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Kunesian (view source)

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| s, θ, (ɬ)
| s, θ, (ɬ)
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| colspan="2" | x~χ
| colspan="2" | /x~χ/
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
! colspan="2" | Approximant
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In addition, there are three stressed diphthongs: /aɨ̯/, /ei̯/ and /ɔɨ̯/.
In addition, there are four stressed diphthongs: /aɨ̯/, /ei̯/, /ɔɨ̯/ and /aʉ̯/. /aʉ̯/ only appears in the word /kʰáʉ̯/ "swamp", where it contrasts with /kʰáɨ̯/ "he, she".


In unstressed syllables, only /ɐ e ɨ ʊ/ and sometimes /əɨ̯/ occur. However, /əɨ̯/ merges with /ɨ/ for some speakers.
In unstressed syllables, only /ɐ e ɨ ʊ/ and sometimes /əɨ̯/ occur. However, /əɨ̯/ merges with /ɨ/ for some speakers.


===Supprasegmentals===
===Suprasegmentals===
Most Kunesian words are stressed on the first syllable, but a few are stressed on the second instead. The stressed syllable can have either a high or a low tone, and in addition each word may be pronounced with either modal or creaky voice. While phonation applies to a word as a whole, unstressed syllables tend to be pronounced with a medium tone regardless of what tone the stressed syllable has.
Most Kunesian words are stressed on the first syllable, but a few are stressed on the second instead. The stressed syllable can have either a high or a low tone, and in addition each word may be pronounced with either modal or creaky voice. While phonation applies to a word as a whole, unstressed syllables tend to be pronounced with a medium tone regardless of what tone the stressed syllable has.


===Sandhi===
===Sandhi===
A few phonological processes take place at word boundaries:
* Unaccented final vowels are lost if the following word begins with a vowel: ''nitote ad'' /ɲýt͡ɕe à/ --> [ɲýt͡ɕà].
* /ɰ/ at the beginning of a word is dropped if the preceding word ends in a consonant, leaving creaky voice: ''eras hai'' /ǽɾɐs ɰáɨ̯/ --> [ǽɾɐ̄sá̰ɨ̯].
* Final /x/ contracts with a following dorsal consonant to /ɾχ/ or /ɾç/: ''gor kolu'' /gʌ̰̀x kólʊ/ --> [gʌ̰̀ɾχólʊ̄].


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
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In addition, some nouns exclusively, or almost exclusively, occur with one particular particle, such as ''gâlo kem'' "poison", with just ''gâlo'' being ungrammatical outside the phrase ''gâlo nênte'' "to poison".
In addition, some nouns exclusively, or almost exclusively, occur with one particular particle, such as ''gâlo kem'' "poison", with just ''gâlo'' being ungrammatical outside the phrase ''gâlo nênte'' "to poison".
Nominal classifiers and their meanings include:
* ''ap'': people
* ''itu'': food
* ''nô'': buildings and other human constructions
* ''at'': language, speech
* ''ils'': day, light
* ''oko'': night, darkness
* ''hêkai'': nature, weather conditions
* ''ira'': big things
* ''lid'': small things, small quantities
* ''tai'': large quantities
* ''ere'': old things
* ''e'': good things
* ''kem'': bad things
* ''sio'': despective
* ''pe'': beautiful things
* ''ad'': something similar, usually occurs in lexicalised combinations
* ''tod'': places and times, frequently forms adverbials
* ''nai'': abstract, can be used very freely to derive nouns from adjectives and verbs
* ''ô'': no clear meaning, only occurs in certain fixed combinations such as ''harid ô'' "knot" and ''sanap ô'' "family"


===Plural===
===Plural===
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| gloss = PL house CL(many)
| gloss = PL house CL(many)
| translation = houses, many houses, a village
| translation = houses, many houses, a village
}}
Plurals are also used when making general statements.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ti nilaip nok nipu.
| IPA = /t͡ɕí ɲílɨp nʌ̀k ɲýpʊ/
| gloss = PL apple GNOM red
| translation = Apples are red.
}}
}}


