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|- | |- | ||
! Glottal | ! Glottal | ||
| {{IPA|/h | | {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nasal | ! Nasal | ||
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===Romanisation=== | ===Romanisation=== | ||
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters | The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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| n | | n | ||
| ŋ | | ŋ | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| {{IPA|//ˈwat. | | {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}} | ||
| → {{IPA|/ | | → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}} | ||
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ. | | → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ]}} | ||
| → '' | | → ''oahdawo'' "during the day" | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 250: | Line 249: | ||
|} | |} | ||
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as '' | Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''mohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''. | ||
===Nominals=== | ===Nominals=== | ||
Nominals are mostly unmarked | Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! Distal | ! Distal | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''ammõõ'' | ||
| ''emmõõ'' | | ''emmõõ'' | ||
| ''ommõõ'' | | ''ommõõ'' | ||
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! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| ''-da'' | | ''-da'' | ||
| '' | | ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Durative | ! Durative | ||
| ''- | | ''-wo'' | ||
| '' | | ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Benefactive | ! Benefactive | ||
| ''- | | ''-wa'' | ||
| '' | | ''eewa'' "in order to see" | ||
|- | |||
! Semblative | |||
| ''-ya'' | |||
| ''eyya'' "like this" | |||
|} | |} | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals '' | Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''eyʼ'' and ''owʼ'', shortened forms of ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' that tend to blend into the next word, often as [-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-] and [-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-], but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as [-ɪw-] and [-ʊj-]. | ||
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs=== | ===Conjunct and disjunct verbs=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct | ! Conjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale" | ||
| - | | - | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?" | ||
| - | | - | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct | ! Disjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada''<br />"you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) oada''<br />"they are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct | ! Conjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you" | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) ahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) assee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct | ! Disjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) ahhee''<br />"you look at them" | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) assee''<br />"they look at you" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) ahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) assee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct target | ! Conjunct target | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) oada<u>s</u> (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct target | ! Disjunct target | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(eyʼ go) oada (eyʼ go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(owʼ go) oada (owʼ go) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee | |phrase=ao go bahba e<u>hh</u>ee | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ je̞çˈçi̯eː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog | |translation=Ao is looking at the dog | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee | |phrase=ao go bahba e<u>ss</u>ee | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | |translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ehhees | |phrase=ehhees | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-TV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I am looking at them | |translation=I am looking at them | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=essees | |phrase=essees | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=they are looking at me | |translation=they are looking at me | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=oadnawo aesããs | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠] | ||
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ | |gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I wash in the morning | |translation=I wash in the morning | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=oadnawo ao go aosãã ma | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ] | ||
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG | |gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-CVB:DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG | ||
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning | |translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ ehbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | |IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TV-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo eyʼ eebadsas | ||
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | |IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya | |phrase=ao go bahba od<u>sãmm</u>oyya | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ħˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TV-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink | |translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya | |phrase=ao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmʲi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̃mˌmʊj.jɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-TV-water-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire | |translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=[ | |phrase=[owʼ oahdawo bahba go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [eyʼ oahdawo esseenas]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ. | |IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ ˈjɪw‿ˈwɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub> | |gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub> | |translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub> | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no | |phrase=bahba go oada esseenas no | ||
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ jɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q | |gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q | ||
|translation=have you seen the white dog? | |translation=have you seen the white dog? | ||
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==Locative verbs== | ==Locative verbs== | ||
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers | An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow". | ||
These are some of those verbs: | These are some of those verbs: | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
! | ! Topic | ||
! Gloss | ! Gloss | ||
! Semantic range | ! Semantic range | ||
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| Fire (by extension core or centre) | | Fire (by extension core or centre) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | ''baa'' | ||
| '' | | ''ba'' | ||
| : | | :INST | ||
| | | Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools) | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ammõõ bo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC | |gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC | ||
|translation=hair (on the head) | |translation=hair (on the head) | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ammõõ la | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔɐmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT | |gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT | ||
|translation=head (on the body) | |translation=head (on the body) | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|translation=Ao is braiding my hair | |translation=Ao is braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
===Conjunction=== | ===Conjunction=== | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo | |phrase=ao go bahba go ooda egoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ jɪˈɣu̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there | |translation=Ao and the dog are over there | ||
}} | }} | ||
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===Specification=== | ===Specification=== | ||
Prefixes such as ''mo-'' "up; forth", ''ne-'' "down; away" and ''go-'' "around" can be used to specify location, with the translative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion. | |||
{| | {| | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go negoo | |phrase=ao go negoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is | |translation=Ao is at the bottom | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go | |phrase=ao go negoona | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː.n̠ɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB | |gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.TRANS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao moves down | |translation=Ao moves down | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ao sada sãã | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈz̠ɑ̃ː] | ||
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea | |translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ao sada laa | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐ.ðɐ ˈɮɑː] | ||
|gloss=sea-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND | |gloss=sea TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=(be) by the sea | |translation=(be) by the sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
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==Pragmatics and conventions== | ==Pragmatics and conventions== | ||
===Modality=== | ===Modality=== | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no | |phrase=bahba go ewoe no | ||
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q | |gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q | ||
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry | |translation=maybe the dog is hungry | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=ao go | |phrase=ahba lada ao go esdsoes | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ] | ||
|gloss= | |gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ | ||
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa | |translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa | ||
}} | }} | ||
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Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively. | Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively. | ||
{{gloss | |||
|phrase=ahba lada esoonas | |||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿ˌlɐ.ðɐ jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠] | |||
|gloss=appa TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ | |||
|phrase= | |||
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ. | |||
|gloss=appa-LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ | |||
|translation=I've moved to Appa | |translation=I've moved to Appa | ||
}} | }} | ||
===Colour terms=== | ===Colour terms=== | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=meyya bahba go | |phrase=meyya bahba go | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ] | ||
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT | |gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog TOP:ACT | ||
|translation=a brown dog | |translation=a brown dog | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=bahba go oada | |phrase=bahba go oada | ||
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND | |gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=a white dog | |translation=a white dog | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=meyya bahba go oada | |phrase=meyya bahba go oada | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ] | ||
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND | |gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND | ||
|translation=a light brown dog | |translation=a light brown dog |
edits