Daùnare: Difference between revisions

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===Vowels===
===Vowels===
The chart below shows phonemic and [allophonic] vowels present in Daùnare. The allophonic vowels also occur as part of diphthongs, but are not considered phonemes in their own right. The phonemic vowels (when not used in diphthongs) are all written as in IPA with the exception of /ɛ/, written ⟨æ⟩, and length is indicated using a macron rather than the IPA length symbol. For a more detailed overview, please see [[#Orthography|→Orthography]].
The chart below shows the phonemic and [reduced] vowels present in Daùnare. The reduced vowels also occur as part of diphthongs, but are not considered phonemes in their own right. There are six phonemic vowels which are additionally differentiated by length, and three reduced vowels.
 
Orthographically, the phonemic vowels (when not used in diphthongs) are all written as in IPA with the exception of /ɛ/, written ⟨æ⟩, and length is indicated using a macron rather than the IPA length symbol. For a more detailed overview, please see [[#Orthography|→Orthography]].
{{/Vowels}}
{{/Vowels}}
'''NB''': With the (partial) exception of this section (''Phonology''), this article generally uses orthographic representations rather than IPA when discussing phonemes.
'''NB''': With the (partial) exception of this section (''Phonology''), this article generally uses orthographic representations rather than IPA when discussing phonemes.
====Diphthongs====
====Diphthongs====
The following diphthongs occur (not including the so-called iotified vowels and labialised vowels, for which see below).
Daùnare features eleven diphthongs, not including the so-called iotified vowels and labialised vowels which are treated separately. Diphthongs can end in [ɪ̯], [ʊ̯], or [ʌ̯]; the latter also known as ''hiatus vowels''. Diphthongs can be formed by any vowel that is not "too close" to the final vowel. Specifically:
 
* Diphthongs ending in [ɪ̯] can be formed by any vowel other than the close and close-mid front vowels.
* Diphthongs ending in [ʊ̯] can be formed by any vowel other than back vowels.
* Diphthongs ending in [ʌ̯] (hiatus vowels) can be formed by any vowel other than the open and open-mid vowels.
 
The only notable exception is that there is no diphthong /eʊ̯/; this is because diphthongs beginning with /ɛ/ are orthographically represented with ⟨e⟩ rather than ⟨æ⟩, which has resulted in what used to be the /eʊ̯/ diphthong merging into the (still-extant) /ɛʊ̯/ diphthong.
 
In summary, the following diphthongs exist:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
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| ɛɪ̯
| ɛɪ̯
| ɛʊ̯
| ɛʊ̯
| style="background-color: #aaa;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" rowspan=2 |  
|-
|-
! a
! a
| aɪ̯
| aɪ̯
| aʊ̯
| aʊ̯
| style="background-color: #aaa;" |
|-
|-
! o
! o
| oɪ̯
| oɪ̯
| style="background-color: #aaa;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc; border-left:none;" rowspan=3 |  
| oʌ̯
| oʌ̯
|-
|-
! u
! u
| uɪ̯
| uɪ̯
| style="background-color: #aaa;" |
| uʌ̯
| uʌ̯
|-
|-
! e
! e
| style="background-color: #aaa;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc; border-right:none;" rowspan=2 |  
| eʊ̯
| eʌ̯
| eʌ̯
|-
|-
! i
! i
| style="background-color: #aaa;" |
| iʊ̯
| iʊ̯
| iʌ̯
| iʌ̯
|}
|}


The diphthongs ending in /ʌ/ are also known as "hiatus vowels".
====Iotified vowels====
Any non-close(-mid) vowel can be iotified, i.e. the following iotified vowels exist: /ɪ̯ɛ ɪ̯a ɪ̯o ɪ̯u/. Iotation is orthographically represented through diacritics – specifically, the ogonek.
 
The use of ⟨ɪ̯⟩ to represent the onset of these vowels (or diphthongs) phonetically is by convention, as there nominally exists no independent **/j/ phoneme, but the realisation is functionally [j].
 
In the standard language, these vowels are pronounced as such, but in many dialects this has resulted either in the palatalisation of a preceding consonant or a wholesale shift to a palatal consonant, alveolo-palatal consonant, or an affricate. For more information, see [[#Sociolinguistics|→Sociolinguistics]].


====Iotified vowels====
ɪ̯ɛ ɪ̯a ɪ̯o ɪ̯u
====Labialised vowels====
====Labialised vowels====
ʊ̯ɛ ʊ̯a ʊ̯e ʊ̯i
Any non-back vowel can be labialised, i.e. the following labialised vowels exist: /ʊ̯ɛ ʊ̯a ʊ̯e ʊ̯i/. Iotation is orthographically represented through diacritics – specifically, the breve.
 
The use of ⟨ʊ̯⟩ to represent the onset of these vowels (or diphthongs) phonetically is by convention, as there nominally exists no independent **/w/ phoneme, but the realisation is functionally [w].
 
In the standard language, these vowels are pronounced as such, but in many dialects, one of two things has happened:
# labialisation of the preceding consonant, or
# monophthongisation and compensatory lengthening to [œː ɔː øː yː]
 
For more information, see [[#Sociolinguistics|→Sociolinguistics]].
 
====Vowel reduction====
====Vowel reduction====
In unstressed syllables, short monophthongs:
In unstressed syllables, short monophthongs reduce as follows:


* /e, i/ → [ɪ]
* /e, i/ → [ɪ]
* /o, u/ → [ʊ]
* /o, u/ → [ʊ]
* /a, ɛ/ → [ʌ]
* /a, ɛ/ → [ʌ]
Diphthongs cannot reduce, and must therefore always be stressed.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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|}
|}
====Onset clusters====
====Onset clusters====
In phonological notation, valid onset clusters fall into the following categories. (This table serves as a summary, a more "human-readable" explanation follows below.) The colour coding of categories is reflected in the reference tables.
In phonological notation, valid onset clusters fall into the following categories. The colour coding of categories is reflected in the reference tables.
<!--
<!--
0, 36, 72, 108, 144, 180, 216, 252, 288, 324
0, 36, 72, 108, 144, 180, 216, 252, 288, 324
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<!-- 8 -->
<!-- 8 -->
| style="border-left-width: 2px;" | +ALV
| style="border-left-width: 2px;" | +ALV
| &#8209;ALV<br />+VOI
| &#8209;ALV<br />&#8209;VOI
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
<!-- 9 -->
<!-- 9 -->
| style="border-left-width: 2px;" | +ALV
| style="border-left-width: 2px;" | +ALV
| +ALV<br />+VOI
| +ALV<br />&#8209;VOI
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
<!-- 10 -->
<!-- 10 -->
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|}
|}