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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are placed before the nouns they modify and are often combined with a classifier with a similar meaning. They can be intensified by reduplication.
{{Gloss
| phrase = sai mela ere
| IPA = /sáɨ̯ mʲélɐ ǽɾe/
| gloss = old man CL(old)
| translation = an old man
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ara ara akko pe
| IPA = /áɾɐ áɾɐ àkɐ p͡çé/
| gloss = handsome handsome boy CL(beautiful)
| translation = a very handsome boy
}}
Comparisons are expressed using the relation particle ''anku''. One can distinguish three types of comparisons:
* Equality, expressed with a single adjective
* "More than", expressed with a reduplicated adjective
* "Less than", expressed with the negative particle ''ku''.
{{Gloss
| phrase = <font color="green">Paki</font> mela ira kigat <font color="green">anku</font>.
| IPA = /pʰǽc͡çɨ mʲélɐ íɾɐ c͡çìgɐt à̰ŋkɨ/
| gloss = big man CL(big) tiger as
| translation = The man is <font color="green">as big as</font> a tiger.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = <font color="green">Zata zata</font> tôla pattu <font color="green">anku</font>.
| IPA = /d͡záθɐ d͡záθɐ tòlɐ pʰàtʊ à̰ŋkɨ/
| gloss = strong strong sun wind as
| translation = The sun is <font color="green">stronger than</font> the wind.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = <font color="green">Ku laipi</font> no paik <font color="green">anku</font>.
| IPA = /kɯ́ láɨ̯p͡çɨ nʌ́ pʰɯ́k à̰ŋkɨ/
| gloss = NEG smart 1SG.SUBJ 2SG.OBJ as
| translation = I'm <font color="green">not as smart as</font> you.
}}


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
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{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = No kai tânku.
| phrase = No te tânku.
| IPA = /nʌ́ kʰáɨ̯ tà̰ŋkɨ/
| IPA = /nʌ́ t͡ɕé tà̰ŋkɨ/
| gloss = 1SG 3SG.PROX hit
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ 3SG.OBJ hit
| translation = I hit him.
| translation = I hit him.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Kai kai tânku.
| phrase = Kai te tânku.
| IPA = /kʰáɨ̯ kʰáɨ̯ tà̰ŋkɨ/
| IPA = /kʰáɨ̯ t͡ɕé tà̰ŋkɨ/
| gloss = 3SG.PROX 3SG.PROX hit
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ 3SG.OBJ hit
| translation = He hits himself.
| translation = He hits himself.
}}
}}
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| phrase = Kai nuro tânku.
| phrase = Kai nuro tânku.
| IPA = /kʰáɨ̯ nɯ́ɾɐ tà̰ŋkɨ/
| IPA = /kʰáɨ̯ nɯ́ɾɐ tà̰ŋkɨ/
| gloss = 3SG.PROX 3SG.OBV hit
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ 3SG hit
| translation = He hits him (someone else).
| translation = He hits him (someone else).
}}
}}
All pronouns can be used either independently or adjectivally. When a personal pronoun is used adjectivally, it is possessive.
''Te'' and ''ten'' may be placed after a noun or a non-personal pronoun to indicate that it is the object. This is particularly common when the object has been fronted or when there is no overt subject.
===''Numa'' and ''nuq''===
''Numa'' and ''nuq'' are pronouns which refer to place and time respectively. They can be combined with the other pronouns to form combinations such as ''pige numa'' "nowhere" or ''ama nuq'' "then". When used alone, they tend to mean something like "here" and "now", though the exact meaning depends on the context.
===''Sor''===
==Numerals==
Kunesian uses a duodecimal number system. The numbers 1-12 are:
# son
# pon
# tara
# naike
# ogat
# sinai
# tirai
# oras
# korotan
# sentil
# mese
# irek
Larger numbers are expressed as twelves - irek - units:
* irek ogat = 17 (12 + 5)
* tara irek sinai = 42 (3 * 12 + 6)
The powers of twelve are ''pinai'' (144), ''belu'' (1728) and ''ilarai'' (20736).
The first two ordinals are ''hiôla'' "first" and ''mahai'' "second". Other ordinals are expressed as numeral - mahai:
* tara mahai = third
* naike irek sinai mahai = fifty-fourth


