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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =  
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|nativename = ''ʼạhgaa''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", pronounced [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ʼạhgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ʼahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 20: Line 21:
===Phonemes===
===Phonemes===


The underlying sounds of Ash are few enough that a simple listing is preferable to a traditional table:
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/ai~ju~w/}}
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
Line 33: Line 34:
|-
|-
! Glottal
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
Line 39: Line 40:
|}
|}


The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair or triplet given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.
The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.


===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters:
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters as well as an apostrophe to mark a word-initial glottal stop. A dot below a vowel is used to mark stress when ambiguous.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| a
| ạ
| ã
| ã
| ạ̃
| e
| e
| ẹ
| ẽ
| ẽ
| ẹ̃
| y
| y
| o
| o
| ọ
| õ
| õ
| ọ̃
| ı
| w
| w
| b
| b
| d
| d
| g
| g
| m
| n
| ŋ
| l
| l
| s
| s
| h
| h
| m
|
| n
| ŋ
|}
|}


Line 68: Line 77:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ku//}}
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ʔa.wo//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.taˌku/}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwaʔ.ta.wo/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈʔɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ.]}}
| → ''oahdago'' "during the day"
| → ''oahdawo'' "during the day"
|}
|}


Line 94: Line 103:
===Prosody and stress===
===Prosody and stress===


Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, unless at the end of a word, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.
Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.


===Phonological processes===
===Clusters===


Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.


* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* /h~ʔ/ (and plosives before nasals) is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals and affricates.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates are fricatives intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades bidirectionally through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} word-finally and cluster-initially.


<div style="float: left">
<div style="float: left">
Line 112: Line 122:
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
| [ɲ.ɲ]
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| [m.m]
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ç.ç]
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| [ʍ.ʍ]
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|/t͡s-/}}
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| [ɕ.ɕ]
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| [s̠.s̠]
| {{IPA|[s̠.s̠]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|/t͡ɬ-/}}
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
|colspan="2"| <center>[ɬ.ɬ]</center>
| {{IPA|[ʎ.ʎ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɫ.ɫ]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| /h.P/ [ħ.P]
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| /t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
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|-
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| [ħ.P]
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| [ʔ.P͡F]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| /ʔ.ᴰN/
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴰN/}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
Line 160: Line 171:
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵇm]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| [ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| [ʔ.ᶢŋ]
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
|}
</div>
</div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
===Laterals===
The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is in many deäffricated contexts no longer produced as a fricative, but as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following glide it assimilates to it as either {{IPA|[ʎ]}} or {{IPA|[ɫ]}}.
===Syllabification===
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by the vowel letter '''ı''' placed before the non-vocalic consonant letter.
An example is the inalienable possession prefix ''(a)n-'' becoming ''ın-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''ındoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ʼadındoo-'' when the direct marker ''ʼah-'' is added.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and adverbials. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.
Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===


The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template looks as follows:
The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="4" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="5" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| Trans./Poss.
| Agency
| Incorp.
| Preverb
| Preverb
| Incorp.
| Class.
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Der.
| Deriv.
| State
| State
| Mood/Nom.
| Mood
| Conj.
| Involv.
| Adv.
| Converb.
| Enclitics
|}
|}
The nominalisation slot creates a deverbal nominal and the adverbialisation slot creates an adverbial and so these two serve to change the class of the word; the possession slot is only used on deverbal nominals and not on regular verbs.


====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine":
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 208: Line 225:
! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
! Transitional
! Inchoative
! Terminative
|-
|-
! Indicative
! Indicative
| '''''oada'''''
| '''''oada'''''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}}
| ''oahda''
| ''oahda''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}}
| ''oadna''
| ''oadna''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}}
| ''oasda''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}}
|-
|-
! Optative
! Optative
| ''oase''
| ''oase''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ʑɪ]}}
| ''oadse''
| ''oadse''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
| ''oadne''
| ''oadne''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}}
| ''oasdse''
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}}
|}
|}


All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The transitional is often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.


