Linguifex

Iliaqu: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Iliaqu (view source)

Revision as of 02:34, 26 January 2023

13,851 bytes added ,  26 January 2023
m
→‎To
 
(40 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 133: Line 133:
|}
|}


* The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].
* The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].
* The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].
* /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].
* /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].
Line 149: Line 150:


::'''nxua intaneti'''
::'''nxua intaneti'''
::/Nʃu.á.i.nta.ne.tí/
::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/
::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]
::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]
::''is on the internet''
::''is on the internet''


===Epenthetic /s/===
===Epenthetic /s/===
Line 208: Line 208:


===Nominals===
===Nominals===
Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the '''pronominals''', are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.
Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the <u>pronominals</u>, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.




Line 237: Line 237:




In addition, there are two ''complementisers'' which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.
In addition to the pronominals, there are two <u>complementisers</u> which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.




Line 404: Line 404:


=====Clusivity=====
=====Clusivity=====
The plural forms of all pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness.  
The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness.
 
The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms ("you, one person, and I") being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.


In order to group referents from more than one grammatical person together, the required pronominals are juxtaposed. For example, '''inu''' (gloss: NOM.1s.ICS) is the exclusive 'we'. The inclusive 'we' may take a form such as '''vu nu''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ICS NOM.1s.ICS) or '''nu ivu''' (gloss: NOM.1s.ICS NOM.2p.ICS), more or less equivalent to 'you and I'. Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons, these are made note of separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS). The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is only used to address two or more people when all are present.  
Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present.


The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person.
The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.


Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.
Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.
Line 724: Line 726:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''ua''' || '''na'''
| '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''
|-
|-
| JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS
| JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS
|-
|-
| "should" || "go - to them" || "you" || "I"
| "should" || "go - to them" || "you and I"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]
| colspan="4" | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]
Line 765: Line 767:
| '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''
| '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''
|-
|-
| IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ACS
| IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS
|-
|-
| "!" || "go - from me"
| "!" || "go - from me"
Line 775: Line 777:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')
| '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')
|-
|-
| be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)
| be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)
|-
|-
| "be known" || "to her/him" || "it" || "since" || "be small" || ("s/he")
| "be known" || "to her/him" || "that" || "since" || "be small" || ("s/he")
|-
|-
| colspan="6" | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''
| colspan="6" | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''
Line 826: Line 828:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xu''' || '''tia'''
| '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''
|-
|-
| begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.that.2
| begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED
|-
|-
| "begin" || "be dead" || "the inaccessible one who" || "be mother" || "be yours" || "when" || "be seen" || ("to the inaccessible one") || "the thing which" || "be that"
| "begin" || "be dead" || "the inaccessible one who" || "be mother" || "be yours" || "when" || "be seen" || ("to the inaccessible one") || "that thing"
|-
|-
| colspan="10" |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''
| colspan="10" |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''
Line 836: Line 838:


=====Genitive=====
=====Genitive=====
The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(g)-''' ('''iu(g)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.
The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.




Line 863: Line 865:


=====Possessive=====
=====Possessive=====
The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(g)-''' ('''iu(g)-''' in plural) but before a nominative nominal.
The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.




Line 878: Line 880:




Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for them to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.
It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''
|-
| be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS
|-
| "be a snake" || "at the thing which" || "be inside" || "be a boot" || "be mine"
|-
| colspan="5" | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]
|}
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''
|-
| be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS
|-
| "be a snake" || "at the thing which" || "be inside" || "be a boot" || "my"
|-
| colspan="5" | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]
|}
 
 
In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.
 
Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.


=====Vocative=====
=====Vocative=====
Line 894: Line 925:
| "oh you"
| "oh you"
|-
|-
| colspan="1" |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]
| colspan="1" |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]
|}
|}


Line 905: Line 936:
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''
|-
|-
| VOC.3s.DEF.ACS
| VOC.3s.DEF.ICS
|-
|-
| "oh they"
| "oh they"
|-
|-
| colspan="1" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]
| colspan="1" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]
|}
|}


