Is Burunking: Difference between revisions

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! width="10%;" | Verb !! width="20%;" | Primary !! width="30%;" | Secondary !! width="40%;" | Key Derivatives
! width="10%;" | Verb !! width="20%;" | Primary !! width="30%;" | Secondary !! width="40%;" | Key Derivatives
|-
|-
! ''eba ''
! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Motion
| (vt.) incise || cut, scratch, carve; mark || ''ebaba'' (vt.) hack; ''enaba'' (vt.) slash, wound
|-
|-
! ''ebang''
! ''ibii''  
| (vt.) give || offer, pay; provide ||  
| (vi.) move (without reference to path) || travel; flow || ''erabii'' (vt.) drive, goad, propel, impel
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''ebei''
! rowspan="2;" | ''egang''  
| (vi.) come together || assemble, congregate, swarm, herd || ''enabei'' swarm, throng
| (vi.) go up || rise, improve; grow || ''eragang'' (vt.) improve; raise, lift
|-
|-
| (vt.) bring together || collect, gather, assemble; herd || ''ebeibei'' hoard, amass
| (vt.) go up || ascend, climb ||
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''ebeng''  
! rowspan="2;" | ''ewash''
| (vi.) sit || be located, be situated || ''erabeng'' (vt.) put, place, establish, fix
| (vi.) go down || descend, fall; deteriorate || ''enawash'' (vi.) fall <br/> ''erawash'' (vt.) fell, drop
|-
|-
| (vt.) set || put, place, set down ||
| (vt.) go down sth || descend ||  
|-
|-
! ''egas''  
! ''ero''
| (vt.) get || obtain, receive; understand || ''eragas'' (vt.) explain, inform; give
| (vt.) come into contact with sth || touch, rub || ''eroro'' (vt.) hit, strike <br/> ''enaro'' (vt.) molest, grope
|-
! ''etoz''
| (vi.) move (up to sth) || come; approach, reach; arrive ||
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''egang''  
! ''yus''  
| (vi.) go up || rise, improve; grow || ''eragang'' (vt.) improve; raise, lift
| (vt.) move away (from sth) || go, leave || ''enaus'' (vt.) abandon, flee from
|-
|-
| (vt.) go up || ascend, climb ||
! ''euging''
| (vt.) come (from-to) || ||
|-
|-
! ''egong''  
! ''ewang''  
| (vi.) remain || wait, stay; dwell; rest || ''eragong'' keep, detain, maintain
| (vi.) go (to-from) || ||
|-
|-
! ''egos''  
! ''exaz''  
| (vt.) throw || shoot, cast; release ||  
| (vt.) move into || enter, penetrate || ''enaxaz'' (vt.) infiltrate, violate
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''egosh''  
! ''yuki''  
| (vi.) heat || cook, boil, warm ||
| (vt.) move out of || exit, leave ||
|-
|-
| (vt.) heat || cook, boil, warm || ''enagosh'' burn, overcook
! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Location & State
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''ekash''  
! ''egong''  
| (vi.) obtain knowledge || learn, comprehend || rowspan="2;" | ''ekaikash'' (vi.) study <br/> ''erakash'' (vt.) teach , educate, instruct s.o. <br/> ''erakaiki'' (vt.) teach sth
| (vi.) remain || wait, stay; dwell; rest || ''eragong'' keep, detain, maintain
|-
|-
| (vt.) obtain knowledge of sth || learn sth
! rowspan="2;" |  ''ebeng''
| (vi.) sit || be located, be situated || ''erabeng'' (vt.) put, place, establish, fix
|-
|-
! ''elaz''
| (vt.) set || put, place, set down ||
| (vt.) divide sth || split; separate ||
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''eresh''
| (vi.) constrict || narrow, shrink, tighten ||
|-
| (vt.) constrict sth || press, squeeze || ''ereiresh'' (vt.) crush <br/> ''enaresh'' (vt.) restrain, constrain
|-
|-
! ''ero''
| (vt.) come into contact with sth || touch, rub || ''eroro'' (vt.) hit, strike <br/> ''enaro'' (vt.) molest, grope
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''esuang''  
! rowspan="2;" | ''esuang''  
| (vi.) lie (down) || be located horizontally; spread out, extend || ''enasuang'' (vt.) block, obstruct
