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{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:Godisawoman|Godisawoman]]
|nativename = 𐤁𐤀𐤋𐤉𐤀𐤓𐤉𐤕‎ 𐤎𐤅𐤐𐤅 <br/>sufu balyarīt
|image = File:Balearicislands-location.jpg
|setting = Alternate Earth
|name = Balearic Hebrew
|pronunciation = /su.'fu bal.ja.'ri:t/
|states = Spain
|speakers = 800,000
|date = 2023
|familycolor=afroasiatic
|fam1=[[w:Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]
|fam2=[[w:Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[w:Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam4=[[w:Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|fam5=[[w:Canaanite languages|Canaanite]]
|fam6=[[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]]
|script=[[w:Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]
|-
|notice=IPA
}}
'''Balearic Hebrew'''
(Paleo-Hebrew scipt: 𐤁𐤀𐤋𐤉𐤀𐤓𐤉𐤕‎ 𐤎𐤅𐤐𐤅 ‎‎‎‎''sufu balyarīt'') is a Canaanite Semitic language descended from a variety of Hebrew spoken in the northern kingdom of ancient Israel between the 10th century and the 8th century BCE. Formed from the speech of ancient Israelites who migrated to the Phoenician speaking Balearic islands, the language therefore has a Canaanite core, evolving between the 8th and 2nd centuries BCE. Roman occupation brought in considerable Latin influence, which would only strengthen as more settlers speaking Iberian Romance languages such as Old Spanish and Catalan came to the islands.
The language emerged from contact between diverse peoples in Antiquity. Although its vocabulary largely derives from ancient Hebrew, words that deal with subjects such as law, war, and politics tend to be of Latin derivation. The grammar preserves to an extent ancient Semitic verb paradigms, and has changed alongside Classical Latin influence.
== History ==
Phoenician colonists encouraged Hebrew migration to the islands, and many more emigrated around 720 BCE after the destruction of the Kingdom of Samaria. Eventually, Hebrew speakers outnumbered Phoenician speakers, though the two closely related languages facilitated communication.
After the Second Punic War, the islands came under Roman control. Roman Latin speakers settled on the islands, considerably influencing the speech of the majority Jewish population. This period saw the reduction of many Biblical phonological and grammatical structures, as the language leaned toward the Latin spoken by the new settlers. Despite the Roman occupation, the islands enjoyed considerable autonomy and were a flourishing economic center of the Republic, exporting agricultural produce, cattle, rabbits, snails, and a red dye favored by Roman painters. The speakers of this dialect of Hebrew also clung to the alphabet of their Phoenician and Israelite ancestors, never switching to the Assyrian script used by their counterparts in the Levant. 
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the islands fell under the control of the Umayyad Dynasty, and subsequently lived under Islamic political control until the 13th century. The islands' population fell drastically as crusaders fought the less tolerant Almoravid dynasty, destroying harbors and reducing the islands as a regional sea power. After the Reconquista, the islands became a major center of economic and military power for the kingdom of Aragón, and Balearic Hebrew was the major language of the province, until the islands' conquest by the Ottomans.
In 1492, the Edict of Expulsion caused many Spanish Jews to emigrate to the Ottoman-controlled islands. The Jewish population fluctuated, but still remained the major demographic force in the region up until the modern period. Now, there are nearly a million speakers of Balearic Hebrew, and a similar amount of Jews on the islands.
== Writing System ==
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
!Name
!ʔulif
!bet
!gīmil
!dulit
!hag
!bub
!sen
!ħet
!ṭet
!yod
!kuf
!lumid
!min
!nun
!sumak
!hen
!fag
!ṣudī
!reš
!šin
!tub
|-
!Balearic Hebrew Letter
|𐤀
|𐤁
|𐤂
|𐤃
|𐤄
|𐤅
|𐤆
|𐤇
|𐤈
|𐤉
|𐤊
|𐤋
|𐤌
|𐤍
|𐤎
|𐤏
|𐤐
|𐤑
|𐤓
|𐤔
|𐤕
|-
!Square Hebrew (Ktav Ashuri) letter
|א
|ב
|ג
|ד
|ה
|ו
|ז
|ח
|ט
|י
|כ
|ל
|מ
|נ
|ס
|ע
|פ
|צ
|ר
|ש
|ת
|-
!Pronounciation
|ʔ / a
|b
|g
|d
|h
|u
|s
|ħ
|tˤ <ṭ>
|j <y> / i <ī>
|k
|l
|m
|n
|s
|e
|f
|sˤ <ṣ>
|r
|ʃ <š>
|t
|}
Balearic Hebrew uses a modified version of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. The language is written right to left, with little punctuation. Like other Semitic abjads, vowels are generally unwritten. The only exceptions being the "strong" vowels, ''a, ī, u''. ''e'' is also sometimes written, using the ancient letter for ''ayin''. Some writing has no vowels indicated at all.
== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
=== Consonants ===
=== Consonants ===
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|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |Fricative
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Fricative
!voiceless
|f
|f
|
|
|s
|s
|sˤ<sup>2</sup>
|sˤ<sup>1</sup>
|ʃ
|ʃ
|
|
|ħ
|ħ
|h
|h
|-
!voiced
|
|ð<sup>1</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Trill
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Trill
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|
|
|}
|}
<sup>1</sup> In Balearic Hebrew, /ð/ is considered a phoneme despite having a confusing allophonic relationship with /d/ and /r/.


