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Ash (view source)

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→‎Locative verbs: me > ne + updated semantic range
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Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.
An [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe apostrophe] ({{ash|ʼ}}, U+02BC) marks an elided vowel. Tilde (e.g. {{ash|ã}}) is used to mark nasalisation, doubly wide (e.g. {{ash|a͠a}}) on long vowels and diphthongs. Hook above (e.g. {{ash|ả}}) denotes a word-initial glottal. Dot above (e.g. {{ash|ȧ}}) denotes that a short vowel in a heavy syllable is stressed where it would otherwise read as unstressed.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
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==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.
Ash does not mark words for number, person, or case. It can be analysed as having only three word classes: verbs, nominals, and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===
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Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.
Any phrase can be nominalised using an unstressed determiner usually followed by a classificatory topic marker (see below). Proper nouns do not need the determiner. When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. Verbs and converbs require a nominalising particle in the form of an unstressed determiner—either the generic {{ash|n}} or one of the deictic {{ash|e}} and {{ash|o}} (again see below)—which attaches directly to the classifier if present.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|phrase={{ash|dodsa <u>ŋ</u>-go ảhhedse-s yo}}
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLFV DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|gloss=smoke.INTS=DET:NDET=CLF DIR-see.INTS.IRR-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I like looking at trains.
|translation=I like looking at trains.
}}
}}
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===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===


While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.
While Ash lacks a set of first, second, and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with agency (transitivity and volition) markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct). Unlike some languages however, the assertor in Ash is always the speaker, even in reported speech.


Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.
Conjunct is marked by the suffix {{ash|-s}} and disjunct is unmarked.
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As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.
As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.


{{gloss
{{interlinear|abbreviations=PROX:proximal deixis; INTS:intensive; MOD:modal auxiliary verb; CLF:classifier auxiliary verb; INV:inverse agency; CONJ:conjunct involvement
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|{{ash|ẽbmo͠o&nbsp;mo}} {{ash|ya&nbsp;ẻsbadsas&nbsp;yo}} {{ash|ảo&nbsp;ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-hand.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|PROX-head{{=}}CLF DET{{=}}PROX-INV-braid-CONJ{{=}}MOD Ao{{=}}CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
|Ao is braiding my hair.
}}
}}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MODV:REP
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MODV:REP
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
|translation=Ao is being watched by a dog.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>o</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga <u>wa</u> ẻssea ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|gloss=Ao=CLF <u>DET.PROX</u>=PROX-INV-see=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog; watching Ao was the dog.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|phrase={{ash|oas ga bahba sa͠a ỏ<u>hh</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP
|gloss=Oas=CLF dog water DIST-<u>DIR</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
|translation=It was Oas who gave the dog water to drink.
}}
}}
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<div class="ash-column">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oas ga o sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|phrase={{ash|oas ga wa sa͠a ỏ<u>ss</u>oyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Oas=CLFV DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|gloss=Oas=CLF DET:DIST=water DIST-<u>INV</u>-eat.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
|translation=It was Oas the dog offered water to.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|phrase={{ash|ẻhheas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am looking at them.
|translation=I am looking at them.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|phrase={{ash|ẻsseas e}}
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:EXP
|gloss=PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:EXP
|translation=They are looking at me.
|translation=They are looking at me.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|phrase={{ash|oadnah ảyısa͠as yo}}
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|gloss=shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I wash in the morning.
|translation=I wash in the morning.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga oadnah ảyısa͠a ma}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MODV:NEG
|gloss=Ao=CLF shine.INCH-CVB:DUR REFL-LOCV:LIQ=MOD:NEG
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻsbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
|translation=You are braiding my hair.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ẻwıbadsas yo}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF PROX-REFL-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
|translation=I am braiding my hair.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|phrase={{ash|enya ga bahba ảyıgaa e}}
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLFV dog REFL-sound=MODV:EXP
|gloss=younger_sibling=CLF dog REFL-sound=MOD:EXP
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
|translation=My sibling barks like a dog.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga o meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga wa meh<u>da</u> ỏdsoyya ga bahba go}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MODV:REP dog=CLFV
|gloss=Ao=CLF DET:DIST=burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS=MOD:REP dog=CLF
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire.
}}
}}
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|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhedsa e <u>bahba go</u>}}<br />"Oas was looking at the dog"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> o ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
| {{ash|<u>bahba go</u> wa ỏssedsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the dog Oas was looking at"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| {{ash|oas ga o ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|oas ga wa ỏhhodsa e <u>sa͠a sa</u>}}<br />"Oas was drinking the water"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> o ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
| {{ash|<u>sa͠a sa</u> wa ỏhhodsa e oas ga}}<br />"it was the water Oas was drinking"
|}
|}