====Derived verbs====
====Derived verbs====


Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'', the potential ''-d-'' and the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), transitional and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), inchoative, terminative and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
! Transitional
! Inchoative
! Terminative
|-
|-
! Basic
! Basic
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' "eat"</center>
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo'''''</center>
| ''oona''
| ''oona''
| ''ohda''
|-
|-
! Causative
! Causative
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' "feed"</center>
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya''</center>
| ''oena''
| ''oena''
|-
| ''oehda''
! Potential
| colspan="2" | <center>''ooda'' "edible"</center>
| ''odna''
|-
|-
! Frequentative
! Frequentative
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' "gorge"</center>
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa''</center>
| ''osdna''
| ''osdna''
| ''osda''
|}
|}


Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.
Sometimes stems appear connected through no longer productive processes, such as ''ımmohwa'' "cook", related also to ''oo''.


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in adverbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession (obligatory on inalienably possessed nominal) or be incorporated into a verb (in which case inalienably possessed nominal do lose their possessive marker).
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''(a)n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:
 
The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair; top", an inalienably possessed nominal:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 263: Line 289:
! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ammõõ''
| ''ımmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
| ''ommõõ''
|}
|}


While there are few grammatical processes that modify nouns, derivational ones do exist. For example collective nouns can be formed through a reduplication process, such as ''ahba'' "the town of Appa" (in reference to the many nearby sources of water) from ''ao'' "sea" (but originally water of any kind; replaced in modern Ash by ''sãã'').
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor.


===Adverbials===
===Converbs===


Adverbials are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions more than traditional adverbs, but serves that role as well.
Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.


Some prominent adverbialising suffixes:
Some prominent converbialising suffixes:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! Suffix
! colspan="2" | Suffix
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-da''
| ''mehda'' "by the fire"
| ''-s''
| ''sooda'' "where they live; by the house"
|-
|-
! Durative
! Durative
| ''-go''
| ''-wo''
| ''oadnago'' "in the morning"
| ''-h''
| ''oadnawo'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''-wa''
| ''eaba'' "in order to see"
| ''-wı''
| ''eewa'' "in order to see"
|-
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''-yı''
| ''ʼayya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}
The shorter forms are the historically regular outcomes of these suffixes after unstressed vowels; the longer forms have since taken over productively in normal verbs by analogy with the instances where those were always regular, but the shorter forms remain productive in the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ʼahba las'' "in Appa"), and are still found in some common fossilised words, such as ''eas'' "here" and ''eah'' "now". Certain proper nouns retain this form for possessive constructions (e.g. ''ʼahbas ımmee'' "Appa('s) town square"). There are also instances of splits, such as the productive ''oadnada'' "where the sun rises" versus the fossilised ''oadnas'', referring specifically to the corresponding cardinal direction.


===Deixis===
===Deixis===


The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); adverbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the adverbial in question.
The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question.


The deictic stems are as follows:
The deictic stems are as follows:
Line 311: Line 347:
|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Neutral deixis sometimes surfaces epenthetically as ''a-'' due to phonotactic constraints, but is not underlyingly explicitly marked.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa'' (reduced from ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' still used for emphasis), generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-ɛ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-ɔ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of TV marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ʼa-'' becomes ''ʼe-''.


===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
Line 336: Line 372:
|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale"
| -
| -
| ''(ee) oada<u>s</u> no?''<br />"are you pale?"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?"
| -
| -
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(ea go) oada''<br />"you are pale"
| ''(oo) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(oa go) oada''<br />"they are pale"
| ''(ee) oada no?''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(ea go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?"
| ''(oo) oada no?''<br />"are they pale?"
| ''(oa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?"
|}
|}


Line 365: Line 401:
|-
|-
! Conjunct
! Conjunct
| ''(ee) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ee) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(ea go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oo) ahhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ʼahhee<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oo) assea<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
| ''(oa go) ʼassee<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me"
|-
|-
! Disjunct
! Disjunct
| ''(ee) ahhea''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ʼahhee''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ee) assea''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(ea go) ʼassee''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oo) ahhea''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ʼahhee''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oo) assea''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ʼassee''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
|}


