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==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
=== | In the Balog's own grammatical tradition, three parts of speech are recognised: | ||
There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each | |||
* '''''Xam''''' "meat" | |||
* '''''Mološ''''' "sauce" | |||
* '''''Tlaz''''' "spice" | |||
According to grammatical descriptions of Balog in Balog, '''''xam''''' or "meat words" are those that are integral to the meaning of a sentence. These are the content words or ''contentives''. '''''Mološ''''' or "sauce words" glue the meat words together and form grammatically correct sentences. These are termed 'linkers'. '''''Tlaz''''' or "spice words" provide finer shades of meaning and bring greater context and clarity to the whole utterance, although it is often possible to omit them. These are called 'particles' in English. | |||
===Contentives (''Xam'')=== | |||
There is only one class of content word in Balog. These form the equivalent of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns in other languages. Words of this lexical category cannot be sorted into separate discrete classes of nouns, verbs etc. using syntax or morphology. With few exceptions, each contentive exhibits complete bidirectional subject-predicate flexibility, meaning they can be used in predicates ("verbally") or be preceded by a subject clitic in order to be used ("nominally") as the subject of a clause without any irregular changes in form or meaning. This class of words in Balog is refered to as "contentives". | |||
This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right. | This situation can distinguished from the extensive zero-derivation, such as that employed by English, whereby verbs and nouns can, with a fair degree of flexibility, change category. Zero derivation results in identical verbs and nouns whose meanings relate to one another in somewhat unpredictable ways. For instance, although, by definition, a '''spy''' ''spies'' and a '''stray''' ''strays'', it cannot be said that, by definition, a '''fish''' ''fishes'' or '''burger''' ''burgers''. A '''tree''' ''grows'', but there is nothing called a '''grow''' that can be said to ''tree''. The verbal and nominal meanings formed by zero-derivation must therefore be regarded as separate (although related) lexical entities in their own right. | ||
By contrast, the meaning of Balog | By contrast, the meaning of Balog contentives does not change depending on their syntactic position within a clause. Each contentive may be given a nominal or a verbal translation into English, but the relationship between them is consistent. If given a nominal translation, then the verbal translation is simply "be [noun]". If given a verbal translation, the nominal translation is simply the agent noun of it or, more specifically, "entity that [verbs]s", "one who [verbs]", "that which [verbs]", "those that [verb]" etc. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Balog | ! Balog Contentive!! Verbal Translation !! Nominal Translation | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree | | '''dauz''' || be a tree || tree | ||
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|} | |} | ||
It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the | It could be argued that a non-syntactic division of the category of verbs into classes of true verbs, nouns, adjectives etc., could be made on the basis of semantics. For example, semanticists may argue that the contentive '''magaz''' (fall over) is semantically a ''verb'' as it describes "an action/state", whereas the contentive '''dauz''' (be a tree) is semantically a ''noun'' because it describes "an entity". This semantic approach to the creation of additional categories that are not supported by syntactic analysis will, however, inevitably cause disagreements as semantic categories have fuzzy edges. A contentive such as '''lisim''' could equally well regarded as a noun meaning "(an) annoyance" or "nuisance" or as a verb meaning "annoy" or "bother". The question as to whether ''lisim'' refers to an entity or to an action/state can be answered with "Both!" '''Lisim''' refers to the action and the agent of that action. Likewise, the contentive '''vaŋ''' could be argued to be a true verb meaning ''hunt'' (an action) or a noun meaning "hunter" (an entity or that performs the action). Even in more apparently clear-cut cases, although the contentive '''magaz''' "fall over", which patently seems to describe an action, is most conveniently translated into English as a verb, it also describes an ''entity that falls over'' (a "faller-over"). Likewise, the contentive '''dauz''' describes an entity, a "tree", yet it also describes the action/state of '''being a tree'''. Balog simply makes no syntactic or lexical distinction between performing an action or being the agent of such an action. | ||