<hr style="clear:both;" />
Broadly summarised Daùnare allows&hellip;
* fricatives to be followed by liquids and nasals (FL, FN),
* /s/ to be followed by voiceless stops and vice versa (/s/P, P/s/),
* Stops to be followed by liquids including after /s/ (PL, /s/PL),
* Voiceless stops to be followed by /s/ (P/s/), and
* /p/, /k/, and /g/ to be followed by /n/,


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-top: 0;"
&hellip;with a few phonotactic exceptions: */fm/, */sr/, */(s)tl/, */dl/
|+ Diconsonantals (initial fricative)
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left;"
|+ Initial fricative
|-
|-
!  
! rowspan=2 |
! /p/
! colspan=2 | /p/
! /t/
! colspan=2 | /t/
! /k/
! colspan=2 | /k/
! /m/
! rowspan=2 | /m/
! /n/
! rowspan=2 | /n/
! rowspan=2 | /r/
! rowspan=2 | /l/
|-
! /r/
! /l/
! /r/
! /l/
! /r/
! /r/
! /l/
! /l/
|-
|-
! /f/
! /f/
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
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| style="background-color: #ffb8b8;" | ⟨fl⟩
| style="background-color: #ffb8b8;" | ⟨fl⟩
|-
|-
! /s/
! rowspan=2 | /s/
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨sp⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" colspan=2 | ⟨sp⟩
| style="background-color: #dcb8ff;" | ⟨st⟩
| style="background-color: #dcb8ff;" colspan=2  | ⟨st⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨sk⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" colspan=2  | ⟨sk⟩
| style="background-color: #ffffb8;" | ⟨sm⟩
| style="background-color: #ffffb8;" rowspan=2 | ⟨sm⟩
| style="background-color: #ffffb8;" | ⟨sn⟩
| style="background-color: #ffffb8;" rowspan=2 | ⟨sn⟩
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" rowspan=2 |  
| style="background-color: #ffdcb8;" | ⟨sl⟩
| style="background-color: #ffdcb8;" rowspan=2 | ⟨sl⟩
|-
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨spr⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨spl⟩
| style="background-color: #dcb8ff;" | ⟨str⟩
| style="background-color: #ccc;"|
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨skr⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨skl⟩
|-
|-
! /x/
! /x/
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |  
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| style="background-color: #ffb8b8;" | ⟨hl⟩
| style="background-color: #ffb8b8;" | ⟨hl⟩
|}
|}
'''Fricatives''' can form '''diconsonantal''' onset clusters only with nasals /m/ and /n/, and with liquids /r/ and /l/, <u>except</u>:
* The alveolar fricative cannot form an onset cluster with the alveolar tap.
* The labiodental fricative cannot form an onset cluster with the bilabial nasal.
The '''alveolar fricative''' (/s/) can also form diconsonantal onset clusters with '''voiceless stops'''.
<hr style="clear:both;" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-top:0;"
|+ Triconsonantals
|-
!
! /r/
! /l/
|-
! /sp/
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨spr⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨spl⟩
|-
! /st/
| style="background-color: #dcb8ff;" | ⟨str⟩
| style="background-color: #ccc;" |
|-
! /sk/
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨skr⟩
| style="background-color: #b8b8ff;" | ⟨skl⟩
|-
|}
'''Triconsonantal''' onset clusters all begin with an '''alveolar fricative''' /s/ followed by a voiceless stop /p/, /t/, or /k/, and a liquid /r/ or /l/. The only <u>illicit</u> cluster of this type is */stl/.
<hr style="clear:both;" />


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-top:0;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left;"
|+ Diconsonantals&nbsp;(initial&nbsp;stop)
|+ Initial stop
|-
|-
!  
!  
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|}
|}


'''Stops''' can form diconsonantal onset clusters with the alveolar fricative /s/ and nasal /n/, and with the liquids /r/ and /l/.
{{clear}}
{{clear}}


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===Morphophonology of verbs===
===Morphophonology of verbs===
====Voice apophony====
====Voice apophony====
Voice is indicated through apophony (gradation) of the ''theme vowel'' of a verb (also referred to as grade 0), which refers to the nucleus of the verb root's stressed syllable. Grade 1 forms the antipassive, and grade 2 the middle voice.
These theme vowels also correlate with the ''class'' of the verb, which indicates the vowel used in person-number-tense/aspect conjugation ([[#Thematic anaptyxis|&rarr;Thematic anaptyxis]]). Because the gradation by theme vowel is unique in each class (i.e. no theme vowel has grades which also occur as theme vowels within the same class), and the class vowel appears in conjugational endings, base verbs are generally not ambiguous with gradations of other verbs except in the infinitive (i.e. the verb root on its own).
Below is a breakdown of gradations sorted according to class vowel and theme vowel:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
! Theme vowel
! Class vowel
! Grade 0<br />&#8709;
! Theme vowel<br />&#8709;
! Grade 1<br />{{sc|anti}}
! Grade 1<br />{{sc|anti}}
! Grade 2<br />{{sc|mid}}
! Grade 2<br />{{sc|mid}}
|-
|-
| rowspan="8" | a
! rowspan="8" | a
| a
| a
| e
| e
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| ā
| ā
|-
|-
| rowspan="5" | o
! rowspan="5" | o
| o
| o
| e
| e
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| ų
| ų
|-
|-
| rowspan="7" | e
! rowspan="7" | e
| e
| e
| u
| u
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| ą
| ą
|-
|-
| rowspan="5" | u
! rowspan="5" | u
| u
| u
| i
| i
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| ę
| ę
|-
|-
| rowspan="5" | i
! rowspan="5" | i
| i
| i
| a
| a
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| uı
| uı
|}
|}
====Thematic anaptyxis====
====Thematic anaptyxis====
===Morphophonology of nouns===
===Morphophonology of nouns===
====Class-dependent anaptyxis====
====Class-dependent anaptyxis====
====Methelcystic ''t'' and the definite clitic====
====Methelcystic ''t'' and the definite clitic====
====Initial consonant mutations after modal particles====
====Initial consonant mutations after modal particles====
==Derivational morphology==
Derivations are achieved in Daùnare either through one of three methods:
* '''Compounding''' &ndash; combining two lemmas to create a new lemma
* '''Class derivation''' &ndash; forming new nouns by altering the class of an existing noun
* '''Affixation''' &ndash; adding a bound morpheme to a lemma to create a new lemma. This latter can be further subdivided into:
** '''Ciscategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category stays the same (e.g. deriving a new adjective from an existing adjective)
** '''Transcategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category changes (e.g. deriving a noun from a verb)
===Derivational noun class===
===Noun compounding===
===Affix derivation of nouns===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of verbs===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====


==Inflectional morphology==
==Inflectional morphology==
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|}
|}


'''Definiteness''' is expressed using the definite clitic, for which see above ([[#Methelcystic t and the definite clitic|&rarr;Morphophonology of nouns § Methelcystic t and the definite clitic]]).
'''Definiteness''' is expressed using the definite clitic, or (for detached possessed nouns) the construct clitic, for both of which see below ([[#Definite and construct clitics|&rarr;Particles and clitics § Definite and construct clitics]]).
 