Line 386: Line 422:
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! colspan="2" | Proximal
! Distal
|-
|-
! Conjunct source
! Conjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
! Disjunct source
|-
|-
! Conjunct target
! Conjunct target
| ''(ee) oase<u>s</u> (ee) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale"
| ''(ee) oase<u>s</u> (ee) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale"
| ''(oo) oase<u>s</u> (oo) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>1</sub> are pale"
|-
|-
! Disjunct target
! Disjunct target
| ''(ee) oase (ee) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale"
| ''(ee) oase (ee) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale"
| ''(oo) oase (oo) ogaa''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> said they<sub>2</sub> are pale"
|}
|}
When the source is proximal the target can also be distal in which case it is always disjunct and refers to a third person.


====Indirect involvement====
====Indirect involvement====
Line 410: Line 440:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑ̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 420: Line 450:
==Syntax==
==Syntax==


The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with adverbials generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.


===Valency===
===Valency===
Line 431: Line 461:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>hh</u>ea
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>hh</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>TV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo e<u>ss</u>ea
|phrase=ʼao go bahba ʼe<u>ss</u>ee
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
Line 451: Line 481:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehheas
|phrase=ʼehhees
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçɛ̯ɑːs̠]
|IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-TR-see.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at them
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=esseas
|phrase=ʼessees
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑːs̠]
|IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eːɕ]
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=they are looking at me
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
}}
Line 473: Line 503:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnago aesããs
|phrase=oadnawo ʼaesããs
|IPA=[ʔɔ̯ɑ̞ʔ.ᵈn̠ɐˌɣo̞‿ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ːs̠]
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ
|translation=I wash in the morning
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnago ao go aosãã ma
|phrase=oadnawo ʼao go ʼaosãã ma
|IPA=[ʔɔ̯ɑ̞ʔ.ᵈn̠ɐˌɣo̞‿ʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ː mɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ.wʊ ʔɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ]
|gloss=shine.TRANS.IND-DUR ao TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.IND NEG
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
}}
}}
Line 493: Line 523:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ‿ˈje̞j‿je̞ħˈpɑ̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=you are braiding my hair
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ee eebadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ea ʼeebadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ‿ˈje̞j‿je̞ɪ̯ˈβɑ̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=I am braiding my hair
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}
Line 513: Line 543:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ʼao go bahba od<u>sa</u>woyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
}}
}}


====Adverbialisation====
====Converbialisation====


The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into an adverbial, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo meh<u>da</u> odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ʼao go bahba mee<u>da</u> odsawoyya
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿ˈme̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊj.jɐ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmi̯eː.ðɐ wo̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐˈwʊj.jɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>LOC</u> DIST-TR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}
Line 540: Line 570:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahbo go ahhoo''<br />"dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go ʼahhee''<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahbo go assoo''<br />"dogs are eaten"
| ''bahba go ʼassee''<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã sa ahhoo''<br />"water is drunk"
| ''sãã sa ʼahhee''<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã sa assoo''<br />(ungrammatical)
| ''*sãã sa ʼassee''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
|}


===Topicalisation===
===Topicalisation===


New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus will also receive a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 558: Line 588:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''ao go <u>bahbo</u> ohhea''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''ʼao go <u>bahba</u> ʼohhee''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahbo go</u> ao ossea''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ʼao ʼossee''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''ao go <u>sãã</u> ohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''ʼao go <u>sãã</u> ʼohhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ao ohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> ʼao ʼohhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 571: Line 601:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=[oo oahdago bahbo go ossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ee oahdago esseanas]<sub>2</sub>
|phrase=[owahdawo bahba go ʼossoena]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdawo ʼesseenas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈʔo̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ‿ˈje̞w‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.n̠ɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TRANS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-DUR PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.INCH.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
}}
}}
Line 580: Line 610:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go oada esseanas no?
|phrase=bahba go oada ʼesseenas no
|IPA=[ˈbɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ʔɪɕˈɕi̯eː.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND-CONJ Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
Line 602: Line 632:
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa no?''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
|}
|}
Line 608: Line 638:
====Evidentiality====
====Evidentiality====


Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''ya'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 616: Line 646:
|-
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ya''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadse ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}
|}


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. Some locative verbs also retain non-locative meanings, such as the aerial ''see'', which in conjunction with the oral classifier, as ''osee'', means to "blow".


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Lemma
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| ''la''
| :STAT
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| ''go''
| :ACT
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sãã''
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| ''see''
| ''se''
| :AER
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boo''
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''doo''
| ''doo''
| ''do''
| :PART
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''mee''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}


Line 667: Line 710:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ bo
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ la
|phrase=ımmõõ la
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=ammõõ go
|IPA=[ʔm̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵑɡʊ]
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:ACT
|translation=head (detached from the body)
}}
}}


|}
|}


Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications on the syntax.
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications for the syntax.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ao ehbadsas
|phrase=emmõõ bo ʼao ʼehbadsas
|IPA=[ʔɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞‿ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯‿je̞ħˈpɑ̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head TOP:CRESC ao PROX-TR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
}}
Unstressed locatives are not applied to the pronominal-like nominals ''ee'' "this", ''oo'' "that", ''nõõ'' "what" and ''maa'' "none".


===Conjunction===
===Conjunction===
Line 705: Line 739:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go bahbo go ooda egoo
|phrase=ʼao go bahba go oas egoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwu̯oː.ðɐ‿jɪˈɣu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ʁo̞ ˈwɔ̯ɑːɕ‿ɕɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC PROX-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
}}
}}
Line 713: Line 747:
===Specification===
===Specification===


To denote motion, an andative ("going") or venitive ("coming") prefix is placed into the verbal classifier slot.
Prefixes such as ''n-'' "up; forth" and ''l-'' "down; away" can be used to specify location, with the inchoative stem of the locative verb providing a sense of motion toward a destination, and the terminative away from it.


{|
{{gloss
 
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoo
|{{gloss
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː]
|phrase=ao go algoo
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|translation=Ao is down in Appa
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT AND-LOC:ACT..IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
}}
}}


|{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go aŋgoo
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgoona
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈku̯oː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT VEN-LOC:ACT.IND
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.INCH.IND
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
|translation=Ao went down to Appa
}}
}}


|}
{{gloss
 
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go elgohda
The preverb slot can be used to specify manner, location or direction.
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ jɪɬˈkʷo̞ħ.t̠ɐ]
 
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-SUB-LOC:ACT.TERM.IND
{|
|translation=Ao went away from Appa
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao go negoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-LOC:ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is below
}}
}}


|{{gloss
===Use with converbs===
|phrase=ao go nelgoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣʊ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.IND
|translation=Ao moves down
}}
 
|}
 
===Use with adverbials===


Adverbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|phrase=ʼao sas sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:LIQ.IND
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|phrase=ʼao sas laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑ̞ː]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑː]
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:STAT.IND
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|translation=(be) by the ocean
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}


|}
|}


==Pragmatics and conventions==
===Possession===
 
Being a verb-heavy language, Ash often lacks direct nominal counterparts to nouns in more analytic languages, instead expressing many common (and uncommon) concepts descriptively through its rich morphological and derivational verb system rather than assigning nominal lexemes to them (although this also happens), one key factor again being the locative verbs.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=nendsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪn̠ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̞̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-VEN-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|translation=by the (bottom of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water comes gushing down")
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=neldsãndsada
|IPA=[ɲᶡɪɬ.t̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃n̠.d̠͡z̠ɐˌðɐ]
|gloss=SUB-AND-LOC:LIQ.FREQ.IND-LOC
|translation=by the (top of the) waterfall<br />(lit. "where water goes gushing down")
}}
 
