Cumbraek: Difference between revisions

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* Aspiration: ''i h'ewidir'' "her uncle", ''an h'oungorn'' "our unicorn".  
* Aspiration: ''i h'ewidir'' "her uncle", ''an h'oungorn'' "our unicorn".  


For brevity, words routinely causing mutations will be marked with superscript letters in this article: <sup>L</sup> for lenition, <sup>S</sup> for spirantisation, <sup>N</sup> for nasalisation and <sup>H</sup> for aspiration.
For brevity, words routinely causing mutations will be marked with superscript letters in this article: <sup><small>L</small></sup> for lenition, <sup><small>S</small></sup> for spirantisation, <sup><small>N</small></sup> for nasalisation and <sup><small>H</small></sup> for aspiration.


===Vowel Mutations===
===Vowel Mutations===
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* the genitive of possession is shown by placing the genitive noun after the thing possessed (e.g. ''ti Neven'' 'Neven's house', ''gwrek mu tat'' 'my father's wife')
* the genitive of possession is shown by placing the genitive noun after the thing possessed (e.g. ''ti Neven'' 'Neven's house', ''gwrek mu tat'' 'my father's wife')
* some intransitive verbs such as ''devot'' 'come' and ''munet'' 'go' permit the indirect object to behave as if it were the direct object of a transitive verb, allowing the preposition to be dropped (e.g. compare ''mi carav Yowann'' 'I love John' with ''mi av Lounnen'' 'I am going (to) London').  
* some intransitive verbs such as ''devot'' 'come' and ''munet'' 'go' permit the indirect object to behave as if it were the direct object of a transitive verb, allowing the preposition to be dropped (e.g. compare ''mi carav Yowann'' 'I love John' with ''mi av Lounnen'' 'I am going (to) London').  
* nouns in the vocative are preceded by the particle ''a''<sup>L</sup> (e.g. ''a Vathow!'' 'Matthew!'). This particle may be dropped in speech, particularly before a vowel, but lenition is always retained (e.g. ''oucher da, Vathow'' 'good evening, Matthew').
* nouns in the vocative are preceded by the particle ''a''<sup><small>L</small></sup> (e.g. ''a Vathow!'' 'Matthew!'). This particle may be dropped in speech, particularly before a vowel, but lenition is always retained (e.g. ''oucher da, Vathow'' 'good evening, Matthew').


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives follow the noun they qualify and must agree in gender and number with that noun.  
Most adjectives follow the noun they qualify and must agree in gender and number with that noun.  


A few adjectives are regularly preposed, notably ''hen''<sup>L</sup> "old" and ''penn''<sup>L</sup> "chief, head". These adjectives always cause lenition to a following noun (e.g. ''hen wur'' "old man").
A few adjectives are regularly preposed, notably ''hen''<sup><small>L</small></sup> "old" and ''penn''<sup><small>L</small></sup> "chief, head". These adjectives always cause lenition to a following noun (e.g. ''hen wur'' "old man").


Adjectives following feminine singular nouns undergo lentition (e.g. ''gwrek voar'' 'large woman'). Monosyllables containing either ''i'' or ''u'' as their main vowel also undergo [[Cumbraek#Vowel Mutations|Feminisation]], i.e. the change of ''i'' → ''e'' and ''u'' → ''o'' (e.g. ''ci gwinn, cath wenn'' "white dog, white cat", ''gur druk, gwrek dhrok'' "bad man, bad woman'"). Certain adjectives with ''i'' resist this change, e.g. ''gwir'' "true", ''dir'' "certain", ''hir'' "long", ''trist'' "sad".
Adjectives following feminine singular nouns undergo lentition (e.g. ''gwrek voar'' 'large woman'). Monosyllables containing either ''i'' or ''u'' as their main vowel also undergo [[Cumbraek#Vowel Mutations|Feminisation]], i.e. the change of ''i'' → ''e'' and ''u'' → ''o'' (e.g. ''ci gwinn, cath wenn'' "white dog, white cat", ''gur druk, gwrek dhrok'' "bad man, bad woman'"). Certain adjectives with ''i'' resist this change, e.g. ''gwir'' "true", ''dir'' "certain", ''hir'' "long", ''trist'' "sad".
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====Comparison====
====Comparison====
The '''equative''' is formed with the adverb ''cen''<sup>L</sup> "as" + the positive adjective (e.g. ''cen winn ag err'' "as white as snow").
The '''equative''' is formed with the adverb ''cen''<sup><small>L</small></sup> "as" + the positive adjective (e.g. ''cen winn ag err'' "as white as snow").