| (vi.) lie (down) || be located horizontally; spread out, extend || ''enasuang'' (vt.) block, obstruct
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| (vt.) lay || ||
| (vt.) lay || ||
|-
|-
! ''etoz''  
! rowspan="2;" | ''eyeki''  
| (vi.) move towards (speaker) || come || ''etootoz'' (vi.) rush at, charge
| (vi.) stand || be located vertically || ''erakash'' (vt.) build, erect
|-
| (vt.) stand sth up || ||
|-
|-
! ''ewaging''  
! ''yehang''  
| (vt.) come near sth || approach, reach; arrive || ''ewawaging'' (vt.) rush at, charge at, attack
| (vi.) be || exist, live ||
|-
|-
! ''ewang''
! colspan="4;" | Change of State
| (vi.) move away from (speaker) || go || ''ewanuang'' (vi.) flee, escape <br/> ''enawang'' (vi.) abandon, leave
|-
|-
! ''ewas''  
! rowspan="2;" | ''egosh''  
| (vi.) step || pace, tread; measure || ''ewaawas'' (vt.) trample, trod <br/> ''enawas'' (vi.) misstep, stumble
| (vi.) heat || cook, boil, warm ||
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''ewash''
| (vt.) heat || cook, boil, warm || ''enagosh'' burn, overcook
| (vi.) go down || descend, fall; deteriorate || ''enawash'' (vi.) fall <br/> ''erawash'' (vt.) fell, drop
|-
|-
| (vt.) go down sth || descend ||  
! rowspan="2;" | ''eresh''
| (vi.) constrict || narrow, shrink, tighten ||
|-
|-
! ''exaz''
| (vt.) constrict sth || press, squeeze || ''ereiresh'' (vt.) crush <br/> ''enaresh'' (vt.) restrain, constrain
| (vt.) move into || enter, penetrate || ''enaxaz'' (vt.) infiltrate, violate
|-
|-
! ''exoz''  
! ''exoz''  
| (vt.) begin sth || beget, produce, create, conceive ||  
| (vt.) begin sth || beget, produce, create, conceive ||  
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''eyeki''
| (vi.) stand || be located vertically || ''erakash'' (vt.) build, erect
|-
| (vt.) stand sth up || ||
|-
! ''ibii''
| (vi.) move (without reference to path) || travel; flow || ''erabii'' (vt.) drive, goad, propel, impel
|-
! ''iging''
| (vt.) make, do || ||
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''iji''  
! rowspan="2;" | ''iji''  
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|-
|-
| (vt.) spread sth || scatter, disperse, distribute ||
| (vt.) spread sth || scatter, disperse, distribute ||
|-
! ''yata''
| (vi.) happen || ||  ''eraata'' (vt.) cause sth to happen, instigate <br/> ''enaata'' (vi.) befall
|-
! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Action
|-
! ''eba ''
| (vt.) incise || cut, scratch, carve; mark || ''ebaba'' (vt.) hack; ''enaba'' (vt.) slash, wound
|-
! ''ebang''
| (vt.) give || offer, pay; provide ||
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''ebei''
| (vi.) come together || assemble, congregate, swarm, herd || ''enabei'' swarm, throng
|-
| (vt.) bring together || collect, gather, assemble; herd || ''ebeibei'' hoard, amass
|-
! ''egos''
| (vt.) throw || shoot, cast; release ||
|-
! ''elaz''
| (vt.) divide sth || split; separate ||
|-
! ''ewas''
| (vi.) step || pace, tread; measure || ''ewaawas'' (vt.) trample, trod <br/> ''enawas'' (vi.) misstep, stumble
|-
! ''iging''
| (vt.) make, do || ||
|-
|-
! ''ilung''  
! ''ilung''  
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|-
|-
| (vt.) say sth || speak sth, make a sound ||  
| (vt.) say sth || speak sth, make a sound ||  
|-
! ''ipush''
| (vt.) perceive || know; sense ||
|-
!  ''ishi''
| (vt.) regard || consider, think; view ||
|-
|-
! ''izung''  
! ''izung''  
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| (vt.) take in || consume, eat, drink; receive, accept ||  
| (vt.) take in || consume, eat, drink; receive, accept ||  
|-
|-
! ''yata''  
! ''yosh''  
| (vi.) happen || || ''eraata'' (vt.) cause sth to happen, instigate <br/> ''enaata'' (vi.) befall
| (vt.) puncture || pierce || ''enaush'' (vt.) stab
|-
! ''egas''
| (vt.) get || obtain, receive; understand || ''eragas'' (vt.) explain, inform; give
|-
 
! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Perception
|-
|-
! ''yehang''  
! rowspan="2;" | ''ekash''  
| (vi.) be || exist, live ||
| (vi.) obtain knowledge || learn, comprehend || rowspan="2;" | ''ekaikash'' (vi.) study <br/> ''erakash'' (vt.) teach , educate, instruct s.o. <br/> ''erakaiki'' (vt.) teach sth
|-
|-
! ''yosh''
| (vt.) obtain knowledge of sth || learn sth
| (vt.) puncture || pierce || ''enaush'' (vt.) stab
|-
|-
! ''yuki''  
! ''ipush''  
| (vt.) go out of || exit, leave ||
| (vt.) perceive || know; sense ||  
|-
|-
! ''yus''  
! ''ishi''  
| (vt.) move away from || go, leave || ''enaus'' (vt.) abandon, flee from
| (vt.) regard || consider, think; view ||  
|}
|}



Revision as of 20:48, 12 July 2018


Is Burunking
Is
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|is]]
Created byNeil Whalley
Native toBurung
Native speakers? ()
Official status
Official language in
Burung

Is Burunking (/is buɾˈuŋkiŋ/, literally 'Burungian language') is the language of Burung, an island in the north Atlantic Ocean.

Background

Phonology

Consonants

Bilabial Alveolar Post-alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal      m      n      ŋ
Plosive p    b t    d k    g
Fricative ɸ      s      ʃ           ʐ ç      h     
Affricate t͡ʃ    d͡ʒ
Flap or tap      ɾ
Approximant      w      j
Lateral app.      l

Vowels

Front Back
Close i u
Open-mid ɛ ɔ
Open a

Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in eekez 'left' /ɛːkɛz/. Note that word-initial sequences of i + i and u + uu are written yi-, -wu.

Diphthongs

There are six diphthongs proper: ai /ai/, ei /ei/, oi /oi/, au /au/, eu /eu/ and ou /ou/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.

Phonotactics

Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are restrictions on the other elements also:

C1 G V1 V2 C2
  • optional
  • only b, g, d, h, x, l, n, ng or m word-initially
  • any consonant word-medially
  • optional
  • only y or w/u
  • mandatory
  • any vowel
  • optional
  • only i, u or the preceding vowel repeated
  • optional
  • only s, sh, ng or z word-finally
  • only n or m before a consonant

The word-final consonants s, sh, ng and z are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:

  • Final -s is lost, the preceding vowel lengthens and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: is 'language, speech' + -do (pejorative) = yito 'curse', os 'cold' + -pung (abstract) = oopung 'coldness'.
  • Final -sh is replaced by -i-, forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel (ush > oi, ish > ei, ii), and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: banash 'fruit' + -to (diminutive) = banaito 'berry', ush 'empty' + gyong 'person' = oikyong 'vain person'.
  • Final -ng becomes -n- (or -m before p, b, f): gyong 'person' + -zoi (collective) = gyonzoi 'team, band', yong 'smooth' + -pung (abstract) = yompung 'smoothness'.
  • Final -z is lost entirely: az 'man' + -chi (adjectival) = achi 'masculine'.

Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings. In words of three or more syllables, the vowel is always lost, e.g. arato 'food' + -oi (adjectival) = aratoi 'gluttonous', eshayo 'sea' + ugi 'bread' = eshayugi 'seaweed'. Words of two syllables usually lose their final vowel, e.g. binji 'mountain' + arate 'gap' = binjarate 'mountain pass', but when the second word is only one syllable the final vowel sometimes remains, forming a glide in the case of i or u e.g. bigi 'eye' + uz 'water' = bigyuz. In reduplication, the final vowel often remains in disyllables, e.g. aze-aze 'very dark'.

Stress

Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. berósu 'nine', esháyo 'sea', ázeng 'fish'.

Orthography

Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called hookozoi, mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.

When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.

Graph IPA
Consonants
b /b/
ch /t͡ʃ/
d /d/
f /ɸ/
g /g/
h /h/
j /d͡ʒ/
k /k/
l /l/
m /m/
n /n/
ng /ŋ/
p /p/
r /r/
s /s/
sh /ʃ/
t /t/
w /w/
x /ç/
y /j/
Vowels
a /a/
e /ɛ/
i /i/
o /ɔ/
u /u/
Diphthongs
ai /ai/
au /au/
ei /ei/
eu /eu/
oi /oi/
ou /ou/

In word or syllable initial position the sequences ii, uu are written yi, wu. The glide /j/ is always written y but /w/ is written u following a consonant and w syllable initially.

Grammar

Nouns

Gender

Strictly speaking, Is Burunking, like English, does not have grammatical gender affecting the morphology of words. Their concept of natural gender, however, is substantially different from many other cultures and does influence language to certain extent. It is rooted in a more fundamental understanding of how things in the world are related and categorised.

At its most basic, all things (and the names that describe them) are considered either animate (bixi) or inanimate (es bixi). The primary distinction between these two groups is that animate nouns are capable of movement under their own power, but inanimate ones are not. Humans, animals and deities are therefore considered animate (as are some celestial bodies), whereas plants, rocks and abstract concepts are inanimate.

Within the class of animate nouns, a further distinction is made between three genders: masculine' (achi), feminine (buyachi) or common (iriji). Inclusion within one of these three groups is based to some extent on biological sex, but also takes into account personality, strengths and a chosen role within society.