|}


As this example demonstrates, there is no one lexicalised nominal for the concept of a waterfall, but a fitting verb is used depending on the context. Nonetheless the phrase is possible to nominalise if grammatically necessary and sometimes this does result in lexicalisation.
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=<u>dodso</u> go nõŋgo oŋgoone?
|phrase=ʼao gos ımmõõ la
|IPA=[ˈd̠o̞ʔ.t̠͡s̠ʊ ɣʊ ˈn̠õ̞ŋ.ɡo̞‿wʊŋˈɡu̯oː.ɲɪ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩ˈmũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ]
|gloss=<u>smoke.FREQ.NOM</u> TOP:ACT Q-DUR DIST-VEN-LOC:ACT.TRANS.OPT
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT
|translation=when does the <u>train</u> arrive?
|translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao")
}}
}}


In such cases there may be a clear-cut distinction between such lexicalisations and productive formations.
==Pragmatics and conventions==


===Modality===
===Modality===
Line 816: Line 813:
|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoes
|phrase=ewoes
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ewoe no?
|phrase=ewoe no
|IPA=[ʔɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahbo go ewoe no?
|phrase=bahba go ewoe no
|IPA=[ˈbɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣʊ‿jɪˈwʊːɪ̯ n̠ʊ]
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ jɪˈwʊːɪ̯‿n̠ʊ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.OPT Q
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-consume.ACT.OPT Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}
Line 842: Line 839:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao go ahbada esdsoes
|phrase=ʼahba las ʼao go ʼesdsoes
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ːʊ̯ ɣo̞‿ʔɑ̞ħ.pɐˌðɐ‿jɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐs̠‿ˈs̠ɑːʊ̯‿ʁo̞ ʔɪɕˈȶ͡ɕʊːɪ̯ɕ]
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT appa-LOC PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC ao=TOP:ACT PROX-INV-LOC:DOM.STAT/ACT.OPT-CONJ
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
|translation=I'm on my way to visit Ao in Appa
}}
}}
Line 850: Line 847:
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.
Nonetheless it refers to the referent's own home when used intransitively.


{|
{{gloss
 
|phrase=ʼahba las esoonas
|{{gloss
|IPA=[ˈʔɑħ.pɐ‿lɐɕ‿ɕɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|phrase=sooda
|gloss=appa=TOP:STAT-CVB:LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.INCH.IND-CONJ
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡s̠u̯oː.ðɐ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.IND-LOC
|translation=(at) home
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=soogo
|IPA=[ˈd̠͡s̠u̯oː.ɣʊ]
|gloss=LOC:DOM.IND-DUR
|translation=[when ](at) home
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahbada esoonas
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.pɐˌðɐ‿jɪˈz̠u̯oː.n̠ɐs̠]
|gloss=appa-LOC PROX-LOC:DOM.TRANS.IND-CONJ
|translation=I've moved to Appa
|translation=I've moved to Appa
}}
}}
|}


===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


While most descriptive attributes are expressed through stative verbs, colours are expressed through comparative adverbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ayya'' "blue; green". These are combined with locative verbs.
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ao'' "sea" → ''ʼayya'' "blue; green".


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahbo go
|phrase=meyya bahba go
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣʊ]
|IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
|translation=a brown dog
}}
}}


The exceptions are brightness and darkness which are still expressed through stative verbs, which can also be combined with the comparative adverbs to specify the hue.
Some are expressed through regular stative verbs like ''oada''.


{|
{{gloss
 
|phrase=oada bahba go
|{{gloss
|IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ]
|phrase=bahbo go oada
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND dog=TOP:ACT
|IPA=[ˈbɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ]
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a white dog
|translation=a white dog
}}
}}
|{{gloss
|phrase=meyya bahbo go oada
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞j.jɐ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ɣo̞‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ]
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND
|translation=a light brown dog
}}
|}


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