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
The verbal complex consists of at least one verb and a number of particles which indicate tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality and the speaker's opinion. The general formula for the verb complex is:
* Evidentiality
* Tense/aspect I
* Verb root(s)
* Tense/aspect II
* Mood
* Speaker's opinion
===Evidentiality===
There are three evidential particles: ''akai'' (inferential), ''namai'' (belief; the word is identical to the word for "think") and ''palai'' (hearsay).
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ku naik jêtte mapot era. Te <font color="green">akai</font> ne saiku ku.
| IPA = /kɯ́ nɯ́k ɟ͡ʝèt͡ɕe mápɐt ǽɾɐ. t͡ɕé ákɨ ɲé sɔ́ɨ̯kʊ kɯ́/
| gloss = NEG 1SG.OBJ bike find can / 3SG.OBJ INFER TEL steal PST
| translation = I can't find my bike. It <font color="green">must</font> have been stolen.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Mura tod kai <font color="green">namai</font> molas.
| IPA = /mɯ́ɾɐ tʰʌ̀ kʰáɨ̯ námɨ mʌ́lɐs/
| gloss = forest CL(place) 3SG.SUBJ think be
| translation = <font color="green">I think</font> he's in the forest.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Rente tola ti pinokas lâm li <font color="green">palai</font> ne peste ku.
| IPA = /ræ̰̀nt͡ɕe tʰʌ́lɐ t͡ɕí p͡çɯ̰́kɐs làm ʎí pʰálɨ ɲé p͡çèɕːe kɯ́/
| gloss = monkey all PL banana 1PL.INCL.OBJ of HS TEL eat PST
| translation = <font color="green">They say</font> a monkey ate all our bananas.
}}
===Tense and aspect===
Tense and aspect are marked by a variety of particles, some of which come before the verb and some after it. The particles that come before the verb are:
* ''ne'': telic, indicates an action with a defined endpoint
* ''tad'': habitual, indicates a habit
* ''es'': dynamic, indicates a change
* ''nok'': gnomic, indicates general facts
* ''se'': momentane, indicates something which was done exactly once
* ''nhi'': repetitive, indicates a repeated action
The particles that come after the verb are:
* ''mai'': present
* ''ku'': past perfective
* ''kju'': past imperfective
* ''lai'': past inceptive
* ''tire'': future
Each verb may have one particle of either type, though for obvious reasons some combinations of tense/aspect particles are more common that others. A few specific combinations deserve extra attention:
* ''es ... ku'': this indicates the end of an action, as opposed to ''es ... lai'', which marks the beginning.
* ''nok ... mai'': this combination means "already". Apart from this combination, ''nok'' is always used without post-verbal tense particle.
Note that all of these particles are optional and that they are normally left out when several consecutive verbs have the same tense and aspect.
===Mood===
There are four modal particles:
* ''era'': potential, indicates a possibility or an ability
* ''pin'': obligative, indicates an obligation
* ''pot'': necessitive, indicates a necessity
* ''hai'': optative, indicates a wish
===Speaker's opinion===
The speaker's opinion can be indicated with the particles ''kib'' (positive opinion) and ''moê'' (negative opinion).
{{Gloss
| phrase = No qaite arai moê.
| IPA = /nʌ́ qʰáɨ̯t͡ɕ͜ áɾɨ mè/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ headache be.ill MOÊ
| translation = I have a headache.
}}
The combination ''hai kib'' has been grammaticalised as an adhortative.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Eras hai kib!
| IPA = /ǽɾɐs͜ á̰ɨ̯ c͡çỳ/
| gloss = go OPT KIB
| translation = Let's go!
}}
===Compound verbs===
Instead of a single verb root a verbal phrase may also contain several roots after one another. In such cases the first root is the main root while the following one(s) modify it. Many verbs have slightly different meanings than normally when used in such compounds. For example, ''nuli'', which usually means "to see", means "to intend" in compounds.
{{Gloss
| phrase = No baistak nuli ôno lsi.
| IPA = /nʌ́ bàɨ̯stɐk núʎɨ ónɐ θì/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ leave intend morning rise
| translation = I intend to leave tomorrow.
}}
Somewhat relatedly, many combinations of verbs and nouns also have idiomatic meanings. An example is ''qotte nênte'' "to interrupt", which literally means "to carry a wall".
{{Gloss
| phrase = Es nerep lai, hêtai no qotte nênte.
| IPA = /èɕ ɲéɾep láɨ̯, jèθəɨ̯ nʌ́ qʰʌ̀t͡ɕe nḛ̀t͡ɕe/
| gloss = DYN speak PST.INC, but 1SG.SUBJ wall carry
| translation = He started to speak, but I interrupted him.
}}