<sup>2</sup>The emphatic fricative has various pronunciations due to Iberian influence. Besides the pharyngealized pronunciation, it is most often pronounced as a denti-alveolar voiceless affricate /ts/, as in Modern Hebrew.
<sup>1</sup>The emphatic fricative has various pronunciations due to Iberian influence. Besides the pharyngealized pronunciation, it is most often pronounced as a denti-alveolar voiceless affricate /ts/, as in Modern Hebrew.


Various consonants characteristic of the Biblical era have been lost.  
Various consonants characteristic of the Biblical era have been lost.  
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The general translation for ''be'' is and. It connects two ideas together. When attached to two different verbs, it indicates that they occur at the same time or are otherwise related in meaning.  
The general translation for ''be'' is and. It connects two ideas together. When attached to two different verbs, it indicates that they occur at the same time or are otherwise related in meaning.  


Two instances of ''be'' is equivalent to the English correlative "either...or." When connected to verbs that are negated, it can have the meaning "neither...nor." For example, ''al katab '''be'''ʔal ʔakal'' means "neither write nor eat." The second negative particle is not required.
Two instances of ''be'' is equivalent to the English correlative "either...or." When connected to verbs that are negated, it can have the meaning "neither...nor." For example, ''ʔal katab '''be'''ʔal ʔakal'' means "neither write nor eat." The second negative particle is not required.


=== Uses of ''kī'' ===
=== Uses of ''kī'' ===
The word ''kī'' is very versatile. Most generally, it expresses a causal relationship between two ideas, similar to English "because" or "for." For example, '''''kī''' kūtabta lūkūtabtī-kū,'' means "because you wrote, I am blessing you."
The word ''kī'' is very versatile. Most generally, it expresses a causal relationship between two ideas, similar to English "because" or "for." For example, '''''kī''' kūtabta lūbīrrattī-kū,'' means "because you wrote, I am blessing you."


With the subjunctive in the clause introduced after ''kī'', the conjunction expresses purpose or a goal. In this context, it is translated as "so that" or "in order to."
With the subjunctive in the clause introduced after ''kī'', the conjunction expresses purpose or a goal. In this context, it is translated as "so that" or "in order to."
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Additionally, ''ʔašir'' can stand alone and form a jussive or cohortative meaning with the subjunctive form. For example, ''ʔašir nīktūb'' means "let us write."
Additionally, ''ʔašir'' can stand alone and form a jussive or cohortative meaning with the subjunctive form. For example, ''ʔašir nīktūb'' means "let us write."
== Particles ==
== Particles ==


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The first, ''lo,'' is the most common and is used to negate verbs in the indicative, as well as non-finite verbs. For example, ''lo kūtabtī'' means "I did not write." Additionally, ''lo'' is used in verbless clauses to negate them, with an implied linking verb. For example, the phrase ''si lo bikamfo'' means "he is not on the battlefield."
The first, ''lo,'' is the most common and is used to negate verbs in the indicative, as well as non-finite verbs. For example, ''lo kūtabtī'' means "I did not write." Additionally, ''lo'' is used in verbless clauses to negate them, with an implied linking verb. For example, the phrase ''si lo bikamfo'' means "he is not on the battlefield."