The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''-ach'' "-er" to the positive adjective, and the '''superlative''' takes ''-hav'' "-est" (e.g. ''gwinnach'' "whiter", ''gwinnhav'' "whitest", ''caledach'' "harder", ''calettav'' "hardest").  
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''-ach'' "-er" to the positive adjective, and the '''superlative''' takes ''-hav'' "-est" (e.g. ''gwinnach'' "whiter", ''gwinnhav'' "whitest", ''caledach'' "harder", ''calettav'' "hardest").  
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| ''mi''
| ''mi''
| ''-m''
| ''-m''
| ''mu(n)<sup><small>N</small></sup>
| ''mu(n)<sup><small><small>N</small></small></sup>
| '''m''<sup><small>N</small></sup>
| '''m''<sup><small><small>N</small></small></sup>
|-
|-
! style="" |2sg
! style="" |2sg
| ''ti''
| ''ti''
| ''-th''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''-th''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup>
| ''de''<sup><small>L</small></sup> (''je''<sup><small>L</small></sup>)
| ''de''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup> (''je''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup>)
| '''th''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| '''th''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup>
|-
|-
! style="" |3sg m.
! style="" |3sg m.
| ''ev''
| ''ev''
| ''-y''<sup><small>H</small></sup>
| ''-y''<sup><small><small>H</small></small></sup>
| ''i''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''i''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup>
| '''y''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| '''y''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup>
|-
|-
! style="" |3sg f.
! style="" |3sg f.
| ''hi''
| ''hi''
| ''-s''<sup><small>H</small></sup>
| ''-s''<sup><small><small>H</small></small></sup>
| ''i''<sup><small>SH</small></sup>
| ''i''<sup><small><small>SH</small></small></sup>
| '''y''<sup><small>SH</small></sup>
| '''y''<sup><small><small>SH</small></small></sup>
|-
|-
! style="" |1pl
! style="" |1pl
| ''ni''
| ''ni''
| ''-n''<sup><small>H</small></sup>
| ''-n''<sup><small><small>H</small></small></sup>
| ''an''<sup><small>H</small></sup>
| ''an''<sup><small><small>H</small></small></sup>
|
|
|-
|-
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! style="" |3pl
! style="" |3pl
| ''oo''
| ''oo''
| ''-s''<sup><small>H</small></sup>
| ''-s''<sup><small><small>H</small></small></sup>
| ''ow''<sup><small>NH</small></sup>
| ''ow''<sup><small><small>NH</small></small></sup>
|
|
|}
|}
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| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + ''a'' + verb / + copula
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + ''a'' + verb / + copula
|-
|-
| ''pe''<sup>L</sup>
| ''pe''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| style="text-align:left;" | adjective
| style="text-align:left;" | adjective
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + noun  
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + noun  
|-
|-
! who
! who
| ''puw''<sup>L</sup>  
| ''puw''<sup><small>L</small></sup>  
|
|
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + ''a'' + verb / + copula
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + ''a'' + verb / + copula
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|-
|-
! how many
! how many
| ''pet''<sup>L</sup>  
| ''pet''<sup><small>L</small></sup>  
|
|
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + singular noun
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + singular noun
|-
|-
! where
! where
| ''cu''<sup>S</sup>, ''cud''
| ''cu''<sup><small>S</small></sup>, ''cud''
|
|
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + verb
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + verb
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| ''pe vent''  
| ''pe vent''  
|
|
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + ''e(dh)'' + verb / ''o<sup>L</sup> + noun
| style="width: 200px; text-align:left; " | + ''e(dh)'' + verb / ''o<sup><small>L</small></sup> + noun
|}
|}


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| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ema govnok warnav ey prenidh'' 'I hope that you buy it'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ema govnok warnav ey prenidh'' 'I hope that you buy it'
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | ''a''<small><sup>L</sup></small>
! rowspan="3" | ''a''<small><sup><small>L</small></sup></small>
| style="text-align:left;" | the relative pronoun when the subject or object is antecedent
| style="text-align:left;" | the relative pronoun when the subject or object is antecedent
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Er din a garav'' 'The man whom I love'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Er din a garav'' 'The man whom I love'
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| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ei ath gar'' ''''I''' love you'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ei ath gar'' ''''I''' love you'
|-
|-
! ''ru''<small><sup>SL</sup></small>
! ''ru''<small><sup><small>SL</small></sup></small>
| style="text-align:left;" | used before the preterite to form the perfect tense:
| style="text-align:left;" | used before the preterite to form the perfect tense:
* at the start of a sentence (spirantising)
* at the start of a sentence (spirantising)
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| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ru chuskus-ev er didh oll'' 'He has slept all day' <br> ''Er prit r'edes en newidh'' 'The meal which I have just eaten'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ru chuskus-ev er didh oll'' 'He has slept all day' <br> ''Er prit r'edes en newidh'' 'The meal which I have just eaten'
|-
|-
! ''nuw''<sup><small>S</small></sup>
! ''nuw''<sup><small><small>S</small></small></sup>
| style="text-align:left;" | affirmative, somewhat emphatic particle
| style="text-align:left;" | affirmative, somewhat emphatic particle
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Nuw adwoynav de dat'' 'Indeed, I know your father'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Nuw adwoynav de dat'' 'Indeed, I know your father'
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! colspan="3" | Negative
! colspan="3" | Negative
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | ''ne''<sup><small>SL</small></sup> <br> ''ned''
! rowspan="2" | ''ne''<sup><small><small>SL</small></small></sup> <br> ''ned''
| style="text-align:left;" | used at the start of a sentence (spirantising)
| style="text-align:left;" | used at the start of a sentence (spirantising)
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ne chassa Yowann Maylok'' 'John doesn't hate Maylok'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ne chassa Yowann Maylok'' 'John doesn't hate Maylok'
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| style="text-align:left;" | ''Er ti ne leskis du'r loar'' 'The house that did not burn down'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Er ti ne leskis du'r loar'' 'The house that did not burn down'
|-
|-
! ''na''<sup><small>S</small></sup>  
! ''na''<sup><small><small>S</small></small></sup>  
| style="text-align:left;" | used before subordinate clauses
| style="text-align:left;" | used before subordinate clauses
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Mi medhulyav ne do'' 'I think he won't come'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Mi medhulyav ne do'' 'I think he won't come'
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | ''na''<small><sup>S</sup></small>
! rowspan="2" | ''na''<small><sup><small>S</small></sup></small>
| style="text-align:left;" | used in replies
| style="text-align:left;" | used in replies
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Am ceridh? Na charav'' 'Do you love me? No'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Am ceridh? Na charav'' 'Do you love me? No'
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! colspan="3" | Interrogative
! colspan="3" | Interrogative
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | a<sup><small>L</small></sup>
! rowspan="2" | a<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup>
| style="text-align:left;" | used at the start of a direct question
| style="text-align:left;" | used at the start of a direct question
| style="text-align:left;" | ''A dhowidh amm Dhiw Gwener?'' 'Are you coming on Friday?'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''A dhowidh amm Dhiw Gwener?'' 'Are you coming on Friday?'
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| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ay Frankek a lavrant?'' 'Is is French that they speak?'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Ay Frankek a lavrant?'' 'Is is French that they speak?'
|-
|-
! ''pane''<small><sup>S</sup></small> <br> ''paned''
! ''pane''<small><sup><small>S</small></sup></small> <br> ''paned''
| style="text-align:left;" | introduces a direct or indirect question expecting an affirmative answer
| style="text-align:left;" | introduces a direct or indirect question expecting an affirmative answer
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Panem credidh?'' 'Don't you believe me?'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Panem credidh?'' 'Don't you believe me?'
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| ''amm'gerchin''
| ''amm'gerchin''
| around
| around
| ''amm''<sup>L</sup>
| ''amm''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''cerchin''
| ''cerchin''
|-
|-
| ''du'bant''
| ''du'bant''
| down
| down
| rowspan="3;" | ''du''<sup>L</sup>
| rowspan="3;" | ''du''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''pant''
| ''pant''
|-
|-
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| ''erbinn''
| ''erbinn''
| against
| against
| ''ar''<sup>L</sup>
| ''ar''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''penn''
| ''penn''
|-
|-
| ''im'medhun''
| ''im'medhun''
| inside, within
| inside, within
| rowspan="6;" | ''in''<sup>N</sup>
| rowspan="6;" | ''in''<sup><small>N</small></sup>
| ''medhun''
| ''medhun''
|-
|-
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| ''o'benn''
| ''o'benn''
| from against
| from against
| rowspan="4;" | ''o''<sup>L</sup>
| rowspan="4;" | ''o''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''penn''
| ''penn''
|-
|-
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| ''tra'chevin''
| ''tra'chevin''
| behind
| behind
| ''tra''<sup>S</sup>
| ''tra''<sup><small>S</small></sup>
| ''cevin''
| ''cevin''
|-
|-
| ''war'benn''
| ''war'benn''
| on top of
| on top of
| rowspan="2;" | ''war''<sup>L</sup>
| rowspan="2;" | ''war''<sup><small>L</small></sup>
| ''penn''
| ''penn''
|-
|-
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* ''Rus celas-ev'' <br /> "He has hidden her"
* ''Rus celas-ev'' <br /> "He has hidden her"