At birth, all human children are considered to be iriji (literally "middle") and remain so throughout childhood until the onset of puberty. At some point during puberty, depending on the development of the individual, the child will be undergo an initiation into adulthood as either achi, buyachi or iriji, taking a gendered form of their name and a byname to symbolise this important rite of passage. The choice of appropriate gender is made by the commmunity elders, with input from the parents and/or foster parents, based on an understanding of the individual.

There are no hard and fast rules regarding gender, rather each has a series of rather complex associations. The table below shows some of the basic characteristics for each group:

Header text Buyachi Iriji Achi Es Bixi
Element Earth Fire Water Air
Direction East South West North
Season Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Celestial Body Moon Sun Moon Sun
Lunar Phase Waxing Full Waning New
Solar Phase Dawn Day Evening Night
Temperature Warm/Wet Hot/Dry Cool/Wet Cold/Dry
Family Mother Child Father House


Animate
Bixi
Masculine
Achi
  • adult male humans
  • some male animals
  • male deities
  • fu 'fire', oi 'sun'
Feminine
Buyachi
  • adult female humans
  • some female animals
  • female deities
  • luz 'earth'
Common
Iriji
  • human children
  • most animals
  • edible plants
  • uz 'water', yozi 'rain'
Inanimate
Ee Bixi
  • unmoving objects
  • most materials
  • abstracts

These gender distinctions have a limited effect on the morphology of nouns themselves but affect the way other words behave.

Case

Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun.

Case Particle Uses
Topicaliser ba marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance
Nominative az marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)
Accusative ke marks the direct object of a verb
Genitive eng marks the possessor of an object, 'of'
Dative ni marks the indirect object of a verb, 'to'
Allative a marks movement towards, 'to'
Ablative chi marks movement away from, 'from, of, through'
Locative gang marks location 'in, on, at'
Instrumental ha marks use of, 'with, by'

Number

Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether heuji means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. bade oz 'one dog, a dog'.

There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural: -zoi is used to refer to a group of things, usually within a single place, e.g. gyonzoi 'band, group, team of people', heujizoi 'a herd of horses'; -bua is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. gyombua 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', binjibua 'mountains'. Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in azoi 'council, assembly' from az 'man'. Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. gyongyong 'crowd, mass of people', yaiyai 'storm' (from yai 'wind').

Adjectives

Adjectives precede the noun they modify and are not altered for gender, number or case.

Comparison is expressed by means of particles. The comparative uses the particle byang, somewhat equivalent to Eng. "than", with a noun (standard) of comparison and the positive adjective. Where English uses the pattern [Noun 1] is [Comparative] + than + [Noun 2] (e.g. Eric is bigger than Tom), Is Burunking uses the pattern [Noun 1] + [Noun 2] + byang + [Adjective] + da (e.g. Eric ba Tom byang enji da). There is no equivalent to the English attributive comparative adjective and phrases such as "Eric is the taller brother" would be translated best with the positive adjective, e.g. Eric ba enji angane da lit. "Eric is the tall sibling".

Superlatives are formed from the positive adjective with the suffix -na and precede the noun they modify, e.g. enjina az "biggest man", lashana ebaz "quietest river". The usual sentence structure follows the pattern [Topic] + ba (+ [Location] + gang) + [Superlative] + [Noun] + da, e.g. Eric ba (Burung gang) enjina az da "Eric is the tallest man (in Burung).

Numerals

Cardinal Ordinal
1 zu leneng
2 hai uzeng
3 gi gichi
4 baka bakachi
5 utu utuchi
6 xa xachi
7 gyeng gyenchi
8 eileng eilenchi
9 zuneng zunenchi
10 haz hachi
11 zu-haz zu-hachi
20 hatorung hatorunchi
21 zu-hatorung zu-hatorunchi
30 gyauka gyaukachi
40 bakauka bakaukachi
50 utauka utaukachi
60 xauka xaukachi
70 gyengauka gyengaukachi
80 eilengauka eilengaukachi
90 zunengauka zunengaukachi
100 inung inunchi
101 zu-inung zu-inunchi
121 zu-hatorung-inung zu-hatorung-inunchi

Pronouns

Personal

Singular Plural
1 inclusive ni bua
exclusive bu
2 yi fu
3 masculine az azoi
feminine buya buyazoi
common xini xinizoi


There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative pronoun ong being used instead.

Possessives may be formed with the particle eng, e.g. ni eng yata "my father", xini eng eshe "its house".

Reflexive

The reflexive pronoun bera is used as the direct or indirect object of a verb, referring the action back to the subject. The pronoun doesn't change for person or number and simply fills the relevant object slot of the sentence, e.g. az ba bera ke bigiipush fong "he saw himself", ni eng asho ba bera ni inua da "my grandma talks to herself". It is usually only used with animate subjects.