==== Converbal agreement ====
: ''See also: [[#Converb and pro-verb|&rarr;Verbs § Converb and pro-verb]] and [[#Constituent order|&rarr;Syntax § Constituent order]]''
 
Because of the focus-theme-rheme word order of Daùnare, nouns express agreement with the converb using the suffix ⟨-pe⟩. For example:
 
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 | Focus
! colspan=2 | Theme
! colspan=3 | Rheme
|-
| Muȧrnem'''pe'''
| kas
| (san)
| dal'''peset'''
| tālosnem
| kasnar
| dalabo.
|-
| muȧr=n=em&#8209;'''pe'''
| kas
| (san)
| dal&#8209;'''pes&#8209;e&#8209;t'''
| tālos=n=em
| kas&#8209;nar
| dal&#8209;a&#8209;bo
|-
| house&#8209;{{sc|def}}&#8209;{{sc|conc}}.{{sc|dat}}&#8209;'''{{sc|cvb}}'''
| to
| ({{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|m}}.{{sc|abs}})
| go&#8209;'''{{sc|cvb}}&#8209;&#8709;&#8209;{{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|pres}}'''
| shop&#8209;{{sc|def}}&#8209;{{sc|dat}}
| to&#8209;inside
| go&#8209;&#8709;&#8209;{{sc|1sg}}.{{sc|pret}}
|-
| colspan="2" | ''House '''while''' to''
| colspan="2" | ''he goes '''while'''''
| colspan="3" | ''shop into I went.''
|-
| colspan="2" | &lsquo;While it was the house
| colspan="2" | he was going to,
| colspan="3" | I went into the shop.&rsquo;
|}
 
Contrasting with:
 
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 | Focus
! colspan=4 | Theme
! colspan=1 | Rheme
|-
| Muȧrnem
| kas
| (san)
| dal'''peset'''
| tālosnem'''pe'''
| kasnar
| dalabo.
|-
| muȧr=n=em
| kas
| (san)
| dal&#8209;'''pes&#8209;e&#8209;t'''
| tālos=n=em&#8209;'''pe'''
| kas&#8209;nar
| dal&#8209;a&#8209;bo
|-
| house&#8209;{{sc|def}}&#8209;{{sc|conc}}.{{sc|dat}}
| to
| ({{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|m}}.{{sc|abs}})
| go&#8209;'''{{sc|cvb}}&#8209;&#8709;&#8209;{{sc|3sg}}.{{sc|pres}}'''
| shop&#8209;{{sc|def}}&#8209;{{sc|dat}}&#8209;'''{{sc|cvb}}'''
| to&#8209;inside
| go&#8209;&#8709;&#8209;{{sc|1sg}}.{{sc|pret}}
|-
| colspan="2" | ''House to''
| colspan="4" | ''he goes '''while''' shop '''while''' into''
| colspan="1" | ''I went.''
|-
| colspan="2" | &lsquo;It was the house&mdash;
| colspan="4" | while he was going into the shop
| colspan="1" | &mdash;that I went to.&rsquo;
|}


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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| sar
| sar
| sari
| sari
| sā
| rowspan=2 | sā
| siri
| siri
| siris
| siris
| sī
| rowspan=2 | sī
| ter
| ter
| teri
| teri
| tē
| rowspan=2 | tē
| tru
| tru
| tū
| rowspan=2 | tū
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
! {{sc|abl}}
! {{sc|abl}}
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| sal
| sal
| saıl
| saıl
| sā
| sli
| sli
| slis
| slis
| sī
| tel
| tel
| teıl
| teıl
| tē
| tulu
| tulu
| tū
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
|- style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"
! {{sc|voc}}
! {{sc|voc}}
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|}
|}


Possessive pronouns decline the same way, except that there are no vocative possessive pronouns (in any person).
==== Possessive pronouns ====
 
Possessive pronouns indicate inalienable possession and can occur either on their own, or in conjunction with a possessed noun, which must be definite. By default, they are placed after the noun they possess, but they can become detached from it for semantic reasons ([[#Constituent order|&rarr;Syntax § Constituent order]]). In this case, the definite clitic in the possessed noun is replaced with the construct clitic ([[#Definite and construct clitics|&rarr;Definite and construct clitics]]).
 
Possessive pronouns decline the same way as personal pronouns, except that there are no vocative possessive pronouns (in any person):


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; border-top: none; border-left: none; background-color:transparent;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; border-top: none; border-left: none; background-color:transparent;"
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===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs conjugate by apophony to express voice, and by suffixation to express tense-aspect. Verbs do not conjugate for mood, which is instead expressed through modal particles.
====Tense and aspect====
====Tense and aspect====
The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is ''gnomic present'' but ''future simple''). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨&#8209;ta⟩ affixed to the base declension of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨&#8209;bi⟩ (first person), ⟨&#8209;si⟩ (second person) and ⟨&#8209;ni⟩ (third person).
The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is ''gnomic present'' but ''future simple''). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨&#8209;ta⟩ affixed to the base conjugation of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨&#8209;bi⟩ (first person), ⟨&#8209;si⟩ (second person) and ⟨&#8209;ni⟩ (third person).


The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (''preterite'' or simple past, ''imperfect'' or progressive past, and ''habitual [past]'') has its own set of person&#8209;number inflections.
The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (''preterite'' or simple past, ''imperfect'' or progressive past, and ''habitual [past]'') has its own set of person&#8209;number inflections.


Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb ([[#Thematic anaptyxis|&rarr;Morphophonology of verbs § Thematic anaptyxis]]). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the declensional suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of ''double thematic anaptyxis''.
Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb ([[#Thematic anaptyxis|&rarr;Morphophonology of verbs § Thematic anaptyxis]]). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present tenses are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the conjugational suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of ''double thematic anaptyxis''.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:middle;"
|+ Inflection table
|+ Conjugation table
|- style="text-align:center;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="3" |  
! rowspan="3" |  
Line 1,152: Line 1,241:


The default/unmarked mood is the positive declarative indicative; other moods are expressed through modal particles, for which see below ([[#Modal particles|&rarr;Particles § Modal particles]])
The default/unmarked mood is the positive declarative indicative; other moods are expressed through modal particles, for which see below ([[#Modal particles|&rarr;Particles § Modal particles]])
==== Voice ====
: ''See also: [[#Voice apophony|&rarr;Morphophonology of verbs § Voice apophony]]''
Daùnare has three "primary" voices, which are indicated through apophony on verbs. As an ergative-absolutive language, Daùnare does not feature an active voice but rather a '''primary''' voice, in which the argument of an intransitive verb is equivalent to the patient of a transitive verb; i.e., in ambitransitive verbs, the intransitive use in the primary voice will omit the agent (like the passive voice of a nominative-accusative language), not the patient.
To omit the patient instead (like one in the active voice of a nominative-accusative language), the '''antipassive''' voice can be used, called such because it effectively achieves the reverse of what a passive voice achieves in a nominative-accusative language. Some verbs do not have an antipassive form; these are termed ''defective'' verbs. Conversely, some verbs only have an antipassive form, and these verbs are termed ''deponent'' verbs.
The '''middle voice''', with the exception of a few specific verbs, only normally occurs intransitively. It generally indicates reciprocity, reflexivity, or volition.
Besides these "primary" voices, there exist two prefixes, the '''applicative''' ⟨do-⟩, which promotes the dative object of a verb to be its patient, and the '''diapplicative''' ⟨ro-⟩, which does the same thing with the ablative object. The prefixes can combine with either the primary stem to create the applicative and diapplicative voices, or with the middle stem to create the '''medioapplicative''' and '''mediodiapplicative'''. However, it is worth noting that many verbs lack some or all of these forms, which is why these latter four voices are not regarded as "primary".
Nonetheless, in total, Daùnare can therefore be said to feature seven voices.
==== Converb and pro-verb ====
: ''See also: [[#Converbal agreement|Nouns § Converbal agreement]]
The converb and pro-verb ⟨pes⟩ fulfills the function of a converb when suffixed to another verb root, and that of a pro-verb (akin to English "do" or "do so") when used independently.
The tense-aspect declensions of the converb indicate its function, and as such do not need to agree with the main clause verb. The converb conjugates for all tense-aspects except the habitual (though the pro-verb does), as follows:
* '''Present''' &ndash; simultaneous converb ("while doing")
* '''Preterite''' &ndash; perfective converb ("after doing")
* '''Imperfect''' &ndash; causal converb ("because of doing")
* '''Future''' &ndash; anticipatory converb ("before doing")
For example:
<span style="color:#ff0000;">Add examples!</span>


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
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===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
===Determiners===
===Determiners===
===Particles===
===Particles and clitics===
====Modal particles====
====Modal particles====
Modal particles, placed at the beginning of clauses, express grammatical mood. For an overview of mood, please see ([[#Mood|&rarr;Verbs § Mood]])
Modal particles, placed at the beginning of clauses (except copular clauses, in which they fuse with the copula), express grammatical mood. For an overview of mood, please see ([[#Mood|&rarr;Verbs § Mood]])
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
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| mum
| mum
| maùd
| maùd
| um ki
| unki
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
! Negative
! Negative
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| nemum
| nemum
| numda
| numda
| num ki
| nunki
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Relative
! rowspan=2 | Relative
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| smu
| smu
| sta
| sta
| sa ki
| saki
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
|- style="border-bottom-width: 2px;"
! Negative
! Negative
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| nesmu
| nesmu
| nesta
| nesta
| nes ki
| nesti
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subordinate
! rowspan=2 | Subordinate
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| gem
| gem
| ged
| ged
| ge ki
| geti
|-
|-
! Negative
! Negative
| neg
| neg
| neg lo
| neglo
| negem
| negem
| neged
| neged
| ne ki
| neki
|}
|}
====Definite and construct clitics====
:''See also: [[#Methelcystic t and the definite clitic|&rarr;Morphophonology of nouns § Methelcystic t and the definite clitic]]''
The definite clitic =n= is a mesoclitic inserted between a nominal root and its declensional suffix. Where a noun is possessed but detached from its possessor, the construct clitic =r= is used instead.
==Derivational morphology==
Derivations are achieved in Daùnare either through one of three methods:
* '''Compounding''' &ndash; combining two lemmas to create a new lemma
* '''Class derivation''' &ndash; forming new nouns by altering the class of an existing noun
* '''Affixation''' &ndash; adding a bound morpheme to a lemma to create a new lemma. This latter can be further subdivided into:
** '''Ciscategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category stays the same (e.g. deriving a new adjective from an existing adjective)
** '''Transcategorical''' affixation, where the lexical category changes (e.g. deriving a noun from a verb)
===Derivational noun class===
===Noun compounding===
===Affix derivation of nouns===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of verbs===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====
===Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)===
====Ciscategorical====
====Transcategorical====


==Syntax==
==Syntax==

Latest revision as of 14:40, 30 December 2022

Daùnare
Created byFrederic Bayer

The Daùnare language (Daùnare: Daùnarenu /ˈdaʊ̯.nʌ.rɪ.nʊ/ or Daùnarekelnu /ˈdaʊ̯.nʌ.rɪˌkel.nʊ/) is a language spoken by the Daùna people (Daùnare: Daùnadistunu /ˈdaʊ̯.nʌˌdis.tʊ.nʊ/).

Introduction

Phonology

Vowels

The chart below shows the phonemic and [reduced] vowels present in Daùnare. The reduced vowels also occur as part of diphthongs, but are not considered phonemes in their own right. There are six phonemic vowels which are additionally differentiated by length, and three reduced vowels.

Orthographically, the phonemic vowels (when not used in diphthongs) are all written as in IPA with the exception of /ɛ/, written ⟨æ⟩, and length is indicated using a macron rather than the IPA length symbol. For a more detailed overview, please see →Orthography.

Front Near-front Central Near-back Back
Close
Blank vowel trapezoid.svg
i, iː
u, uː
[ɪ]
[ʊ]
e, eː
o, oː
ɛ, ɛː
[ʌ]
a, aː
Near‑close
Close‑mid
Mid
Open‑mid
Near‑open
Open

NB: With the (partial) exception of this section (Phonology), this article generally uses orthographic representations rather than IPA when discussing phonemes.