The second, ''ʔal'', is used to negate verbs in the imperative or subjunctive. For example, ''al kītbū'' means "do not write."
The second, ''ʔal'', is used to negate verbs in the imperative or subjunctive. For example, ''ʔal kītbū'' means "do not write."


== Prepositions ==
== Prepositions ==
Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, modifying, if present, the definite article. Other noun phrases act as prepositions, but are not as widely used. The prefixing prepositions do not stem from the triconsonantal roots.  
Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, modifying, if present, the definite article. Other noun phrases act as prepositions, but are not as widely used. The prefixing prepositions do not stem from the triconsonantal roots.  


=== The four prepositions ===
=== The three major prepositions ===
These prepositions are the most commonly used prepositions and are a single consonant and a vowel.  
These prepositions are the most commonly used prepositions and are a single consonant and a vowel.  


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=== Definite object preposition ===
=== Definite object preposition ===
The definite object preposition ''ʔit'' indicates the direct object of some verb. It does this by directly preceding the noun or phrase that functions as the direct object of a verb (either finite or non-finite). It is only used if the object is definite, in the case of an indefinite direct object, no preposition is used to mark it. For example, in the sentence "God created the sun," ''būratta ʔilohī '''ʔit''' hašimiš,'' the particle is on view before ''hašimiš'', "the sun."  
The definite object preposition ''ʔit'' indicates the direct object of some verb. It does this by directly preceding the noun or phrase that functions as the direct object of a verb (either finite or non-finite). It is only used if the object is definite, in the case of an indefinite direct object, no preposition is used to mark it. For example, in the sentence "God created the sun," ''būratta ʔilohī '''ʔit''' hašimiš,'' the particle is on view before ''hašimiš'', "the sun." Enclitic pronouns define a noun, so the preposition is used in this case as well.


Conjunctions such as ''be'', "and" can attach to this particle if there are two direct objects.
Conjunctions such as ''be'', "and" can attach to this particle if there are two direct objects.
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! colspan="2" |1st
! colspan="2" |1st
| -(y)ī
| -(y)ī
| -anū
| -nū
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |2nd
! rowspan="2" |2nd
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The three prefixing prepositions take the enclitic pronoun as the object of said preposition. This causes their <nowiki><i> vowel to lengthen to <ī>. Thus, "to you," is </nowiki>''lī-kū''. The first person singular enclitic adds no epenthetic /h/.
The three prefixing prepositions take the enclitic pronoun as the object of said preposition. This causes their <nowiki><i> vowel to lengthen to <ī>. Thus, "to you," is </nowiki>''lī-kū''. The first person singular enclitic adds no epenthetic /h/.


In addition to the three prefixing prepositions, all the other non-phrasal prepositions also take the enclitic pronoun. For example, "upon them" is ''hal-ahi'', not *''hal ʔilī''.  
In addition to the three prefixing prepositions, all the other non-phrasal prepositions also take the enclitic pronoun. For example, "upon them" is ''hal-ahi'', not *''hal ʔilī''.


=== Demonstratives ===
=== Demonstratives ===
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These demonstratives can function either as pronouns or as attributive adjectives.  
These demonstratives can function either as pronouns or as attributive adjectives.  


Additionally, to introduce a personal relative clause, the medial demonstratives are used, not necessarily requiring an antecedent. For example, ''ʔūkal hakesū sot tūrattī'' means "he ate the cheese which I surrendered," with ''sot'' serving as the introduction to that relative clause.  
Additionally, to introduce a personal relative clause, the medial demonstratives are used, not necessarily requiring an antecedent. For example, ''ʔūkal hakehū sot tūrattī'' means "he ate the cheese which I surrendered," with ''sot'' serving as the introduction to that relative clause.