In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as | In many cases, the difference between what semanticists would regard as verbs or nouns depends on the the intrinsic temporal aspect or ''Aktionsart'' of the word's definition. Words describing relatively long-lasting and static attributes of an entity, such as '''dauz''' "be a tree" or '''ŋaž''' "be tall" are less likely to be perceived by semanticists as verbs and also less likely to be translatable by verbs alone in languages with a noun-verb distinction. Dynamic states or actions involving movement or change, especially transient or momentane descriptions of an entity that the entity may quickly pass through, are more likely to be regarded as intrinsically "verb like" and, when translated into English, may frequently have awkward, clunky nominal translations involving relative clauses headed by "entity that", "one who" or "that which". | ||
The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action "be tree" for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal "growing", occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as "be tree", "be sapling", however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with "be tree", in which changes of state are not in focus. | The following table illustrates the temporal duration of varying attributes of what may be regarded as a single entity, a tree. This entity can be regarded as performing the action "be tree" for a substantial period of time, although, archetypally, it would most likely be described as a tree when fully grown and not yet fallen over. The size of the X's in the table indicates the suitability of the word or similarity to its conceptual archetype. Throughout a tree's life, it undergoes dynamic, changing action/states, some only for a single moment such as germinating or falling over, others, such as flowering may continue for a few weeks or months at a time and recur intermittantly. Other action/states, such as verbal "growing", occur for similar durations of time as more semantically nominal action/states such as "be tree", "be sapling", however these are regarded by semanticists as verbal merely due to the focus of the word on the change of state, contrasting with "be tree", in which changes of state are not in focus. | ||
<pre>Balog | <pre>Balog Verbal | ||
Contentive: Translation: Time:-----------------------------------------------------------------------> | |||
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ | |||
dauz | dauz | be tree | xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx | ||
ŋurad | ŋurad | germinate | X | ||
biyad | biyad | grow: | XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX | ||
zemalik | zemalik | be seedling | XXXXXXXXXXxxx | ||
dauzit | dauzit | be sapling | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxx | ||
ŋaž | ŋaž | be tall | xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX | ||
nax | photosynthesise | X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X | |||
zambilif | zambilif | flower | XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX XXX | ||
magaz | magaz | fall down | X | ||
dišif | dišif | rot | xxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx | ||
däžib | däžib | fallen tree, log| XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxx</pre> | ||
=== | ===Particles=== | ||
Particles modify contentives to give them new shades of meaning. The vast majority of particles are very short words. For example, particles indicating tense and aspect optionally stand before a contentive and give temporal information about it. These are not restricted to use with semantically verbal contentives, nor are they restricted to syntactic positions within a predicate as subject phrases themselves consist of a subject clitic followed by a contentive (phrase). | |||
In the following example, the | In the following example, the continuous particle '''''hi''''' indicates that the action of dying is not spoken about as a completed whole, but, rather, an action seen from the middle, thus "is dying" (or according to context, "was dying" etc.). The past tense particle '''''do''''' appears before '''''garag''''' "be neighbour" to indicate "be one who was a neighbour", thus "former neighbour" in the translation. | ||
: {| | : {| | ||
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| <span style="color:#0000FF">'''hi'''</span> || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''<span style="color:#0000FF">do</span>''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž''' | | <span style="color:#0000FF">'''hi'''</span> || '''zowak''' || '''aqa(ː)-''' || '''<span style="color:#0000FF">do</span>''' || '''garag''' || '''we(ː)-''' || '''ni(ː)-''' || '''ž''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <span style="color:#0000FF">IPFV</span> || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || <span style="color:#0000FF">PST</span> || | | <span style="color:#0000FF">IPFV</span> || die.of.protracted.illness || SPEC(B)- || <span style="color:#0000FF">PST</span> || Garag || ESS- || GEN- || 1S | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="8" | "A <span style="color:#0000FF">former</span> | | colspan="8" | "A <span style="color:#0000FF">former</span> garag of mine <span style="color:#0000FF">is</span> dy<span style="color:#0000FF">ing</span> (of a protracted illness)." | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ===Linkers=== | ||
Linkers are morphemes that attach to the first word of a contentive phrase in order to coordinate them with or subordinate them in some manner into another contentive phrase. Clitic linkers include the archiphoneme /ː/, which lengthens the clitic's vowel when the rest of the clause consists of only a single consonant and otherwise geminates the following consonant. | |||