Diphthongs

Daùnare features eleven diphthongs, not including the so-called iotified vowels and labialised vowels which are treated separately. Diphthongs can end in [ɪ̯], [ʊ̯], or [ʌ̯]; the latter also known as hiatus vowels. Diphthongs can be formed by any vowel that is not "too close" to the final vowel. Specifically:

  • Diphthongs ending in [ɪ̯] can be formed by any vowel other than the close and close-mid front vowels.
  • Diphthongs ending in [ʊ̯] can be formed by any vowel other than back vowels.
  • Diphthongs ending in [ʌ̯] (hiatus vowels) can be formed by any vowel other than the open and open-mid vowels.

The only notable exception is that there is no diphthong /eʊ̯/; this is because diphthongs beginning with /ɛ/ are orthographically represented with ⟨e⟩ rather than ⟨æ⟩, which has resulted in what used to be the /eʊ̯/ diphthong merging into the (still-extant) /ɛʊ̯/ diphthong.

In summary, the following diphthongs exist:

final
initial
ɪ ʊ ʌ
ɛ ɛɪ̯ ɛʊ̯
a aɪ̯ aʊ̯
o oɪ̯ oʌ̯
u uɪ̯ uʌ̯
e eʌ̯
i iʊ̯ iʌ̯

Iotified vowels

Any non-close(-mid) vowel can be iotified, i.e. the following iotified vowels exist: /ɪ̯ɛ ɪ̯a ɪ̯o ɪ̯u/. Iotation is orthographically represented through diacritics – specifically, the ogonek.

The use of ⟨ɪ̯⟩ to represent the onset of these vowels (or diphthongs) phonetically is by convention, as there nominally exists no independent **/j/ phoneme, but the realisation is functionally [j].

In the standard language, these vowels are pronounced as such, but in many dialects this has resulted either in the palatalisation of a preceding consonant or a wholesale shift to a palatal consonant, alveolo-palatal consonant, or an affricate. For more information, see →Sociolinguistics.

Labialised vowels

Any non-back vowel can be labialised, i.e. the following labialised vowels exist: /ʊ̯ɛ ʊ̯a ʊ̯e ʊ̯i/. Iotation is orthographically represented through diacritics – specifically, the breve.

The use of ⟨ʊ̯⟩ to represent the onset of these vowels (or diphthongs) phonetically is by convention, as there nominally exists no independent **/w/ phoneme, but the realisation is functionally [w].

In the standard language, these vowels are pronounced as such, but in many dialects, one of two things has happened:

  1. labialisation of the preceding consonant, or
  2. monophthongisation and compensatory lengthening to [œː ɔː øː yː]

For more information, see →Sociolinguistics.

Vowel reduction

In unstressed syllables, short monophthongs reduce as follows:

  • /e, i/ → [ɪ]
  • /o, u/ → [ʊ]
  • /a, ɛ/ → [ʌ]

Diphthongs cannot reduce, and must therefore always be stressed.

Consonants

As with the →Vowel chart, phones occurring only as allophones are indicated with [square brackets].

Place
Manner
Bilabial Labio-dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n [ŋ]
Plosive p b t d k g
Fricative f [v] s [z] [ç] x [h]
Tap r
Lateral l [ɬ]
Approximant [j]

Onset clusters

In phonological notation, valid onset clusters fall into the following categories. The colour coding of categories is reflected in the reference tables.

Category: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Consonants F L F /l/ F N F /n/ P L P /r/ P /s/ F P (L) F P (/r/) /p, k, g/ /n/
Features ‑ALV +ALV ‑LAB +LAB ‑ALV +ALV ‑VOI +ALV ‑ALV
‑VOI
+ALV +ALV
‑VOI
Key:
F fricative / L liquid / N nasal / P stop
alv alveolar / lab labial / voi voiced

Broadly summarised Daùnare allows…

  • fricatives to be followed by liquids and nasals (FL, FN),
  • /s/ to be followed by voiceless stops and vice versa (/s/P, P/s/),
  • Stops to be followed by liquids including after /s/ (PL, /s/PL),
  • Voiceless stops to be followed by /s/ (P/s/), and
  • /p/, /k/, and /g/ to be followed by /n/,

…with a few phonotactic exceptions: */fm/, */sr/, */(s)tl/, */dl/

Initial fricative
/p/ /t/ /k/ /m/ /n/ /r/ /l/
/r/ /l/ /r/ /l/ /r/ /l/
/f/ ⟨fn⟩ ⟨fr⟩ ⟨fl⟩
/s/ ⟨sp⟩ ⟨st⟩ ⟨sk⟩ ⟨sm⟩ ⟨sn⟩ ⟨sl⟩
⟨spr⟩ ⟨spl⟩ ⟨str⟩ ⟨skr⟩ ⟨skl⟩
/x/ ⟨hm⟩ ⟨hn⟩ ⟨hr⟩ ⟨hl⟩
Initial stop
/s/ /n/ /r/ /l/
/p/ ⟨ps⟩ ⟨pn⟩ ⟨pr⟩ ⟨pl⟩
/b/ ⟨br⟩ ⟨bl⟩
/t/ ⟨ts⟩ ⟨tr⟩
/d/ ⟨dr⟩
/k/ ⟨ks⟩ ⟨kn⟩ ⟨kr⟩ ⟨kl⟩
/g/ ⟨gn⟩ ⟨gr⟩ ⟨gl⟩

Coda clusters

Allophony

Syllable structure

Syllabic anaptyxis

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Orthography

Proposals for orthographic reform

Historic alphabet

Aα Bb Γc Δd Ee Φϕ Hh Iı Kκ Λλ Mμ Nν Oo Pp Rꞃ Σſz Tt Υυ Ææ Ꙗꙗ Ѥѥ Юю ωω

As in the modern alphabet, labialised vowels were indicated using a breve, and long vowels using a macron.

Modern – Ū Ǫta! Distas kunen disnimi plasnel tugusat, bak kunenere dorāket.
Historic – Ῡ Юtα! Δıztαz κuνeν dızνıμı pλαzνeλ tucuzαt, bακ κuνeνeꞃe doꞃᾱκet.
(Translation: Oh Jota! A man gave the woman the child's dog, and dogs steal from each other.)

Morphophonology

Morphophonology of verbs

Voice apophony

Voice is indicated through apophony (gradation) of the theme vowel of a verb (also referred to as grade 0), which refers to the nucleus of the verb root's stressed syllable. Grade 1 forms the antipassive, and grade 2 the middle voice.

These theme vowels also correlate with the class of the verb, which indicates the vowel used in person-number-tense/aspect conjugation (→Thematic anaptyxis). Because the gradation by theme vowel is unique in each class (i.e. no theme vowel has grades which also occur as theme vowels within the same class), and the class vowel appears in conjugational endings, base verbs are generally not ambiguous with gradations of other verbs except in the infinitive (i.e. the verb root on its own).