Simple sentences are negated with the preverbal particle ''ne''<sup>S</sup> (''n''' before vowels, ''ned'' before vowel-initial forms of ''bot'' and ''munet'').
Simple sentences are negated with the preverbal particle ''ne''<sup><small>S</small></sup> (''n''' before vowels, ''ned'' before vowel-initial forms of ''bot'' and ''munet'').
* ''Ned oov ri Alban'' <br /> "I am not the king of Scotland"
* ''Ned oov ri Alban'' <br /> "I am not the king of Scotland"
* ''Neth gar-hi'' <br /> "She doesn't love you"
* ''Neth gar-hi'' <br /> "She doesn't love you"
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====Coordinate Sentences====
====Coordinate Sentences====
Coordinate sentences consist of two or more simple sentences joined with ''a''<sup><small>S</small></sup> "and" (''ag'' before vowels), ''no'''<sup><small>L</small></sup> "or", or ''eythir'' "but".
Coordinate sentences consist of two or more simple sentences joined with ''a''<sup><small><small>S</small></small></sup> "and" (''ag'' before vowels), ''no'''<sup><small><small>L</small></small></sup> "or", or ''eythir'' "but".
* ''Car Pedir Neven ag es gwil pownidh'' <br /> "Peter loves Neven and he sees her every day"
* ''Car Pedir Neven ag es gwil pownidh'' <br /> "Peter loves Neven and he sees her every day"
* ''Hi sellas truw er fenestir eythir ne welas nebot'' <br /> "She looked through the window but didn't see anything"
* ''Hi sellas truw er fenestir eythir ne welas nebot'' <br /> "She looked through the window but didn't see anything"

Revision as of 15:39, 14 July 2016


Cumbraek
Cumbraek
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|kʌmˈbɾæːk]]
Created by
Native toEngland, Scotland
Early form

Cumbraek is a modern reconstruction of the lost medieval language of Cumbric, a Brythonic Celtic tongue once spoken in parts of southern Scotland and northern England.

Phonology and Orthography

Consonants

The consonant inventory for Cumbrek is as follows:

Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal      m      n      ŋ
Plosive p    b t̪    d̪ k    g
Fricative f    v θ    ð s      ʃ      x      h     
Affricate t͡ʃ    d͡ʒ
Approximant ʍ    w j
Trill      r
Flap or tap      ɾ
Lateral app.      l      ɫ

Vowels & Diphthongs

Cumbrek can be described as having three groups of vowel sounds:

  1. the variant vowels, which have long and short forms
  2. the long vowels, which arose historically from vowel sequences
  3. the diphthongs

The variant and long vowels are represented by the following inventory:

Front Central Back
Close iː           ʉ(ː)      u(ː)
Near-close ɪ             ʊ
Close-mid eː           oː
Mid ə
Open-mid ɛ      ʌ    ɔ(ː)
Near-open
Open a(ː)     

All of Cumbrek's true diphthongs are falling and consist of a vowel + either /i̯/ or /u̯/.