==Word order==
==Word order==
The basic word order of Kunesian is SOV.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Kigat allai peste.
| IPA = /c͡çìgɐt àləɨ̯ p͡çèɕːe/
| gloss = tiger rat eat
| translation = The tiger eats a rat.
}}
Adverbs are usually placed at the end.
{{Gloss
| phrase = No nok naito nhaiki.
| IPA = /nʌ́ nʌ̀k náɨ̯θɐ ŋáɨ̯c͡çɨ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ GNOM speak quick
| translation = I speak quickly.
}}
Deviations from the default word order are common. Often one part of the sentence is topicalised, which causes it to be moved to the very beginning of the sentence.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Allai te kigat peste.
| IPA = /àləɨ̯ t͡ɕé c͡çìgɐt p͡çèɕːe/
| gloss = rat 3SG.OBJ tiger eat
| translation = The rat is eaten by a tiger.
}}


==Complex sentences==
==Complex sentences==
Complex sentences are formed by means of various subordinating and coordinating particles.
===''Ed''===
The particle ''ed'' generally indicates that a subordinate clause follows the main clause.
{{Gloss
| phrase = No te <font color="green">ed</font> nerep ku, ku ama naira.
| IPA = /nʌ́ t͡ɕé è ɲǽɾep kɯ́, kɯ́ ámɐ náɨ̯ɾɐ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ 3SG.OBJ SUB say PST, NEG that know
| translation = I've told him <font color="green">that</font> I don't know that.
}}
It can also be followed by a noun phrase rather than an entire sentence.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Nanak hêkai ama <font color="green">ed</font> setai, nezu nitote ad.
| IPA = /nánɐk jèkəɨ̯ ámɐ è ɕéθɨ, ɲǿd͡zʊ ɲýt͡ɕe à/
| gloss = snow CL(nature) that SUB be, cold rain CL(similar)
| translation = Snow is a kind of cold rain.
}}
===''Man''===
''Man'' indicates a conditional clause. It is placed at the very end of the clause.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Haiwi tede <font color="green">man</font> nok qiwise tire.
| IPA = /ɰɔ́ɨ̯jɨ t͡ɕḛ̀ màn nʌ̀k qʰýɕe t͡ɕíɾe/
| gloss = beer drink if GNOM drunk FUT
| translation = <font color="green">If</font> you drink beer, you get drunk.
}}
It is used more often than "if" in English, and may sometimes better be translated using a relative clause.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Nilaip lino minte, no ne peste ku <font color="green">man</font>.
| IPA = /ɲílɨp ʎínɐ mʲḭ̀t͡ɕe, nʌ́ ɲé p͡çèɕːe kɯ́ màn/
| gloss = apple tongue confuse, 1SG.SUBJ TEL eat PST if
| translation = The apple I just ate tasted weird.
}}
===''Heh''===
===Other particles===


==Sample==
==Sample==


[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
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