=== Indefinite Pronouns ===
=== Indefinite Pronouns ===
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* 3rd Chet
* 3rd Chet
* 2nd Alef
* 2nd Alef
* 1st Chet
* 1st Chet or He
* 1st Nun or Lamed
* 1st Nun or Lamed
* 1st Yod
* 1st Yod
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The first three categories, categorized by a guttural as the third letter of a verbal root, cause gemination in the verbal affix nearby. For example, the 2nd person feminine singular ''qal'' preterite construction of the root ''h-r-h,'' to be pregnant, is hūratti, instead of the ungrammatical *''hūrahti''. This gemination occurs not only with the affixes, but also to the other parts of the root. In addition, these consonants cause a vowel change from <ū> to <o> always. Other vowels are unaffected. For example, using the same verb but in the 3rd person, the construction is ''horra'', instead of expected *''hūrha''. In the case of a final /h/, it always drops.   
The first three categories, categorized by a guttural as the third letter of a verbal root, cause gemination in the verbal affix nearby. For example, the 2nd person feminine singular ''qal'' preterite construction of the root ''h-r-h,'' to be pregnant, is hūratti, instead of the ungrammatical *''hūrahti''. This gemination occurs not only with the affixes, but also to the other parts of the root. In addition, these consonants cause a vowel change from <ū> to <o> always. Other vowels are unaffected. For example, using the same verb but in the 3rd person, the construction is ''horra'', instead of expected *''hūrha''. In the case of a final /h/, it always drops.   


The fourth category, 2nd Alef, only has this consonant drop when it is followed by a stop consonant ([t k b d g]) and by a vowel. For example, ''bʔb'', meaning "to come" has the form ''būbū'' for the 3rd person masculine plural ''qal'' preterite form, instead of expected *''būʔbū''.  
The fourth category, 2nd Alef, only has this consonant drop when it is preceded or followed by a stop consonant ([t k b d g]) and by a vowel. For example, ''bʔb'', meaning "to come" has the form ''būbū'' for the 3rd person masculine plural ''qal'' preterite form, instead of expected *''būʔbū''.  


The fifth category, 1st Chet, causes vowel change, and/or gemination in the paradigm. The vowel immediately preceding and following this letter is always /a/. Thus, ''ħ-b-š'', meaning to cover a wound, in the masculine 3rd person singular ''qal'' subjunctive is ''yabbūš'', instead of expected *''yiħbūš''. Here, the vowel is changed from <nowiki><i> to <a>, and the <b> 2nd radical consonant is geminated as the first is lost.</nowiki>
The fifth category, 1st Chet or He, causes vowel change, and/or gemination in the paradigm. The vowel immediately preceding and following this letter is always /a/. Thus, ''ħ-b-š'', meaning to cover a wound, in the masculine 3rd person singular ''qal'' subjunctive is ''yabbūš'', instead of expected *''yiħbūš''. Here, the vowel is changed from <nowiki><i> to <a>, and the <b> 2nd radical consonant is geminated as the first is lost.</nowiki>


The sixth category, 1st Nun or Lamed, causes vowel changes in the subjunctive and imperative conjugations, as well as in the H-stem and N-stem. In these instances, where some sort of prefix is attached to the verb radical, the /n/ or /l/ of the verb root drops and causes vowel changes. Like the 1st Chet irregulars, the vowel is almost always changed to an /a/. In the N-stem construction, the /a/ is conserved. For example, the root ''l-h-ṭ'', menaing to burn, in the 3rd person masculine singular H-stem preterite is ''hahīṭ'', instead of expected *''hīlhīṭ''. Unlike the 1st Chet category, the present marker ''lū'' is never changed by these irregularities.
The sixth category, 1st Nun or Lamed, causes vowel changes in the subjunctive and imperative conjugations, as well as in the H-stem and N-stem. In these instances, where some sort of prefix is attached to the verb radical, the /n/ or /l/ of the verb root drops and causes vowel changes. Like the 1st Chet irregulars, the vowel is almost always changed to an /a/. In the N-stem construction, the /a/ is conserved. For example, the root ''l-h-ṭ'', menaing to burn, in the 3rd person masculine singular H-stem preterite is ''hahīṭ'', instead of expected *''hīlhīṭ''. Unlike the 1st Chet category, the present marker ''lū'' is never changed by these irregularities.