+ i̯ + u̯
Near-close ɪu̯
Mid əi̯
Open-mid ɛi̯    ɔi̯ ɛu̯    ɔu̯
Open au̯

Variant Vowels

Variant vowels may be long or short according to their environment. In most cases, except /a(ː)/, the short forms are more open than their long counterpart, much as in English. Both long and short sounds are represented by the same graph(s) (a, e, i, o, oo, ou or u) and vowel length must be determined by environment:

  • Long vowels occur only in monosyllables where the syllable ends in a single consonant or no consonant (-VC, -V), e.g. da /daː/, tek /teːk/.
  • Short vowels occur in all polysyllables; in monosyllables ending in more than one consonant (-VCC(C)) and in proclitics, e.g. gware /gwarɛ/, darn /daɾn/, in (proclitic) /ɪn/.

Additionally, the vowel written u has a third variant form /ʌ/, which occurs in non-final syllables of polysyllablic words and in proclitics, e.g. Cumbrek /kʌmbrek/, du (proclitic) /dʌ/. In other short environments, the sound is /ʊ/, e.g. cumm /kʊm/, parun /paɾʊn/.

Note that the digraphs th, dh and ch are considered to be single letters, so monosyllables ending with these sounds have long vowels, e.g. cath /kaːθ/.

Long Vowels

The long vowels /aː/, /eː/ and /oː/ are always long and derive from the merger of earlier vowel sequences. Where the sequences ae, ee, oe occur in word-final position they take the primary stress.

Long /ɔː/, which is sometimes realised as [oa], is usually only permitted to occur in monosyllables and is replaced by /ɔ/ in other environments (e.g. skoat "shadow" /skɔːt/, skodyon "shadows" /skɔdjon/).

Orthography

Cumbraek is written with the Latin alphabet and uses the following letters.

a b c/k ch d dh e f g h i j l m n o p r s t th u v w y

The table below shows the correspondences between letters and pronounciation.

Graph IPA Comments
Consonants
b /b/
c, k /k/ c occurs word initially and in the digraph ck, k occurs everywhere else
/g/ word-finally, before a voiced sound in the next word
ch /x/
d /d/
dh /ð/
f /f/
g /g/
h /h/ word-initially
Ø between vowels
j /d͡ʒ/
l /l/
m /m/
n /n/
p /p/ in most environments
/b/ word-finally, before a voiced initial
r /ɾ/
rr /r/
s /s/ generally written <ss> between vowels
t /t/ in most environments
/d/ word finally, before a voiced initial
v /v/ v is a weak consonant, liable to be lost in final position unless a vowel initial follows
w /w/
y /j/ before vowels
Consonant Combinations
hw /ʍ/
ll /ɫ(ː)/ geminated between vowels when following the stress
lht [l̩t] l is devoiced before ht
ng /ŋ(ː)/ geminated between vowels when following the stress
nng, ngg /ŋg/
rr /r(ː)/ geminated between vowels when following the stress
rht [r̩t] r is devoiced before ht
sh /ʃ/
tsh /t͡ʃ/ mostly borrowed words
Variant Vowels
a /aː/ long
/a/ short
e /eː/ long
/ɛ/ short
i /iː/ long
/ɪ/ short
o /oː/ long
/ɔ/ short
oo /uː/ long
/ʊ/ short
ou /ʉː/ long
/ʉ/ short
u /uː/ long
/ʊ/ short, in monosyllables & word-final syllables
/ʌ/ in non-final syllables and proclitics
y /ɪ/ in word-final, unstressed syllables only
Long Vowels
ae /aː/ takes stress in final syllables
ay /aː/
ee /eː/ takes stress in final syllables
oa /ɔː/
oe /oː/ takes stress in final syllables
uw /uː/
Diphthongs
ai /əɨ̯/
aw /au̯/
ei /ɛɨ̯/ takes stress in final syllables
ey /ɛɨ̯/
ew /ɛu̯/
iw /ɪu̯/
oy /ɔɨ̯/
ow /ɔu̯/


Diacritics

Cumbraek makes occasional use of three diacritics:

  • the acute accent is used to show an unexpected long vowel (e.g. bónt 'they may be'); when it occurs in the final syllable, it also marks stress (e.g. cantín 'canteen')
  • the grave accent is used to show an unexpected stressed syllable (e.g. gràvity 'gravity'); it is also used to mark a short vowel in monosyllables (e.g. bùs 'bus')
  • the trema is used to mark diaeresis and is place on the second vowel of a sequence (e.g. troäv 'I turn', troöun 'I was turning')

Sound Changes

Consonant Mutations

As with all modern Celtic languages, Cumbraek makes extensive use of initial consonant mutations to help signal grammatical and syntactic information. Cumbraek has three main mutations: lenition (mootthei), spirantisation (anadhlolhei) and nasalisation (troonolhei). There is a fourth type of mutation called aspiration (anadhleth) in which word-initial vowels take an h'- before them.

The changes caused by the mutations are summarised in the following table.

Radical Lenition Spirantisation Nasalisation
p b f
t d th
c g ch
b v m
d dh n
g h / w / - ng
gw w (w) nw
j ny
m v

Lenited g disappears before a consonant, becomes w before words in go-, gu-, goo- and becomes h- before other vowels, e.g. gre "flock" → i re "his flock", gur "man, husband" → i wur "his husband", geryadour "dictionary" → i heryadour "his dictionary".