Demonstratives

There are three series of demonstratives expressing three degrees of proximity:

  • ong "this" denotes objects close to the speaker
  • uri "that" (proximal) denotes objects close to the hearer
  • ang "that" (distal) denotes objects at a distance or abstract
this
ong
that (prox.)
uri
that (dist.)
ang
Object (inan.) ong
this
uri
that
ang
that yonder
person m azong
that man
azuri
that man
azang
that man yonder
f. buyong
this woman
buyuri
that woman
buyang
that woman yonder
c. xinyong
this xini
xinyuri
that xini
xinyang
that xini yonder
Place ukyong
here
ukyuri
there
ukyang
yonder
Way bideung
this way
bideuri
that way
bideeng
that way yonder
Time eujong
now
eujuri
then (recent)
eujang
then (distant)

These forms are all really pronouns, but they may perform adjectival or adverbial functions. The simple forms ong, uri, ang are used as adjectives following a noun, e.g. eshe uri "that house". As pronouns, these are used with inanimate objects and the 'person' forms are used with animates, agreeing in gender with the (natural) gender of the object, e.g. ang ba ni eng eshe da "that is my house", azong ba buya eng yata da "this (man) is her father".

The 'place', 'way' and 'time' forms function as adverbs when they take the appropriate case particle, e.g. andosh ba ukyong a etozi heng "the king came here", eujong gang ni ba yus zu "I am leaving now".

Interrogative

Interrogative pronouns and adverbs are formed with the prefix n(o)- and a nominal element:

what nohez
who nogyong
where nuki
how nobide
why nonaze
when neuji

These interrogatives may take postpositions such as nogyong go 'whose'

Indefinite

Indefinite pronouns are formed using the same nominal elements as the interrogative pronouns, but with different affixes.

some-
(-do)
any-
(eno-)
every-
(-bua)
-thing hedo enohez hebua
-one, -body gyondo enogyong gyombua
-where ukido enuki ukibua
-how bidedo enobide bidebua
(reason) nazedo enonaze nazebua
-time eujido eneuji eujibua


The 'any-' forms are also used as the equivalent of English pronouns with '-ever', e.g. enobide 'however', enogyong 'whoever'. They are also employed in negative sentences to mean 'no-one', 'nowhere' etc.

Verbs

Verbs are marked for aspect and variations in tense, mood and valency are indicated by means of particles that follow the verb. Person, gender and number are not marked on verbs.

One of the defining features of Is Burunking is a relatively small class of true verbs (less than 50), which carry a range of rather generic senses. A large proportion of these verbs are associated with movement along a specific path, and beside the simple ibii "move, travel" there are verbs meaning "go (away from speaker), go (away from 3rd person), go up, go down, go in, go out, come (to speaker), come (to 3rd person)". Others are associated with basic human functions ("consume, expel, perceive"), actions ("do, collect, hit") or existence ("be, have"). These 'true' verbs may take a limited number of prefixes to extend their meaning, e.g. erakash "teach" < ekash "learn". To create a much wider variety of senses the true verbs, whether simple or prefixed, are compounded with other elements, primarily nouns, other verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

The True Verbs

True verbs consist of a prefix and a root. In the base form of the verb (i.e. when it stands alone), the prefix is e-, i- or y- and bears no particular meaning.

The following prefixes may be used with the true verbs, replacing the e-, i- or y- of the base:

  • era- (causative), e.g. erakash "teach" < ekash "learn", erayeki "build, erect" < eyeki "stand".
  • ena- (pejorative), e.g. enaro "molest" < ero "touch", enaus "flee, escape" < yus "move away". The prefix specifically indicates perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances and does not suggest that the action of the verb was performed badly.

The root of a true verb may also be reduplicated to form a verb with intensive or frequentative meaning, e.g. ewaawas "stomp, trample", inuanua "shout, roar", eralulu "destroy".

The following are the main true verbs, given with their primary meaning in bold, plus secondary meanings and important derivatives:

