexicalisations and productive formations.

===Modality===

Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}

|}

===Domestic vocabulary===

The verb ''soo'' carries many meanings related to the home. An important part of its usage is the focus on the host rather than the guest when describing a visit.

{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ahbada esdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʷo̞ ˈʔɑħ.pɐ.ðɐ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT appa-CVB:LOC PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}

Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=sooda
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ðɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.IND-CVB:LOC
|translation=(at) home
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=sooga
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡z̠u̯oː.ʁɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.IND-CVB:DUR
|translation=[when ](at) home
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=ahbada esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ.ðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}

|}

===Colour terms===

While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.

{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷʊ]
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
}}

The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative converb to specify the hue.

{|

|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a white dog
}}

|{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahba go oada
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʷo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a light brown dog
}}

|}

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