Examples:

  • Lenition: i benn "his head", de dat "your dad", i gi "his dog", er vanon "the lady", du Dhin Edin "to Edinburgh", war hat "on a road", i wrek "his wife", a vamm! "mum!".
  • Spirantisation: i fenn "her head", tri that "three dads", teyr chath "three cats".
  • Nasalisation: naw manon "nine ladies", in Nin Edin "in Edinburgh", mung ngat "my road"
  • Aspiration: i h'ewidir "her uncle", an h'oungorn "our unicorn".

For brevity, words routinely causing mutations will be marked with superscript letters in this article: L for lenition, S for spirantisation, N for nasalisation and H for aspiration.

Vowel Mutations

Cumbraek also has two vowel mutations, which occur regularly. Feminisation is generally restricted to adjectives and causes an i to become e and a u to become o. Alternation is common in the formation of plurals and in certain verb forms, and causes the following changes:

Radical Alternate
a e
e i
o
ae ei / ie
ay ey
oy oo
a...a e...e
a...e e...i
a...o
o...o
a...u

In some cases, these changes work backwards (e.g. gwrek 'woman' has the plural form gwragedh).

Vowel Affection

I-affection and Y-affection are changes caused when a syllable containing either <i> or <y> is added to a word. I-affection causes the following changes to sounds in the original final syllable: a → e, ae → ie, ay → ey and o → e. Y-affection causes only the changes a → e and ay → ey.

Grammar

Articles

There is no indefinite article in Cumbraek, the noun alone is indefinite (e.g. gur 'man, a man', gwrek 'woman, a woman').

The definite article is er, sometimes reduced to 'r after a preposition ending in a vowel or after the locative verb ema (e.g. er gur 'the man', du'r egloos 'to the church').

The definite article causes lenition to feminine nouns (e.g. er wrek 'the woman').

Nouns

Nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender. Grammatical gender is an inherent fact of the noun and cannot always be deduced from the form or meaning of the word. Colloquially, nouns referring to persons sometimes alter their grammatical gender to reflect the natural gender of the person, for example the masculine noun er postidh "the postman, postal worker" could be rendered as er bostidh to mean "the postwoman".

Plurals may be formed in one of several ways:

  • by adding an ending, most commonly -ow, -yow, -yon, -on, -edh, -ot (e.g. cadow 'battles', dinyon 'people, men', cathot 'cats')
  • by alternation (e.g. bran 'raven' → bren, oyn 'lamb' → oon)
  • by adding an ending plus alternation (e.g. gwrek 'woman' → gwragedh, map 'boy, son' → mebyon)
  • irregularly (e.g. ci 'dog' → cun, didh 'day' → diow, ti 'house' → tei, hwair 'sister' → hwioredh, broadur 'brother' → brodir)

A number of words, including many plant and tree names and many animals, have a base form with a collective meaning to which the singulative endings -inn (masc.) or -enn (fem.) are added (e.g. deriw 'oak trees' → derwenn 'oak tree', moch 'pigs' → mochinn 'a pig').

Nouns are not formally marked for case, but the following observations may be noted:

  • the genitive of possession is shown by placing the genitive noun after the thing possessed (e.g. ti Neven 'Neven's house', gwrek mu tat 'my father's wife')
  • some intransitive verbs such as devot 'come' and munet 'go' permit the indirect object to behave as if it were the direct object of a transitive verb, allowing the preposition to be dropped (e.g. compare mi carav Yowann 'I love John' with mi av Lounnen 'I am going (to) London').
  • nouns in the vocative are preceded by the particle aL (e.g. a Vathow! 'Matthew!'). This particle may be dropped in speech, particularly before a vowel, but lenition is always retained (e.g. oucher da, Vathow 'good evening, Matthew').

Adjectives

Most adjectives follow the noun they qualify and must agree in gender and number with that noun.

A few adjectives are regularly preposed, notably henL "old" and pennL "chief, head". These adjectives always cause lenition to a following noun (e.g. hen wur "old man").

Adjectives following feminine singular nouns undergo lentition (e.g. gwrek voar 'large woman'). Monosyllables containing either i or u as their main vowel also undergo Feminisation, i.e. the change of ie and uo (e.g. ci gwinn, cath wenn "white dog, white cat", gur druk, gwrek dhrok "bad man, bad woman'"). Certain adjectives with i resist this change, e.g. gwir "true", dir "certain", hir "long", trist "sad".

A few adjectives retain old plural forms, used following a plural noun. These are bechan "small" pl. bechen, yowank "young" pl. yowenk and maruw "dead" pl. meriw.

An exclamative adjective can be formed by adding -het to the positive (e.g. gwinnhet "how white!, so white!", glanhet "how clean!, so clean!"). The adverb mar "how, so" can also be used with longer adjectives to produce an exclamative (e.g. mar dhiwedhar "so late").

Comparison

The equative is formed with the adverb cenL "as" + the positive adjective (e.g. cen winn ag err "as white as snow").

The comparative adjective is formed by adding -ach "-er" to the positive adjective, and the superlative takes -hav "-est" (e.g. gwinnach "whiter", gwinnhav "whitest", caledach "harder", calettav "hardest").