Verb Primary Secondary Key Derivatives
Verbs of Motion
ibii (vi.) move (without reference to path) travel; flow erabii (vt.) drive, goad, propel, impel
egang (vi.) go up rise, improve; grow eragang (vt.) improve; raise, lift
(vt.) go up ascend, climb
ewash (vi.) go down descend, fall; deteriorate enawash (vi.) fall
erawash (vt.) fell, drop
(vt.) go down sth descend
ero (vt.) come into contact with sth touch, rub eroro (vt.) hit, strike
enaro (vt.) molest, grope
etoz (vi.) move (up to sth) come; approach, reach; arrive
yus (vt.) move away (from sth) go, leave enaus (vt.) abandon, flee from
euging (vt.) come (from-to)
ewang (vi.) go (to-from)
exaz (vt.) move into enter, penetrate enaxaz (vt.) infiltrate, violate
yuki (vt.) move out of exit, leave
Verbs of Location & State
egong (vi.) remain wait, stay; dwell; rest eragong keep, detain, maintain
ebeng (vi.) sit be located, be situated erabeng (vt.) put, place, establish, fix
(vt.) set put, place, set down
esuang (vi.) lie (down) be located horizontally; spread out, extend enasuang (vt.) block, obstruct
(vt.) lay
eyeki (vi.) stand be located vertically erakash (vt.) build, erect
(vt.) stand sth up
yehang (vi.) be exist, live
Change of State
egosh (vi.) heat cook, boil, warm
(vt.) heat cook, boil, warm enagosh burn, overcook
eresh (vi.) constrict narrow, shrink, tighten
(vt.) constrict sth press, squeeze ereiresh (vt.) crush
enaresh (vt.) restrain, constrain
exoz (vt.) begin sth beget, produce, create, conceive
iji (vi.) appear come into view; seem, look like
(vt.) show explain, illustrate
ilu (vi.) die break, stop, cease eralu (vt.) kill, break
ilulu (vi.) die
iluaz (vi.) spread scatter, disperse eraluaz (vt.) cause to scatter, dispel
(vt.) spread sth scatter, disperse, distribute
yata (vi.) happen eraata (vt.) cause sth to happen, instigate
enaata (vi.) befall
Verbs of Action
eba (vt.) incise cut, scratch, carve; mark ebaba (vt.) hack; enaba (vt.) slash, wound
ebang (vt.) give offer, pay; provide
ebei (vi.) come together assemble, congregate, swarm, herd enabei swarm, throng
(vt.) bring together collect, gather, assemble; herd ebeibei hoard, amass
egos (vt.) throw shoot, cast; release
elaz (vt.) divide sth split; separate
ewas (vi.) step pace, tread; measure ewaawas (vt.) trample, trod
enawas (vi.) misstep, stumble
iging (vt.) make, do
ilung (vt.) hold have, possess; use
inua (vi.) speak make a sound, resound eranua (vt.) ring, play
(vt.) say sth speak sth, make a sound
izung (vi. & vt.) expel defecate, emit; reject enazung (vi. & vt.) vomit, abort
yang (vt.) take in consume, eat, drink; receive, accept
yosh (vt.) puncture pierce enaush (vt.) stab
egas (vt.) get obtain, receive; understand eragas (vt.) explain, inform; give
Verbs of Perception
ekash (vi.) obtain knowledge learn, comprehend ekaikash (vi.) study
erakash (vt.) teach , educate, instruct s.o.
erakaiki (vt.) teach sth
(vt.) obtain knowledge of sth learn sth
ipush (vt.) perceive know; sense
ishi (vt.) regard consider, think; view

Compound Verbs

The range of meaning of each true verb is extended considerably by compounding with other forms, according to a few simple rules. In each case the other element precedes the main verb and the meaningless prefix of the base form is lost (era-, ena- are also reduced to -ra-, -na-).

  • Noun + Verb in which the noun denotes the direct object of the verb, e.g. burushigos "to throw a spear", bazenua "to laugh" (lit. "to say laughter" < baze "laughter").
    • In many cases the first element is effectively a verbal noun, which is usually followed by -ging "do", e.g. loging "to sleep" (lo "sleep, sleeping"), ezeging "to burn" (eze "burning").
    • Any action denoting the making of sound is created with -nua "speak", e.g. xennua "to name, to call" (xeng "name"), ozonua "to roar, bellow" (ozo "roaring").
    • -lung "have" is used to denote possession of characteristics or emotions, e.g. neilung "to desire" (nei "desire, want").
    • Where the noun is the true direct object, the resulting verb becomes intransitive (note the difference between burushi ke egos zu "throwing a spear" (trans.) and burushigos da (intrans.)). However, in many cases the incorporated noun is a generic object extending the sense of the verb. Where a more specific direct object is required, the verb remains transitive. Consider the following sentences
Ama ba arato ke omba ni ebang zu
mother-TOP food-ACC child-DAT give PRT.pres.trans
"A mother gives food to a child" (no incorporation)
Ama ba omba ni aratobang da
mother-TOP child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.intrans
"A mother gives food to (feeds) a child"
In the second example the verb is intransitive and the direct object slot remains empty. It may be filled by a specific type of food, and the verb must become transitive:
Ama ba heene ke omba ni aratobang zu
mother-TOP milk-ACC child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.trans
"A mother feeds milk to a child"
Where there is no specific direct object, the natural indirect object may be promoted to the grammatical object (taking ke) by the addition of the suffix -ki to the end of the verb. This has the effect of creating a more intimate relationship between the subject and object:
Ama ba ombe ke aratobanki zu
mother-TOP child-ACC food-give PRT.pres.trans
"A mother feeds a child"
  • Adjective + Verb to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, depending on the verb used:
    • -toz "come" means "become, turn", e.g. furitoz "turn white" (furi "white"), eregitoz "lighten" (eregi "light").
    • -ging "make" is a transitive verb meaning "to turn ...", e.g. beleeking "make dark" (beles "black").
    • -shi "consider, view" forms verbs referring to the subject's opinion of something, e.g. onshi "like, approve of" (ong "good), xinshi "believe" (xing "true").
  • Verb + Verb in which the first verb modifies the sense of the second.
  • Adverb + Verb in which the adverbs denotes the method, direction or means of doing the action.
    • An adverb derived from a noun plus the adverbial suffix -(e)s may precede a verb to show the instrument by which the action is achieved, e.g. wengeepii "walk" (weng "foot" + ibii "move"), aneetoopa "cut with knife" (aneeto "knife" + eba "cut, incise").
    • An adverb consisting of an adjective + -ki may precede a verb to denote manner, e.g. laitekibii "move quickly" (laitez "quick"), byukinua "to babble, speak in tongues" (byuz "twisted").