Below is a breakdown of gradations sorted according to class vowel and theme vowel:

Class vowel Theme vowel
Grade 1
anti
Grade 2
mid
a a e o
ā ē ō
ū
ą ę ǫ
ă ĕ
æ o a
ǣ ō ā
o o e u
ō ē ū
ǫ ę ų
e e u a
ē ū ā
ō
ǫ
ĕ ă
ę ų ą
u u i e
ū ī ē
ĭ
ų ę
i i a u
ī ā ū
ą
ų
ĭ ă

Thematic anaptyxis

Morphophonology of nouns

Class-dependent anaptyxis

Methelcystic t and the definite clitic

Initial consonant mutations after modal particles

Inflectional morphology

Nouns

Daùnare nouns decline according to noun class (also called gender), number, and case. There are four classes, each declining for either three or two numbers as shown below (an asterisk* indicates the default/undifferentiated form).

  • Masculine (singular,* dual, plural)
  • Feminine (singular,* dual, plural)
  • Concrete (singular,* dual, plural)
  • Abstract (collective,* singulative)

However, in many ways the abstract singulative can be regarded more as a derivational than inflectional process, as it isn't universally productive (there are many collective-only abstract nouns).

Masculine, feminine, and concrete nouns decline for six cases: absolutive, ergative, dative, genitive, ablative, and vocative. Abstract nouns feature the same cases except for the vocative, i.e. a total of five. Declension suffixes are shown in the table below – for an overview of what the parenthesised letters indicate, please see the above sections on →class-dependent anaptyxis and the →methelcystic t and the definite clitic.

Declension table (most nouns)
masculine feminine concrete abstract
sg dl pl sg dl pl sg dl pl col sgv
abs ‑(t)an ‑(t)aın ‑(t)ana ‑(i)ni ‑(i)nis ‑(t)in ‑(t)en ‑(t)eın ‑(t)ene ‑(u)nu ‑(t)unu
erg ‑(t)as ‑(t)aıs ‑(t)ara ‑(t)i ‑(t)is ‑(t)ir ‑(t)es ‑(t)eıs ‑(t)ere ‑(t)u ‑(t)uru
dat ‑(t)am ‑(t)aım ‑(t)ama ‑(i)mi ‑(i)mis ‑(t)im ‑(t)em ‑(t)eım ‑(t)eme ‑(u)mu ‑(t)umu
gen ‑(t)ar ‑(t)ari ‑(t)ā ‑(i)ri ‑(i)ris ‑(t)ī ‑(t)er ‑(t)eri ‑(t)ē ‑(u)ru ‑(t)ū
abl ‑(t)al ‑(t)aıl ‑(i)li ‑(i)lis ‑(t)el ‑(t)eıl ‑(u)lu ‑(t)ul
voc ‑(t)a ‑(t)aı ‑(t)īs ‑(t)īr ‑(t)e ‑(t)eı

Some singulative abstract nouns have been reanalysed as concrete nouns (known as concretised nouns). These follow a special uncountable declension:

Concretised nouns
abs ‑(t)uın
erg ‑(t)uruıs
dat ‑(t)uım
gen ‑(t)uri
abl ‑(t)uli

Definiteness is expressed using the definite clitic, or (for detached possessed nouns) the construct clitic, for both of which see below (→Particles and clitics § Definite and construct clitics).

Converbal agreement

See also: →Verbs § Converb and pro-verb and →Syntax § Constituent order

Because of the focus-theme-rheme word order of Daùnare, nouns express agreement with the converb using the suffix ⟨-pe⟩. For example:

Focus Theme Rheme
Muȧrnempe kas (san) dalpeset tālosnem kasnar dalabo.
muȧr=n=em‑pe kas (san) dal‑pes‑e‑t tālos=n=em kas‑nar dal‑a‑bo
house‑defconc.datcvb to (3sg.m.abs) go‑cvb‑∅‑3sg.pres shop‑defdat to‑inside go‑∅‑1sg.pret
House while to he goes while shop into I went.
‘While it was the house he was going to, I went into the shop.’

Contrasting with:

Focus Theme Rheme
Muȧrnem kas (san) dalpeset tālosnempe kasnar dalabo.
muȧr=n=em kas (san) dal‑pes‑e‑t tālos=n=em‑pe kas‑nar dal‑a‑bo
house‑defconc.dat to (3sg.m.abs) go‑cvb‑∅‑3sg.pres shop‑defdatcvb to‑inside go‑∅‑1sg.pret
House to he goes while shop while into I went.
‘It was the house— while he was going into the shop —that I went to.’

Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Daùnare decline according to person, number, case, formality (second person only) and class (third person only). The vocative case only exists in the second person.

Personal pronouns
first person second person third person
sg dl pl sg dl pl masc fem conc abst
inc exc inc exc infor for infor for infor for sg dl pl sg dl pl sg dl pl col sgv
abs kon noın moın nin min hun huvun huın huvin hin hivin san saın sana sini sinis sin ten teın tene tunu tunur
erg ko noı moı ni mi hut huv huıt huvi hit hiv sas saıs sara si sis sir tes teıs tere tu turu
dat kom noım moım nim mim hum huvum huım huvim him hivim sam saım sama simi simis sim tem teım teme tumu tumur
gen kor nori mori nir mir hur huvur huri huvir hir hivir sar sari siri siris ter teri tru
abl kol noıl moıl nil mil hul huvul huıl huvil hil hivil sal saıl sli slis tel teıl tulu
voc hutu huvu huti huvi hiti hivi

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns indicate inalienable possession and can occur either on their own, or in conjunction with a possessed noun, which must be definite. By default, they are placed after the noun they possess, but they can become detached from it for semantic reasons (→Syntax § Constituent order). In this case, the definite clitic in the possessed noun is replaced with the construct clitic (→Definite and construct clitics).