Line 1,002: Line 1,033:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ate''' || '''nu'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''
|-
|-
| VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS
| VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS
Line 1,119: Line 1,150:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-ara''' || '''hunia'''
| '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''
|-
|-
| hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.potable
| hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable
|-
|-
| "hunt" || "certain people" || "by" || "wait" || "at anything which" || "is bushes" || "be-at anything which" || "be drinking water"
| "hunt" || "certain people" || "by" || "wait" || "at anything which" || "is bushes" || "be-at any things which" || "be drinking water"
|-
|-
| colspan="8" |  ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="8" |  ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 1,236: Line 1,267:


Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].
Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" |  
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Simple  pronominals
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
| rowspan="2" style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | demonstrative
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
| style="text-align: center; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
| style="text-align: center; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
| style="text-align: center; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
|-
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 1st person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 1st person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | definite animate
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | na
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | na
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | nu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | nu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ina
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ina
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | inu
| rowspan="3" style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" |  
|-
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | definite animate
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ua
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ua
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | vu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | iua
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iua
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ivu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivu
|-
|-
| rowspan="12" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd  person
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd  person
| rowspan="4" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | definite animate
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ja
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ju
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ija
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | iju
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | jaie
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate specific
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | juue
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ma
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ijaie
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | mu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ijuue
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ima
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | imu
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | jaia
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate generic
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | juua
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | u
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ijaia
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ijuua
|-
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate definite
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate specific
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | zu
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | izu
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | jaio
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate generic
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | juuo
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | a
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ijaio
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ia
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ijuuo
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal
|-
|-
| rowspan="4" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | definite inanimate
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Demonstrative pronominals
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | xu
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ixu
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" |  
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | xuue
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ixuue
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | xuua
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: right;" | 3rd person
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ixuua
animate
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial
definite
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>ie</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>ue</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>ie</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>ue</u>
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | xuuo
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ixuuo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>ia</u>
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>ua</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>ia</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>ua</u>
|-
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | specific animate
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ma
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>io</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | mu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>uo</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ima
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>io</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | imu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>uo</u>
| rowspan="6" style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" |  
|-
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | specific inanimate
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd person
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | zu
inanimate
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | izu
definite
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>ue</u>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>ue</u>
|-
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | generic animate
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | u
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>ua</u>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | iu
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>ua</u>
|-
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | generic inanimate
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | a
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>uo</u>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ia
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>uo</u>
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | complimentiser
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Compound pronominals
| colspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | zuo
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | dominant
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | subordinate
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | temporal complimentiser
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd + 1st person
| colspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | kuo
| style="text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | dual
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | uana
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vunu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | uanu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vuna
|-
| style="text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iuana
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivunu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iuanu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivuna
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Complimentisers
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | temporal
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | non-temporal
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | kuo
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | zuo
|}
|}


=====First Person=====
=====First Person=====
First person nominals are all definite.
First person nominals are all definite and animate.


::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
Line 1,369: Line 1,431:


=====Second Person=====
=====Second Person=====
Second person nominals are all definite.
Second person nominals are all definite and animate.


::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.
| || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL
|-
|-
| Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''
| Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''
Line 1,404: Line 1,466:
|}
|}


=====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====
First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.
{| cellpadding="2"
||
|| ICS.DU
|| ACS.DU
|| DOM.DU
|| SUB.DU
|| ICS.PL
|| ACS.PL
|| DOM.PL
|| SUB.PL
|-
|| Nominative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuna
|-
|| Accusative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuine
|-
|| Dative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuine
|-
|| Ablative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuinui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uainai
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uainui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuinai
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuinui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuainai
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuainui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuinai
|-
|| Locative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iauana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iauanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuana
|-
|| Genitive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuine
|-
|| Possessive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uvunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uvuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuvunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuvuna
|-
|| Vocative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | evunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | evuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eivunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eiuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eiuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eivuna
|-
|| Causal
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuine
|-
|| Benefactive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuine
|-
|| Instrumental
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuine
|-
|| Comitative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuine
|-
|| Topical
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuine
|-
|| Essive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ovunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ouana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ouanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ovuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oivunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oiuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oiuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oivuna
|}


=====Third Person=====
=====Third Person=====
Line 1,580: Line 1,796:
|• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person
|• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person
|-
|-
|• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of the opposite gender)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]
|• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]
|-
|-
|• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]
|• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]
Line 1,638: Line 1,854:




::{| class="wikitable"
::{|
|-
|-
| Predicate || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Argument (Subject)  
| style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope="col" width="10" | || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject)  
|-
|-
| '''gahu''' || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''
| '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''
|-
|-
| howl || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon
| howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon
|-
|-
| "howls" || "the being who" || "is a gibbon"  
| "howls" || || "the being who" || "is a gibbon"  
|-
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left" | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left" | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''
|- style="height: 2em;"
|
|-
|-
|
| style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject)
|-
|-
| Predicate || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Argument (Subject)
| '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''
|-
|-
| '''zagua''' || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''
| be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl
|-
|-
| be.gibbon || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl
| "is a gibbon" || || "the being who" || "howls"
|-
|-
| "is a gibbon" || "the being who" || "howls"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left" | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left" | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''
|}
|}


Line 1,801: Line 2,017:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''
| '''lamas''' || '''aja''' || '''teui'''
|-
|-
| be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS
| be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS
Line 1,807: Line 2,023:
| "is (a) tear(s)" || "at him/her" || "because of you"
| "is (a) tear(s)" || "at him/her" || "because of you"
|-
|-
| colspan="3" | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/DOM]
| colspan="3" | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]
|}
|}


Line 1,947: Line 2,163:
======Gerundive======
======Gerundive======


The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something.
The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.




Line 1,955: Line 2,171:
::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)
::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)
::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)
::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)
:* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes', 'to look at'
:* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'
::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)
:* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'
::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']
:* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'
::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)
:* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'
::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']
:* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'
::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)
:* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'
::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)
:* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'
::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)
::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)
:* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', 'to crush under a boot'
:* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'
::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot)
::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)
:* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'
::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']
:* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'
:* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'
::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted)
::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']
 


======Locative======
======Locative======
Line 1,981: Line 2,210:
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')
:* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'
:* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with money')
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')
:* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'
:* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')
Line 2,012: Line 2,241:
In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.
In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.


Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha'''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').
Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').


Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.
Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.
Line 2,116: Line 2,345:
| "break gender roles" || "hit" || "the inaccessible being" || "the accessible being"
| "break gender roles" || "hit" || "the inaccessible being" || "the accessible being"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''
| colspan="4" |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''
|}
|}


Line 2,174: Line 2,403:
|}
|}


'''Au''' is also a verbal occa
'''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean "to be first", however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.


====''Ha''====
====''Ha''====
Line 2,304: Line 2,533:
| "be very" || "rain" || "so" || "be going to" || "become large" || "the things which" || "be stream"
| "be very" || "rain" || "so" || "be going to" || "become large" || "the things which" || "be stream"
|-
|-
| colspan="7" | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''
| colspan="7" | ''It's raining hard, {{color|MediumBlue|so}} the streams are going to swell.''
|}
|}


Line 2,780: Line 3,009:
|-
|-
| "kill deliberately" || "the thing which" || "be.dog" || "while" || "be not" || "the accessible being who" || "be Tehi" || "while" || "be indeed" || "the accessible being who" || "be Mbuja"
| "kill deliberately" || "the thing which" || "be.dog" || "while" || "be not" || "the accessible being who" || "be Tehi" || "while" || "be indeed" || "the accessible being who" || "be Mbuja"
|-
| colspan="11" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''
|}
Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''
|-
| kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja
|-
| "kill deliberately" || "the thing which" || "be.dog" || "while be not" || "the accessible being who" || "be Tehi" || "while be indeed" || "the accessible being who" || "be Mbuja"
|-
|-
| colspan="11" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''
| colspan="11" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''
Line 2,929: Line 3,173:
| "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="3" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="3" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,952: Line 3,196:
| "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,964: Line 3,208:
| "be underway" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be underway" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,976: Line 3,220:
| "be going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,996: Line 3,240:
| "be earlier" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be earlier" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 3,008: Line 3,252:
| "be now" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be now" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 3,135: Line 3,379:
| "will" || "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "will" || "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 3,146: Line 3,390:
| "was" || "will" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "was" || "will" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 3,161: Line 3,405:
| "will be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "will be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 3,172: Line 3,416:
| "was going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "was going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 3,655: Line 3,899:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''
|-
|-
| then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich
| then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich
Line 3,699: Line 3,943:


===Speech Crime===
===Speech Crime===
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
Imralu
577

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/192092...295775"