The following adjectives are compared irregularly:

Positive Equative Comparative Superlative
near agos cen agos nes nessav
small bechan cen vechan le lehav
good da custadhul gwell gorow
bad druk cunruk goeth goetthav
old hen cen hen hin hinhav
large moar cumment moy moyhav
young yowank cen yowank yow yohwav

Pronouns

Personal

Subject Object Possessive Infixed
1sg. mi -m mu(n)N 'mN
2sg ti -thL deL (jeL) 'thL
3sg m. ev -yH iL 'yL
3sg f. hi -sH iSH 'ySH
1pl ni -nH anH
2pl hwi -ch ach
3pl oo -sH owNH


The subject pronouns are used:

  • optionally before a personal verb to express the subject (e.g. mi carav 'I love')
  • as auxiliary pronouns, added to the end of a verb by a hyphen for clarity (e.g. eth welas-ev 'he saw you')
  • as auxiliary pronouns, in conjunction with possessive adjectives (e.g. i nen-hi 'her grandmother')
  • independently following prepositions and conjunctions (e.g. mi a thi 'me and you')
  • as the object of an imperative verb (e.g. ladh oo 'kill them')

The object pronouns indicate the direct object of the verb and must be attached to a preverbal particle (e.g. eth garav 'I love you').

The possessive pronouns are used:

  • as possessive adjectives, before the noun they qualify (e.g. i thi 'her house', ow nwely 'their bed')
  • as the object of a verb noun (e.g. de welet 'seeing you', i gano 'singing it')
  • with -houn to produce reflexive pronouns (e.g. mu-houn 'myself', an-houn 'ourselves')

NB: mu is used before a consonant and mun before a vowel. The form je is a colloquial spelling of de, representing a more general pronunciation.

The infixed pronouns are contracted forms of the possessive pronouns used following prepositions and conjunctions ending a vowel (e.g. a'm tat 'and my father', o'y wlat 'from his country').

Possessive pronouns proper only exist in the first and second person singular: mow 'mine' and tow 'your'. The so-called 'genitive particle' now is used with the subject pronouns to produce possessive pronouns in the other persons (e.g. now-hi 'hers', now-ni 'ours').

Demonstrative

The demonstrative pronouns display a three-way distinction, with hunn referring to objects close at hand, hunnedh referring to objects out of sight or abstract and hunnunt referring to objects in sight but distant. Each of these has masculine, feminine and plural forms.

Masc. Fem. Plural
this hunn honn hinn
that hunnedh honnedh hinnedh
that yonder hunnunt honnunt hinnunt

The hunn and hunnedh forms may be used as demonstrative adjectives following a definite noun (e.g. er gur hunn 'this man', er cestill hinnedh 'that castle'). Hunnunt is replaced by hunt 'yonder' in this function, which does not change for gender or number (e.g. er wragedh hunt 'those women').

Interrogative

what peth
pebeth
pronouns + a + verb / + copula
peL adjective + noun
who puwL + a + verb / + copula
which one(s) p'oun singular + a + verb / + copula
p're plural + a + verb / + copula
how many petL + singular noun
where cuS, cud + verb
when p'oar + e(dh) + verb
how pe dhel' + e(dh) + verb
why per + verb
how much pe vent + e(dh) + verb / oL + noun

Verbs

Verbs are conjugated for person, number, tense/aspect, and mood. Regular verbs have 4 simple tenses in the Indicative (i.e. Present, Imperfect, Preterite, Pluperfect) plus an Imperative mood. The irregular verb bot "be" also has a conjugated Future Indicative and a Subjunctive Present and Past. Bot may be used as an auxiliary to form Present and Past Continuous tenses and, less commonly, Future and Subjunctive Past tenses for regular verbs.

Regular Verbs

The conjugation of regular verbs follows the pattern of caro (stem: car-) "love":

Indicative Imperative
Present Imperfect Preterite Pluperfect
1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl
Imp
carav
ceridh*
car
caren
caret
carant
cerir*
carun
carout
care
carem
carewch
carent
cerit*
ceres*
cerest*
caras
carsam
carsawch
carsant
carat
carsun
carsout
carse
carsem
carsewch
carsent
cersit*
-
car
caret
carem
cerit*
carent
-

Notes:

  • Verbs with a in the stem undergo I-Affection in forms marked with *, including the Preterite endings -es, -est.
  • The Present tense can also convey a future sense, e.g. mi canav "I'm singing" and "I will sing".
  • Some verbs undergo alternation in the 3sg. Present, e.g. per "causes" < par-, ettip "answers" < atteb- etc.
  • A number of verbs do not follow the regular pattern of conjugation in the Preterite singular:
    • Some verbs with a in the stem take -is in the 3sg and undergo I-Affection, e.g. peris "caused", levris "spoke".
    • A few verbs have Preterite singular forms in -t or -th. These follow the pattern of either cano "sing" or cumbrit (stem: cummer-) "take":
      • cano: cent "I sang", centost "you sang", cant "he/she/it sang".
      • cumbrit: cummirth "I took", cummirthest "you took", cummerth "he/she/it took".
    • A few verbs with a stem ending in -ed or -edh have a 3sg Preterite ending in -ot or -odh. The most important of these are dewot "said", gwoat "said" (< gwedo), estodh "sat", gorwodh "lay down".
    • The verb cluwet "hear" has an irregular 3sg Preterite ciglow beside regular cluwas.
  • Verbs with stems ending in a vowel undergo contraction with the endings, e.g. glanháv "I clean", troes "I turned".