====Essive==== | ====Essive==== | ||
The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a | The essive or equative clitic '''''we(:)-''''' introduces a contentive phrase that modifies its preceding head in a strict, additive manner. It is frequently translated into English by means of a relative pronoun. | ||
: {| | : {| | ||
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| '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''ŋaž''' | | '''aqa(:) || '''balog''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''ŋaž''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| SPEC | | SPEC.R2 || be.Balog || <span style="color:#0000FF">ESS-</span> || be.tall | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | "a tall Balog" | | colspan="4" | "a tall Balog" | ||
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| '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''šwaŋ''' | | '''i(:) || '''džeb''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''šwaŋ''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| SPEC | | SPEC.R5 || be.slave|| <span style="color:#0000FF">ESS-</span> || execute.PRF.PASS | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | "the slave who has been executed" | | colspan="4" | "the slave who has been executed" | ||
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: {| | : {| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | '''''iddemeg | | colspan="4" | '''''iddemeg weddag''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || ''' | | '''i(:)- || '''demeg''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''dag''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| DEF | | DEF.R5 || be.book || <span style="color:#0000FF">ESS-</span> || be.big | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | "the big book" | | colspan="4" | "the big book" | ||
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| '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''louh''' | | '''eqe(:)- || '''ŋal''' || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''we(:)-'''</span> || '''louh''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| SPEC | | SPEC.R4 || use.leg || <span style="color:#0000FF">ESS-</span> || sleep | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | "a sleepwalker", "a walker who sleeps" | | colspan="4" | "a sleepwalker", "a walker who sleeps" | ||
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====Subject Clitics==== | ====Subject Clitics==== | ||
Subject clitics appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called '' | ''Subject clitics'' or ''subjectifiers'' appear at the beginning of every phrase denoting a grammatical subject. They indicate not only that the following base phrase is the subject of the preceding predicate but also convey information about '''definiteness''' (whether the addressee is expected to know which exact entity), '''specificity''' (whether the speaker knows which exact entity) and an inflectional dimension integral to Balog called ''rank'', described below. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" | ||
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! colspan="2" | Status (Gloss) !! Definite<br>Specific<br>(DEF) !! Indefinite<br>Specific<br>(SPEC)!! Indefinite<br>Non-Specific<br>(NSPC) !! Unrankable<br>Non-Specific | ! colspan="2" | Status (Gloss) !! Definite<br>Specific<br>(DEF) !! Indefinite<br>Specific<br>(SPEC)!! Indefinite<br>Non-Specific<br>(NSPC) !! Unrankable<br>Non-Specific | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=" | ! colspan="6" | <small>Entities</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Powerful" !! (A) | ! "Powerful" !! (A) | ||
| <span style="color:#0000FF">''''' | | <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''uu='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''uquu='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''uhuu='''''</span> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Dominant" !! (B) | ! "Dominant" !! (B) | ||
| <span style="color:#0000FF">''''' | | <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''aa='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''aqaa='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''ahaa='''''</span> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Intermediate" !! (C) | ! "Intermediate" !! (C) | ||
| <span style="color:#0000FF">''''' | | <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''oo='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''oqoo=''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''ohoo='''''</span> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Subordinate" !! (D) | ! "Subordinate" !! (D) | ||
| <span style="color:#0000FF">''''' | | <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''ee='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''eqee='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''ehee='''''</span> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Powerless" !! (E) | ! "Powerless" !! (E) | ||