Possessive pronouns decline the same way as personal pronouns, except that there are no vocative possessive pronouns (in any person):

Possessive pronouns
first person second person third person
sg dl pl sg dl pl masc fem conc abst
inc exc inc exc infor for infor for infor for sg dl pl sg dl pl sg dl pl col sgv
abs kron norin morin nirin mirin hrun hruvun hrutin hruvin hrin hrivin saran sarin sāsan sirni sirnis sisni tren trisen tēsen trunu tutnu
erg koros noris moris niris miris hrut hruv hurit huriv hirit hiriv saras saris sās siri siris sisi tres tris tēs tru tut
dat krom norim morim nirim mirim hrum hruvum hrutim hruvim hrim hrivim saram sarim sāsam sirmi sirmis sismi trem trisem tēsem trumu tutmu
gen krōs norīs morīs nirīs mirīs hrūt hrūv hūrit hūriv hĭrit hĭriv săr săris săs sĭri sĭris sĭsi trēs trīs tĕs trū tūt
abl krol noril moril niril miril hrul hruvul hrutil hruvil hril hrivil saral saril sāsal sirli sirlis sisli trel trisel tēsel trul tutlu

Verbs

Verbs conjugate by apophony to express voice, and by suffixation to express tense-aspect. Verbs do not conjugate for mood, which is instead expressed through modal particles.

Tense and aspect

The "default" (unmarked) aspect of the present and future tenses is the gnomic or simple aspect (by convention, the nomenclature is gnomic present but future simple). A progressive aspect can be expressed through the regular suffix ⟨‑ta⟩ affixed to the base conjugation of both tenses, and a perfect aspect only in the future tense through the suffixes ⟨‑bi⟩ (first person), ⟨‑si⟩ (second person) and ⟨‑ni⟩ (third person).

The past tense, by contrast, has no unmarked aspect; each past aspect (preterite or simple past, imperfect or progressive past, and habitual [past]) has its own set of person‑number inflections.

Below is an inflection table, where V represents the thematic vowel of the verb (→Morphophonology of verbs § Thematic anaptyxis). The progressive and perfect aspects for the future and present tenses are not shown, as they are perfectly regular, with the exception that the present progressive third person singular/collective (or second person singular formal) has another theme vowel inserted between the conjugational suffix and the progressive suffix to prevent the two /t/s colliding, which is the only instance of double thematic anaptyxis.

Conjugation table
first person second person third person
sg dl pl sg dl pl sg/col dl pl/sgv
informal formal informal formal informal formal
present ‑Vg ‑Vm ‑Vn ‑Vs ‑Vt ‑Vsi ‑Vti ‑Vsin ‑Vri ‑Vt ‑Vti ‑Vri
preterite ‑Vbo ‑Vbim ‑Vbin ‑Vtas ‑Vsat ‑Vtis ‑Vsti ‑Vtin ‑Vsri ‑Vsat ‑Vsti ‑Vsri
imperfect ‑Vbota ‑Vbita ‑Vbitan ‑Vtasta ‑Vtasat ‑Vtista ‑Vtasti ‑Vtinta ‑Vtasri ‑Vtasat ‑Vtasti ‑Vtasri
habitual ‑Vbotag ‑Vbitam ‑Vtabin ‑Vtastas ‑Vsata ‑Vtistas ‑Vstita ‑Vtintan ‑Vtasir ‑Vsata ‑Vstita ‑Vtasir
future ‑Vgi ‑Vmi ‑Vni ‑Vsti ‑Vti ‑Vstir ‑Vtir ‑Vstin ‑Vnir ‑Vti ‑Vtir ‑Vnir

Mood

Mood in Daùnare is best analysed as being composed through three modal dimensions, comprising factual‑intentional modality (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, conditional, or optative), syntactic modality (declarative, interrogative, relative, or subordinate) and negativity (positive or negative).

The default/unmarked mood is the positive declarative indicative; other moods are expressed through modal particles, for which see below (→Particles § Modal particles)

Voice

See also: →Morphophonology of verbs § Voice apophony

Daùnare has three "primary" voices, which are indicated through apophony on verbs. As an ergative-absolutive language, Daùnare does not feature an active voice but rather a primary voice, in which the argument of an intransitive verb is equivalent to the patient of a transitive verb; i.e., in ambitransitive verbs, the intransitive use in the primary voice will omit the agent (like the passive voice of a nominative-accusative language), not the patient.

To omit the patient instead (like one in the active voice of a nominative-accusative language), the antipassive voice can be used, called such because it effectively achieves the reverse of what a passive voice achieves in a nominative-accusative language. Some verbs do not have an antipassive form; these are termed defective verbs. Conversely, some verbs only have an antipassive form, and these verbs are termed deponent verbs.

The middle voice, with the exception of a few specific verbs, only normally occurs intransitively. It generally indicates reciprocity, reflexivity, or volition.

Besides these "primary" voices, there exist two prefixes, the applicative ⟨do-⟩, which promotes the dative object of a verb to be its patient, and the diapplicative ⟨ro-⟩, which does the same thing with the ablative object. The prefixes can combine with either the primary stem to create the applicative and diapplicative voices, or with the middle stem to create the medioapplicative and mediodiapplicative. However, it is worth noting that many verbs lack some or all of these forms, which is why these latter four voices are not regarded as "primary".

Nonetheless, in total, Daùnare can therefore be said to feature seven voices.

Converb and pro-verb

See also: Nouns § Converbal agreement

The converb and pro-verb ⟨pes⟩ fulfills the function of a converb when suffixed to another verb root, and that of a pro-verb (akin to English "do" or "do so") when used independently.

The tense-aspect declensions of the converb indicate its function, and as such do not need to agree with the main clause verb. The converb conjugates for all tense-aspects except the habitual (though the pro-verb does), as follows:

  • Present – simultaneous converb ("while doing")
  • Preterite – perfective converb ("after doing")
  • Imperfect – causal converb ("because of doing")
  • Future – anticipatory converb ("before doing")

For example:

Add examples!

Adjectives

Adverbs

Conjunctions

Determiners

Particles and clitics

Modal particles

Modal particles, placed at the beginning of clauses (except copular clauses, in which they fuse with the copula), express grammatical mood. For an overview of mood, please see (→Verbs § Mood)

Indicative Imperative Subjunctive Conditional Optative
Declarative lo mu da ki
Negative ne nel nem ned nek
Interrogative um mol mum maùd unki
Negative num nemol nemum numda nunki
Relative sa slo smu sta saki
Negative nes neslo nesmu nesta nesti
Subordinate ge glo gem ged geti
Negative neg neglo negem neged neki

Definite and construct clitics

See also: →Morphophonology of nouns § Methelcystic t and the definite clitic

The definite clitic =n= is a mesoclitic inserted between a nominal root and its declensional suffix. Where a noun is possessed but detached from its possessor, the construct clitic =r= is used instead.