Bot "Be"

The most important irregular verb is bot "be":

Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
Present Future Imperfect Preterite Pluperfect Present Past
1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl
Imp
oov
oot
iw, ais, ema
imm
ich
int, emant
is
bidhav
bidhidh
bidh
bidhen
bidhet
bidhant
bidhir
aidhun
aidhout
aidh
aidhem
aidhewch
aidhent
aidhit
boum
bouest
bou
bouam
bouawch
bouant
bouat
boussun
boussout
bousse
boussem
boussewch
boussent
boussit
bov
boi
bo
bóm
boch
bónt
boer
beun
beout
be
beem
béwch
beent
beit
-
bidh
bit
bidhem
bidhit
bidhent
-

Notes:

  • There are three separate words for the 3sg of bot:
    • iw is the copula used with definite subjects whenever the complement precedes, e.g. Hen iw Dewidh "David is old"
    • ema means "there is" and is a locative verb used whenever a subject is linked to an adverbial phrase indicative location, including with the interrogative cud "where", e.g. Ema cath war er loar "There is a cat on the floor", Cud ema'r egloos? "Where is the church?". Ema is also used in the progressive idiom (see below).
    • Ais is used in negative, interrogative and conditional sentences with an indefinite subject, e.g. Ned ais cath war er loar "There is not a cat on the floor".
  • 3pl emant is used as a locative verb when the subject is the 3pl pronoun "they".
  • Impersonal is is used as a copula with a definite subject when the complement follows the verb, e.g. Dewidh is hen "David is old".
  • Bot has a special present relative form, essidh "who is/are", used when the antecedent is the subject, e.g. Er din essidh mu mroadur "The man who is my brother".
  • Unlike with regular verbs, the Present tense of bot is present in meaning only, the Future tense being required to indicate future time.
  • The Present Subjunctive is rare to the point of obsolescence but does occur in archaic, particularly religious, texts and idioms.

Other Irregular Verbs

Goobot "know (a fact)" has a very irregular Present tense: gunn, gudhost, goor, gudhen, gudhet, gudhant, gwis. The Imperfect is formed from goodh- with regular Imperfect endings (goodhun, goodhout etc). The Preterite, Pluperfect and Imperative are formed with goo- + the relevant form of bot (gooboum, gooboussun, goobidh etc.).

Anawbot "know (a person)" is relatively regular but formed on two stems. The Present and Imperfect use adoyn- with the regular endings (adoynav, adoynun etc.). The Preterite, Pluperfect and Imperative use anaw- with the relevant part of bot (anawboum, anawboussun, anawbidh).

Devot "come" is similarly formed with regular endings on the stem dow- in the Present and Imperfect (dowav, dowun etc.) and follows the conjugation of bot in the Preterite and Pluperfect, but with v for b (devoum, devoussun etc.). The Imperative is regularly formed on dow-, except for the 2sg. forms dos and deret.

Munet "go" has three separate stems. The Present, Imperfect and Imperative use the stem a-, which is contracted with regular endings (av, aun etc.); the 2sg. Imperative is written á to distinguish it from several other words written a. The 3sg Preterite is ayth and the other persons are formed on this regularly (eythes "I went", aytham "we went" etc.). In the Pluperfect the stem is el- with regular endings (elsun, elsout etc.).

Gwreyth "do, make" follows the conjugation of munet in the Present, Imperfect, Imperative and Pluperfect, using the stems gwra- and gwrel- (gwrav, gwraun, gwra, gwrelsun). The Preterite is formed regularly on the stem gwroug- but with 3sg forms gorow and gwrayth.

Verb Noun

The verb noun is an important feature of Cumbraek grammar with functions of both a noun and a verb. As a noun, all verb nouns are masculine except bot "be" and its compounds (e.g. devot "come", goobot "know", cuvarvot "meet" etc.), which are feminine. Like any other noun, a verb noun may be:

  • preceded by a determiner such as the article er "the", a pronoun or a possessive or interrogative adjective, e.g. er dadlo "the arguing", i gluwet "his hearing".
  • qualified by an adjective, e.g. cano didon "tuneless singing".
  • the subject or object of a sentence, e.g. muko is druk "smoking is bad", a hellidh gano? "can you sing?"

The main function of the verb noun as a verb is in the progressive idiom, which denotes specifically ongoing action. This is formed using the present or imperfect of bot + the particle in + the verb noun, e.g. mi oov in péntya "I'm painting", edh aidh in tuvo "it was growing". 3rd person subjects use ema, emant in this structure, e.g. ema'r gur in dringo "the man is climbing", emant in gwreyth marak "they are making haggis". The future and subjunctive tenses of bot may also be used in this structure, but this is less common.

Another function of the verb noun as a verb is to replace a finite verb when the tense and subject have already been stated, e.g. Ni aytham du'r trayth a novya in er mor ag esset houven-ya "We went to the beach and swam in the sea and ate ice-cream".

The object of a verb noun is in the genitive case, i.e. a noun object follows the verb noun directly and a pronoun object precedes as a possessive adjective, e.g. Mi mennun de welet "I would like to see you" (i.e. "your seeing"), Hi gall lavro Cumbraek "she can speak Cumbraek".

Verbal Particles

Verbal particles are key to Cumbraek syntax, indicating subordination, negation, interrogatives and more.