| <span style="color:#0000FF">''''' | | <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''ii='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''iqii='''''</span> || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''ihii='''''</span> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Unknown, animate" !! (ANIM) | ! "Unknown, animate" !! (ANIM) | ||
| | | — || — || — || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''üü='''''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! "Unknown, inanimate" !! (INAN) | ! "Unknown, inanimate" !! (INAN) | ||
| | | — || — || — || <span style="color:#0000FF">'''''aii='''''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="6" | <small>Propositions</small> | ! colspan="6" | <small>Propositions</small> | ||
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|} | |} | ||
===== | The above table gives the forms as expressed in old prescriptive texts in Balog. In everyday use, however, the usage of what are here termed the specific indefinite forms (with VqVV=) and the non-specific indefinite forms is different. | ||
All referents are assigned a ''' | |||
Due to the fact that non-specific referents are unknown, the ranked non-specific forms with /h/ are nowadays usually replaced by the unknown clitics '''''üü=''''' and '''''aii='''''. Formerly, the ranked forms were used in order to set the rank of an unknown entity so that it may be discussed in following sentences, however, this distinction is no longer maintained and unknown entities, unless their rank is clear from the context, are left unranked and referred to using '''''üü=''''' and '''''aii='''''. The distinction between the VqVV= forms and VhVV= forms has thus effectively been neutralised. The non-specific subject clitics of the form VhVV= are nowadays chiefly used as allomorphs of the specific indefinite subject clitics with the form VqVV=, being more frequently used in environments near another instance of /ʔ/. For example, '''''luq eqeggitsag''''' 'a Balog's assistant is present' may also be pronounced as '''''luq eheggitsag''''' with no change in meaning. When speaking of the desire of a non-specific non-Balog man's presence, the unknown animate subject clitic will be used: '''''he luq üggitsag''''' 'May a Balog's assistant be present.' Some speakers have a preference for the VhVV= forms and others for the VqVV= forms. A few speakers still abide by the old prescriptive norms, distinguishing specific from non-specific from unrankable unknown entities. | |||
Furthermore, the definite forms (VV=) are frequently used even for specific indefinite referents, with the indefinite forms (VqVV= and VhVV=) being more emphatically indefinite, representing a marked indication to the listener that they are not expected to know the identity of the referent. When speaking to higher ranked individuals, failure to use the indefinite forms when needed is seen as an affront to the hierarchy of respect as it effectively eliminates any indication of the listener's knowledge of the situation. | |||
=====Rank===== | |||
All known referents are assigned a '''rank''' any time they are appear as the subject of a clause. Rank is not a permanent attribute of a referent but rather a context-dependent assignment within a discourse that depends on the speaker's perceived and expressed relations between the referent and other referents. When a single referent is mentioned, the rank used depends only on the speaker's perception of the referent, however when there are two or more referents, ranks may be assigned that would otherwise not be used in order to differentiate between multiple referents within a discourse in order to show a hierarchy. Rank is the chief means of anaphoric reference and even person and number marking proforms such as '''''ž''''' 'I' and '''''l''''' 'you' (singular) are frequently dropped once they have been assigned a rank. | |||
A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of | A useful way to conceptualise the typical assignment of rank is to use the question "Who would win in a physical fight?" as the deciding metric. Physically larger, stronger and more active referents are ranked higher than smaller, weaker referents. In some contexts, height alone has been agreed upon as the way to assign ranks. The highest rank, glossed R1, the "powerful" rank, indicated with the vowel '''u''', is a slight exception, frequently assigned to those who do not necessarily have physical strength but rather social, financial or political power. A referent marked with '''u''' is not necessarily physically dominant over other referents, but a conflict with an individual could lead to more significant consequences for referents of lower status than the physical prowess of the R1-ranked referent alone would afford them. "Weighty" or "untouchable" abstract concepts may sometimes be referred to with the U-status when there is no person in the discourse assigned to this rank. This is common with a few contentives such as '''''guwax''''' 'sun' and '''''tot''''' 'time'. | ||
====== | ======Proforms====== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;" style="vertical-align: top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;" style="vertical-align: top;" | ||
|- style="font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;" style="vertical-align: top;" | |- style="font-style:normal; font-weight:normal;" style="vertical-align: top;" |
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