Derivational morphology

Derivations are achieved in Daùnare either through one of three methods:

  • Compounding – combining two lemmas to create a new lemma
  • Class derivation – forming new nouns by altering the class of an existing noun
  • Affixation – adding a bound morpheme to a lemma to create a new lemma. This latter can be further subdivided into:
    • Ciscategorical affixation, where the lexical category stays the same (e.g. deriving a new adjective from an existing adjective)
    • Transcategorical affixation, where the lexical category changes (e.g. deriving a noun from a verb)

Derivational noun class

Noun compounding

Affix derivation of nouns

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Affix derivation of verbs

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Affix derivation of adjectives (and adverbs)

Ciscategorical

Transcategorical

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Lexicology

Monoclass nouns and class-derived alternates

Synonymy

Homophones

Homographs

Semantics

The verb tug

The Daùnare verb ⟨tug⟩ nominally means "to bring", but is capable of expressing a whole host of things for which English uses different verbs. It is a so‑called defective verb, meaning it has no antipassive.

Intransitive

When used intransitively in primary voice, it can be used with non‑sentient/non‑volitional arguments to mean "there is":

S V
Harnu tugut.
har‑nu tug‑u‑t
way‑abst.sg.abs bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A way is brought.
‘There is a way.’

The same meaning ("there is") can be expressed with the middle voice for sentient/volitional arguments:

S V
Distan tegut.
dis‑t‑an teg‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.abs mid\bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man brings (himself).
‘There is a man.’

Of course, this also works in conjunction with other tenses and aspects (for, e.g., "There used to be a man", "There will have been a way") – with the exception of the progressive aspect (which exists in the present and future tense).

(Mono)transitive

In (mono)transitive usage in the primary voice, the verb usually does translate as "bring":

A P V
Distas kunen tugut.
dis‑t‑as kun‑en tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg dog‑conc.sg.abs bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man brings a dog.
‘A man brings a dog.’

A peculiarity of this verb is that it is possible to use the middle voice form of the verb transitively, i.e. with an ergative argument (which middle voice verbs usually do not take) functioning as recipient:

A P V
Distas kunen tegut.
dis‑t‑as kun‑en teg‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg dog‑conc.sg.abs mid\bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
(To) a man a dog brings (itself).
‘A man gets a dog.’

Ditransitive

In ditransitive usage the verb can either be translated as "give" or "take" depending on whether the indirect object is dative or ablative:

A P I(DAT) V
Distas kunen disnimi tugut.
dis‑t‑as kun‑en dis=n=i‑mi tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg dog‑conc.sg.abs person=def=∅‑fem.sg.dat bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man brings a dog to the woman.
‘A man gives the woman a dog.’
A P I(ABL) V
Distas kunen plastel tugut.
dis‑t‑as kun‑en plas‑t‑el tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg dog‑conc.sg.abs child‑∅‑conc.sg.abl bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man brings a dog from a child.
‘A man takes a child's dog.’ / ‘A man takes a dog from a child.’

Tritransitive

Both indirect objects can be present to express the idea of giving A to B having taken it from C:

A P I(DAT) I(ABL) V
Distas kunen disnimi plastel tugut.
dis‑t‑as kun‑en dis=n=i‑mi plas‑t‑el tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg dog‑conc.sg.abs person=def=∅‑fem.sg.dat child‑∅‑conc.sg.abl bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man brings a dog to the woman from a child.
‘A man gives the woman a child's dog.’ / ‘A man gives the woman a dog taken from a child.’

Applicative

When used as a di‑ or tritransitive, the verb can be modified using the applicative prefix ⟨do‑⟩ which promotes the dative to patient (and the secondary indirect object to primary). Relatively unusually, ⟨tug⟩ does not function as an intransitive verb with the applicative. Also, unlike some verbs, the applicative prefix cannot be combined with the middle voice stem to produce a medioapplicative.

A P V
Distas disnini dotugut.
dis‑t‑as dis=n=i‑ni do‑tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg person=def=∅‑fem.sg.abs appl‑bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man "bebrings" the woman.
‘A man gives [something] to the woman.’
A P I(DAT) V
Distas disnini plastem dotugut.
dis‑t‑as dis=n=i‑ni plas‑t‑em do‑tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg person=def=∅‑fem.sg.abs child‑∅‑conc.sg.dat appl‑bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man "bebrings" the woman through the child.
‘A man gives [something] to the woman [taken] from the child.’

Diapplicative

As is the case with other tritransitive verbs, the diapplicative prefix ⟨ro‑⟩ can be used to promote the secondary indirect object to patient instead. Much like with the applicative, the diapplicative does not function intransitively (unlike in other verbs). Also, again like the applicative, the diapplicative prefix cannot be combined with the middle stem to produce a mediodiapplicative.

A P V
Distas disnini rotugut.
dis‑t‑as dis=n=i‑ni ro‑tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg person=def=∅‑fem.sg.abs diappl‑bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man "disbrings" the woman.
‘A man takes [something] from the woman.’
A P I(DAT) V
Distas disnini plastem rotugut.
dis‑t‑as dis=n=i‑ni plas‑t‑em ro‑tug‑u‑t
person‑∅‑masc.sg.erg person=def=∅‑fem.sg.abs child‑∅‑conc.sg.dat diappl‑bring‑∅‑prs.3sg
A man "disbrings" the woman through the child.
‘A man takes [something] from the woman [and gives it] to the child.’

Sociolinguistics

Daùnare is subject to significant phonological, morphological, and lexical variation across regions and social classes, as well as age.

Unlike most languages that feature a strong social class distinction in speech, there are two identifiable acrolects: The plutolect, is the prestige dialect of urban elites, "media types", the nouveau riche, and (in a wide sense) liberals. The aristolect, meanwhile, is the prestige dialect of the clergy, "traditional" artists (painters, sculptors, classical musicians), old money (aristocracy and gentry), other well-heeled country-dwellers, and (in a wide sense) conservatives.

Both of these sociolects feature innovations (such as pitch accent in the aristolect, or the extensive coalescence of the plutolect), but on the whole the plutolect can be considered more "innovative" while the aristolect is more "conservative", relative to the historical development of the language. The latter's "conservatism" is particularly evident in lexical terms.

Of course, being multi-dimensional, sociolinguistic variation is multi-faceted, as at least both region and social class (as well as age) will impact on a speaker's idiolect. While regional features are strongest in non-acrolectal speakers, certain features are more or less strongly influential on each acrolect: Speakers of the plutolect are more likely to have regional morphological features, and less likely to use regional vocabulary, while the opposite is the case for acrolectal speakers.

Regional variation

Regional phonologies

Regional morphologies

Regional lexicology

Youth language

Plutolectal features

Plutolectal phonology

Aristolectal features

Aristolectal phonology

Aristolectal lexicology

Isolated communities

Example texts

Other resources