Affirmative
e
edh
'dummy' particle at the start of a sentence E levir Melik Cumbraek 'Melik speaks Cumbraek'
infixes object pronouns Es gweles 'I saw her'
in place of a relative after adverbials Ar er mor e trigant '[It is] by the sea that they live'
meaning 'that' before subordinate clauses Ema govnok warnav ey prenidh 'I hope that you buy it'
aL the relative pronoun when the subject or object is antecedent Er din a garav 'The man whom I love'
the genitive relative Er verch a dheskidh i that 'The girl whose father you teach'
follows a focussed subject or object Ei ath gar 'I love you'
ruSL used before the preterite to form the perfect tense:
  • at the start of a sentence (spirantising)
  • in place of relative a (leniting)
Ru chuskus-ev er didh oll 'He has slept all day'
Er prit r'edes en newidh 'The meal which I have just eaten'
nuwS affirmative, somewhat emphatic particle Nuw adwoynav de dat 'Indeed, I know your father'
Negative
neSL
ned
used at the start of a sentence (spirantising) Ne chassa Yowann Maylok 'John doesn't hate Maylok'
negative relative (leniting) Er ti ne leskis du'r loar 'The house that did not burn down'
naS used before subordinate clauses Mi medhulyav ne do 'I think he won't come'
naS used in replies Am ceridh? Na charav 'Do you love me? No'
negative imperative Na sill a-vri 'Don't look down'
Interrogative
aL used at the start of a direct question A dhowidh amm Dhiw Gwener? 'Are you coming on Friday?'
introduces indirect questions Hi erchis a oot lessowur 'She asked if you are a vegetarian'
ay used at the start of a focussed sentence Ay Frankek a lavrant? 'Is is French that they speak?'
paneS
paned
introduces a direct or indirect question expecting an affirmative answer Panem credidh? 'Don't you believe me?'

Prepositions

Many common prepositions are 'conjugated' according to person and number, i.e. there are individual personal forms for each of the personal pronouns (e.g. amdanav "about me", in i vlen "in front of him". There are two forms of preposition which undergo this 'conjugation':

  1. simple prepositions, which are single word prepositions that take personal endings
  2. compound prepositions, which consist of a simple preposition + a nominal element and are 'conjugated' by infixing possessive adjectives

Simple

The simple prepositions belong to one of three stem classes (a-, o- or i-stem), which govern the endings added to the stem. The preposition du "to" is irregular.

A-Stems I-Stems O-Stems Irregular

stem:
1sg
2sg
3sg m
3sg f
1pl
2pl
3pl
amm 'about'
amdan-
amdanav
amdanat
amdano
amdeni
amdanamm
amdanach
amdandhou
gant 'with'
gan-
geniv
genit
gantho
genthi
geninn
genich
ganthou
heb 'without'
heb-
hebov
hebot
hebdho
hebdhi
hebonn
heboch
hebdhou
is 'below'
iss-
issov
issot
isto
isti
issonn
issoch
istou
du 'to'
du-
dum
dut
dudho
dudhi
dun
duwch
dudhou

Other prepositions follow the same patterns:

  • A-stems: wodan 'under' (wodan-), a 'of, from' (an-), war 'on' (warn-)
  • I-stems: wurth 'against' (wurth-)
  • O-stems:
    • like heb: er 'for' (er-), idhir 'between' (idhr-), in 'in' (inn-), rak 'before' (rag-), truw 'through' (truw-)
    • like is: ouch 'above' (ouch-), troas 'across' (tross-)

Compound

Compound prepositions are generally written as a single word divided by an apostrophe and are stressed on the second (nominal) element, e.g. im'misk "amongst", du'vri "up". The word erbinn "against" is an exception to this rule.

Compound prepositions are 'conjugated' by separating the elements and infixing a possessive adjective before the nominal element. The forms of im'misk would therefore be: im mu misk, in de misk, in i visk, in i misk, in an misk, in ach misk, in ow misk. The main compound prepositions are shown below, with their meaning and separate elements:

Compound Meaning Element 1 Element 2
amm'gerchin around ammL cerchin
du'bant down duL pant
du'vri up bri
du'woeret down goeret
er'moon for the sake of er moon
erbinn against arL penn
im'medhun inside, within inN medhun
im'misk among misk
im'mlen in front of blen
in'le instead of le
in'woodh before goodh
in'edrip because of edrip
o'benn from against oL penn
o'rann on behalf of rann
o'vedhun from within medhun
o'visk from amongst misk
tra'chevin behind traS cevin
war'benn on top of warL penn
war'lorr after, behind lorr

Syntax

Simple Sentences

The basic word order for Cumbraek is [Verb] + [Subject] + [Direct Object] + [Indirect Object/Adverbial].

  • Gwelas Pedir Neven
    "Peter saw Neven"
  • Le Tomas livir amm er Ayr Voar
    "Tomas is reading a book about the Great War"

The verb may be preceded by a particle.

  • Ru welas Pedir Neven
    "Peter has seen Neven"
  • Edh edew er wrek
    "The woman was leaving"

Pronoun subjects are encoded within the verb itself and may be dropped, affixed to the end of a verb for clarity or placed before the verb (replacing the particle edh) with no particular emphasis:

  • E hoolyen avory or E hoolyen-ni avory or Ni hoolyen avory
    "We're sailing tomorrow"

Pronoun objects (direct) must be attached to a preverbal particle:

  • Eth dhuges
    "I carried you"
  • Rus celas-ev
    "He has hidden her"

Simple sentences are negated with the preverbal particle neS (n' before vowels, ned before vowel-initial forms of bot and munet).

  • Ned oov ri Alban
    "I am not the king of Scotland"
  • Neth gar-hi
    "She doesn't love you"
  • Ne cassam er Gral Glan
    "We didn't find the Holy Grail"

Coordinate Sentences

Coordinate sentences consist of two or more simple sentences joined with aS "and" (ag before vowels), no'L "or", or eythir "but".

  • Car Pedir Neven ag es gwil pownidh
    "Peter loves Neven and he sees her every day"
  • Hi sellas truw er fenestir eythir ne welas nebot
    "She looked through the window but didn't see anything"

Focussed Sentences