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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|phrase={{ash|[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya we]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah eyea wo]<sub>2}}</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLFV DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MODV:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MODV:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=[Yesterday dog=CLF DIST-INV-consume.CAUS=MOD:EXP]<sub>1</sub> [today PROX-see-CONJ=MOD:DECL]<sub>2</sub>
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|phrase={{ash|osy’ oada bahba go ẻsseas no}}
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MODV:NDET
|gloss=light-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLF PROX-INV-see-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
|translation=Have you seen the white dog?
}}
}}
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Declarative
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really, obviously) they're weaving"
|-
! Negative
! Negative
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"they're not weaving"
|-
! Interrogative
! Interrogative
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"are they weaving?", "maybe they're weaving"
|-
! Felicitative
! Felicitative
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"(I'm pleased that) they're weaving"
|-
! Miserative
! Miserative
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"(I'm displeased that) they're weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa yo}}<br />"(really) weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa ma}}<br />"not weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa no}}<br />"weaving?", "maybe weaving"
| {{ash|ebadsa sa}}<br />"weaving, happy to say"
| {{ash|ebadsa na}}<br />"weaving, unfortunately"
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Experiential
! Experiential
! Reportative
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) they're weaving"
|-
|-
| {{ash|ebadsa e}}<br />"(evidently) weaving"
! Inferential
| {{ash|ebadsa ga}}<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
| {{ash|obadsa me}}<br />"(I have a feeling) they were weaving"
|-
! Narrative
| {{ash|obadsa ga}}<br />"(it goes that) they were weaving"
|-
! Direct report
| {{ash|obadsa hga}}<br />"(they told me) they were weaving"
|-
! Indirect report
| {{ash|obadsa wwa}}<br />"(they were told) someone was weaving"
|}
|}
Note how most of these take the distal prefix {{ash|o-}} as the speaker cannot be currently present to confirm their veracity. The inferential falls somewhere between modality and evidentiality and makes sense with any deixis depending on the situation and the verb.


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==
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|-
|-
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|mea}}
| {{ash|me}}
| {{ash|ne}}
| :PYR
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
| Inside, essence, fire
|-
|-
| {{ash|baa}}
| {{ash|baa}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o mo}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=hair (on the head)
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|phrase={{ash|ĩbmo͠o na}}
|gloss=POSS-head=CLFV
|gloss=POSS-head=CLF
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=head (on the body)
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo e ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|phrase={{ash|ẽbmo͠o mo ya ẻsbadsas yo {{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga}}
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLFV DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MODV:DECL Ao=CLFV
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=CLF DET:PROX=PROX-INV-handle.INTS-CONJ=MOD:DECL Ao=CLF
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} ga bahba go oas egoa e}}
|gloss=Ao=CLFV dog=CLFV DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MODV:EXP
|gloss=Ao=CLF dog=CLF DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-LOCV:ACT=MOD:EXP
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there.
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas sa͠a}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:LIQ
|translation=(be) in the sea
|translation=(be) in the sea
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|phrase={{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}} sas laa}}
|gloss=sea=CLFV-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|gloss=sea=CLF-CVB:LOC LOCV:STAT
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=(be) by the sea
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo ga ndoo ya}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-foot=CLFV
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-foot=CLF
|translation=Atwa's foot
|translation=Atwa's foot
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gã bmo͠o na}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV POSS-head=CLFV
|gloss=Atwa=CLF POSS-head=CLF
|translation=Atwa's head
|translation=Atwa's head
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gas ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:LOC bread=CLFV
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:LOC bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread at Atwa"; they already have it)
}}
}}
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{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|phrase={{ash|ảhdo gawı ảnda mmo}}
|gloss=Atwa=CLFV-CVB:BEN bread=CLFV
|gloss=Atwa=CLF-CVB:BEN bread=CLF
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
|translation=Atwa's bread (lit. "bread for Atwa"; they do not yet have it)
}}
}}
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<div class="ash-column">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadse no}}
|phrase={{ash|noyy’ ensae ẻhbadses no}}
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR=MOD:NDET
|gloss=DET:NDET-CVB:QUAL PROX-please.IRR PROX-DIR-handle.IRR-CONJ=MOD:NDET
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
|translation=How would you prefer I did it? (lit. "which way to please")
}}
}}
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===Colour terms===
===Colour terms===


Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs.
Colours are mainly expressed through qualitative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as {{ash|mea}} "fire" → {{ash|nayya}} "red; yellow; orange; brown" or {{ash|{{AshMidhook|ảo}}}} "sea" → {{ash|ảyya}} "blue; green". They are used together with attributive verbs, which have longer allomorphs in subordinating position.


<div class="ash-columns">
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|bahba go nayy’ <u>oa</u> we}}
|gloss=dog=CLF fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine</u>=MOD
|translation=The dog is brown.
}}
</div>
<div class="ash-column">
{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|nayy’ oada bahba go}}
|phrase={{ash|e nayy’ <u>oada</u> bahba go}}
|gloss=fire-CVB:QUAL shine.ATTR dog=CLFV
|gloss=MOD=fire-CVB:QUAL <u>shine.ATTR</u> dog=CLF
|translation=A brown dog.
|translation=It's a brown dog.
}}
}}
</div>
</div>
===Weather and phenomena===
Because forces of nature are associated with high animate actors in Ash, the hierarchy—where high animates outrank even conjunct referents—means that verbs referring to them always take direct agency. Because this can be confusing without context, the force in question is usually topicalised using the determiner-classifier combination {{ash|oa na}} (not unlike "it" in "it's raining" in English).
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>oa na</u> ẻ<u>d</u>seena<u>s</u> e}}
|gloss=<u>DET:DIST=CLF</u> PROX-<u>DIR</u>-rain.INCH-<u>CONJ</u>=MOD:EXP
|translation=It started to rain (on us) (lit. "it (the high animate) started to rain on us")
}}
The full noun can also be explicitly stated if the verb itself does not clearly specify which force is meant.
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|<u>sãdn’ ona</u> ỏ<u>h</u>hodse hga}}
|gloss=<u>rain.ACT=DET:DIST=CLF</u> DIST-<u>DIR</u>-consume.INTS.IRR=MOD:DIR
|translation=They said the rain was battering them over there.
}}
===Reported speech===
As mentioned previously, while languages with speaker's involvement marking will often express reported speech from the perspective of the one whose speech is being reported, this is not the case in Ash. However there are direct and indirect modals for reported speech in Ash which may depend on who was talking to whom. Some examples follow below.
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga ỏsgaas yo ebmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DIST-INV-say-CONJ=MOD:DECL PROX-head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=Dosmo told me my head is big.
}}
Here the speaker uses the declarative modal {{ash|yo}} as they were spoken to directly so no evidential is needed. The actual reported speech is followed by the {{ash|ıhga}} modal marking a direct report, i.e. something the speaker heard personally.
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa e oas ga yy oa gõ bmo͠o na booda hga}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:EXP Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:DIR
|translation=I saw/heard Dosmo tell Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}
This sentence has more referents and so additional markers are necessary to keep track of things. The experiential evidential {{ash|e}} is now used as the speaker was not spoken to but merely witnessed a conversation. The contrastive function of determiners is used to shift the topic back to Dosmo after Oas is introduced.
{{gloss
|phrase={{ash|dosmo ga wa ỏhgaa hga oas ga yy obmo͠o na booda wwa}}
|gloss=Dosmo=CLF DET=DIST-DIR-say=MOD:DIR Oas=CLF MOD:DECL DET=CLF head=CLF big=MOD:INDIR
|translation=I'm told Dosmo told Oas their (Dosmo's) head is big.
}}
This last example uses {{ash|ıhga}} in the first half to denote that the speaker was told by someone else what Dosmo had said and so the actual speech must be reported using the indirect speech report marker {{ash|ıwwa}} instead.
<div begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
PROX:proximal deixis
INTS:intensive
MOD:modal auxiliary verb
CLF:classifier auxiliary verb
INV:inverse agency
CONJ:conjunct involvement
</div><div end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>


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