The seventh category, 1st Yod, causes vowel changes. The /j/ drops out of the stem as well. If the preceding vowel is  <a>, it is changed to <e>. If it is <ū>, it is changed to <o>. Thus, the first person singular N-stem preterite of the verb ''y-t-r'', to be useless, is ''notartī'', instead of expected *''natartī.''
The seventh category, 1st Yod, causes vowel changes. The /j/ drops out of the stem as well. If the preceding vowel is  <a>, it is changed to <e>. If it is <ū>, it is changed to <o>. Thus, the first person singular N-stem preterite of the verb ''y-t-r'', to be useless, is ''notartī'', instead of expected *''natartī.'' If such a change would cause two vowels to come into contact with each other, they merge to ''ī'' if there is an ''i'', and if there is not, then they merge to ''o''.


The last category, verbs that have the stops /t/, /d/, /k/, or /g/ as their last letter, cause only gemination. These stops drop out of the stem but cause the consonant immediately following them to geminate in compensation. For example, the root ''b-r-g'', meaning to create, in the second masculine singular ''qal'' preterite form is ''būratta'', instead of expected ''*būragta.''
The last category, verbs that have the stops /t/, /d/, /k/, or /g/ as their last letter, cause only gemination. These stops drop out of the stem but cause the consonant immediately following them to geminate in compensation. For example, the root ''b-r-g'', meaning to create, in the second masculine singular ''qal'' preterite form is ''būratta'', instead of expected ''*būragta.''
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The preterite is used to indicate the following:
The preterite is used to indicate the following:
*'''An action completed in the past''': This use expresses an action that is viewed as a completed event. It is often accompanied by adverbial expressions of time, such as ''ʔitmūl''.
*'''An action completed in the past''': This use expresses an action that is viewed as a completed event. It is often accompanied by adverbial expressions of time, such as ''ʔitmūl''.
''ʔitmūl mūṣattī hafiraħ'' = "Yesterday, I found the flower"
''ʔitmūl mūṣattī ʔit hafiraħ'' = "Yesterday, I found the flower"
*'''Perfect actions''': Aligning with English perfect constructions, actions in the past with present relevance.
*'''Perfect actions''': Aligning with English perfect constructions, actions in the past with present relevance.
''hatū šūmanta ʔoto'' = "Now you have heard him"
''hatū šūmanta ʔoto'' = "Now you have heard him"
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===== Descriptive Infinitive =====
===== Descriptive Infinitive =====
In the case where an infinitive is paired with a verb of a different root, an English translation requires some sort of circumstantial clause, or the preposition "by" to define more exactly the manner in which the action is performed. This use supplants the now inexistent active participle of Biblical Hebrew. For example, using the roots ''d-b-r'' (to say), and the root ''ʔ-l-h'' (to swear), the phrase ''dībbirū'' ''ʔūlo,'' meaning they said (swearing) is most accurately translated as "they said by swearing" or "they promised."  
In the case where an infinitive is paired with a verb of a different root (though sometimes the same to emphasize its meaning), an English translation requires some sort of circumstantial clause, or the preposition "by" to define more exactly the manner in which the action is performed. This use supplants the now inexistent active participle of Biblical Hebrew. For example, using the roots ''d-b-r'' (to say), and the root ''ʔ-l-h'' (to swear), the phrase ''dībbirū'' ''ʔūlo,'' meaning they said (swearing) is most accurately translated as "they said by swearing" or "they promised."  
 
In the case of an infinitive acting as a circumstantial clause, various prepositions will clarify the time when, after, before, until, or during. 


Interestingly, Biblical Hebrew used the infinitive of the verb ''h-l-k'' to show continuous action. This infinitive grammaticalized as the prefix ''lū'' on the also archaic waw-consecutive of the Biblical suffix conjugation, forming the Balearic present tense. Here is an example of the semantic evolution of this construction:  
Interestingly, Biblical Hebrew used the infinitive of the verb ''h-l-k'' to show continuous action. This infinitive grammaticalized as the prefix ''lū'' on the also archaic waw-consecutive of the Biblical suffix conjugation, forming the Balearic present tense. Here is an example of the semantic evolution of this construction:  
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[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
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