Conjugation

Verbs are conjugated largely by means of particles that follow the main verb. Verbs may express the following:

  • Tense: present or non-present
  • Mood: indicative, hypothetical, imperative
  • Aspect: imperfective or perfective
  • Valency: transitive, intransitive or causative.

The verb stem, whether primary or secondary, is considered imperfective in sense. A perfective sense is indicated by adding the suffix -i to the stem, e.g. yang "eats, eating" > yangi "ate", inuapush "asks, asking" > inuapushi "asked".

There are two main sets of particles to indicate tense, mood and valency: da particles are used with intransitive verbs and zu particles with transitive and causative verbs. Each set has a different particle for present and past indicative, hypothetical and imperative. These are placed directly after the main verb, e.g. yang zu "is eating", erayekii fong "was building".

Function Intransitive Transitive Usage with Imperfective or Perfective
Present da zu Impf: denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. egosh zu "cooks, is cooking, will cook".
Perf: denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. egoshi zu "has cooked".
Past heng fong Impf: denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. egosh fong "was cooking"
Perf: denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. egoshi fong "had cooked".
Hypothetical li lu Impf: denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. egosh lu "may be cooking".
Perf: denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. egoshi lu "may have cooked".
Imperative bii byo Used only with the Impf. to denote a command (2nd person) or an entreaty (1st and 3rd person), e.g. egosh byo "cook!"

Other particles may precede the main particle, giving further shades of meaning. These are usually joined with a hyphen, e.g. ngane ka etoz au-da? "will he come?"

Particle Meaning Uses
es negative negates any verb, e.g. nepa ka ilui es-heng "she did not die"
au interrogative asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. yi ka ewang au-da? "are you going?"
te uncertainty expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ngane ka loging te-da "perhaps he is sleeping"
meng hearsay indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ngange ka loging meng-da "I heard he is sleeping"
ba "if" indicates the conditional, e.g. yi ewang ba-da "if you are going".

Modals

Modality is expressed by means of other secondary particles, placed before the main tense particle, which is always in the zu series, even if the verb is intransitive.

Particle Meaning Uses
anau can, may expresses ability, including cabability, knowledge how and ability according to circumstances, e.g. ni ba irixinua anau-zu "I can sing".
beez must, need expresses necessity, e.g. ni ba lowash beez-zu "I need to go to sleep".
nei want expresses desire to do something, e.g. ni ba eshe a ewang nei-fong "I wanted to go home".

Postpositions

Spatial relations are largely expressed by means of the case particles, but additional senses can be expressed by nominal elements in combination with the gentive eng and the locative gang. A concise list of forms expressing spatial relations is given below.

Simple Particles
a to, towards, up to buya ba ibya a ewangi heng "the woman went to the river"
chi from, of, off, through ni eng asho binji chi ewashi heng "my grandmother came down from the mountain"
gang in, on, at arato ba jibang gang da "the food is on the floor"
ha with, by eba byo aneeto ha "cut it with a knife!"
heez across, over, beyond
ni to (recipient), for (purpose, intent)
ta with (comitative)
Compounds with eng ... gang
auda beside, by
bee under, below, beneath
beekaz behind, at the back of, after
bozu inside
geeng outside
gyang on top of, on
iriji in the middle of, inside
waz in front of, before

Derivation

Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding.

Suffix Use Example
Adjectives
-chi (nouns) 'of, like, pertaining to; full of, covered with' buyachi "feminine, female" (buya "woman"), busochi "shitty"
-dazi (noun) 'of a person/thing from, -ian, -ese' binjidazi 'of a mountain-dweller'
-i (nouns) 'having the characteristics of'
(verbs) perfective participle
eechii "sweet" (eechi "honey")
inuai "said" (inua "say")
-jing (nouns) 'resembling' (often pejorative) ajing "man-like" (az "man")
-king (nouns) 'of, relating to' Burunking "of Burung"
-oi (nouns) tending to, fond of aratoi "gluttonous" (arato "food")
-ri (nouns) forms colour adjectives odouri "red" (odoi "blood")
Nouns
-bua (nouns) collective, abstract gyombua "people, population; humanity" (gyong "person")
-daz (noun) person or thing from eshayodaz 'foreigner' (eshayo "sea")
-do (nouns) pejorative bazedo "mocking laughter" (baze "laughter")
-iri (nouns) thing connected with, found near yipuiri "glove" (yipu "hand")
-ki (adjectives) concrete noun bixiki "living thing" (bixi "alive")
-ko (nouns) instrument, person connected with
(verbs) agent, instrument, tool
goudeko "ploughman" (goude "plough")
exooko "creator"
-no (nouns) diminutive (often pejorative) ano "coward" (az "man")
-te (adjectives) abstracts, states bixite "life" (bixi "alive")
-to (nouns) diminutive hizito 'piglet' (hizi "pig")
-zoi (nouns) collective, group eshezoi "settlement" (eshe "house")
-zung (nouns) possessor of ombazung "parent" (omba "child")

Syntax

Summary of Particles

a allative "to, towards, up to"
Noun az az Example
au interrogative, precedes auxiliary verb
Aux. Vb. Example Example
az nominative
Noun Example Example
ba1 topicaliser
Noun Example Example
ba2 conditional "if"
Aux. Vb. Example Example
chi ablative, "from, off, of, through"
Noun Example Example
eng genitive, "of"
Noun Example Example
gang locative, "in, on, at"
Aux. Vb. Example Example
ha instrumental, "by, with", "in" (with languages)
Noun (language) Lating ha "in Latin"
heez "across, over, beyond, past"
Noun Example Example
ke accusative
Noun Example Example
meng hearsay, precedes auxiliary verb
Aux. Vb. Example Example
ni dative, "to" (recipient), "for" (purpose)
Aux. Vb. Example Example
ta comitative, "with", "and"
Noun ni az ni eng buya ta egong da "I live with my wife"
Noun
te uncertainty, precedes auxiliary verb
Aux. Vb. Example Example

Vocabulary

Kinship Terms

In Burungian society, each individual belongs to a broad group known as an yenu "tribe" and within that to a family group called an as "clan", the members of which claim matrilineal descent from a pair of common ancestors known as the heuji (male) and beus (female). A person belonging to the same clan is called a beraako, whilst anyone beyond the clan group is an ase.

Somewhat distinct from the clan group is an individual's close family group, known as osunka "kinsmen". While a person traces his clan group as a vertical line, descending through a series of individuals, his osunka is more like a network extending in every direction. Anyone who shares a common great-grandfather (araato) or great-grandmother (ashoto) with a person is considered his angade "relative, kinsman". Within this family group there are then three degrees of proximity, which restrict such things as marriage and are relevant in the inheritance of property:

  1. Exoolaing, the direct line (lit. 'line of begetting'), includes a person and his direct ancestors (parents, grandparents and great-grandparents) and descendants (children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren). Marriage and sexual relationships are strictly prohibited within the exoolaing.
  2. Yipugyong, the secondary line, includes a person's siblings and their children, their spouse and their spouse's parents and children, and their parent's siblings or spouses. Half-siblings are not distinguished from full siblings as they still contain one parent's blood. Step-parents are considered identical in relation to parents-in-law and step-children to children-in-law. Marriage within this line is prohibited (except in the case of spouses), but sexual relationships are not.
  3. Audagyong, the side line, includes anyone descended from a great-grandparent not included in the above, and anyone within a spouse's secondary line. There are no prohibitions regarding marriage or sexual relationships between these people.

Within these three groups, distinctions are then made by generation, and, in some instances, by gender.

1st Degree 2nd Degree 3rd Degree
Gen. -3 great-grandfather: araato
great-grandmother: ashoto
other older collateral relative:
asaba
Gen. -2 grandfather: aras
grandmother: asho
Gen -1 father: yata
mother: ama
parent's brother: xoba
parent's sister: xeba
parent's sibling (iriji): hanauba
father-in-law, step-father: neba
mother-in-law, step-mother: aneepa
Gen. 0 EGO: NI husband: az, xengaz
wife: buya, xengaz
older sibling: angane
younger sibling: azeba
other same-generation relative:
xingangade
Gen. +1 child: omba nephew/niece: yoba
step-child, son/daughter-in-law: ezang
other younger collateral relative:
xuni
Gen. +2 grandchild: xemba
Gen. +3 great-grandchild: xembato