Norþimris: Difference between revisions

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''a b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y z''
''a b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y z''


The letters ''j, q'' and ''v'' do not occur, except in unassimilated borrowings. ''k'' only appears in the digraph ''sk''.
The letters ''j, k, q'' and ''v'' do not occur, except in unassimilated borrowings.


The orthography is almost entirely phonemic, except notably in the case of ''s'', the pronunciation of which is not always predictable in final position. The following table gives all the relevant values of the letters and digraphs.
The orthography is almost entirely phonemic, except notably in the case of ''s'', the pronunciation of which is not always predictable in final position. The following table gives all the relevant values of the letters and digraphs.
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| style="text-align:left;" | medially and finally
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Revision as of 17:51, 29 June 2016



Norþimris
Norþimris
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|nɔɹˈθɪmɾɪs]]
Created by
Native toNorþimer
Native speakers13 million (2011)
Early forms
Official status
Official language in
Norþimer

Norþimris [nɔɹˈθɪmrɪs] (also Northimris or Northumbrian in English) is a Germanic language spoken by the people of Norþimer, one of the four states of Great Britain alongside Scotland, England and Wales. Physically situated between Scotland and England, Norþimris shares much in common with Scots and English, all of which descend from Old English, and may be seen as part of a dialect continuum with those two languages. However, unlike its neighbours, Norþimris has very little influence from French and retains a much stronger Anglo-Norse vocabulary.

History

Internal

Norþimris has its origins in the Northumbrian dialect of Old English, once spoken across central Britain between the River Humber and the Firth of Forth. Though already somewhat distinct from the dialects of Old English spoken further south due to the heavy Norse influence and the substantial reduction in inflexions, it would be the political changes of the late 11th century that ensured Norþimer developed as a language different from its neighbours to the north and south. Following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror (Wilem Bastard) was faced with strong opposition to his rule, not least from the fiercely independent Anglo-Norse nobles of the north. Despite repeated attempts to subdue them William was never able to conquer the north and, as the Normans consolidated their hold over southern England, the old earldom of Northumbria developed into a self-governing rebel state, eventually declaring itself an independent kingdom in AD 1100.

The period c.1100-1600 is called Early Norþimris. At the start of this period the language was really indistinguishable from the Anglian dialects of late Old and early Middle English, but as English (and Scots) became increasingly influenced by French and Medieval Latin the differences increased. During this period, Norþimris lost most of its remaining inflexions and underwent important phonological changes culminating in the Great Vowel Shift. As a language of government, law and literature it became increasingly flexible and sophisticated.

Modern Norþimris is said to begin c.1600 when the Protestant Reformation and the Renaissance encouraged efforts to standardise and describe the language, and simultaneously increased borrowing from Classical and Romance sources. During this period Norþimris became the language of religion alongside government and literature, and from the late 18th century it increasingly became a 'popular' language with written forms more representative of the spoken language. The spelling system of Þoruuff Þorsteynsun, published in 1877, was adopted as the official written form in 1884 and has remained in use ever since.

External

Norþimris is an a posteriori language based on Northumbrian Old English and Northern Middle English and influenced by the various modern dialects of northern England as well as Scots (and to some degree Dutch). It was developed as an answer to the hypothetical question "What would English sound like if William the Conqueror had never conquered the north?". Since French and Latin have so heavily influenced English vocabulary, grammar and orthography, I expected the result to be considerably different from Modern English. However, Modern English has also been heavily influenced by northern forms with many of the innovations of Middle and Early Modern English originating in the north (e.g. spread of plural -s, spread of 3rd person verb -s, use of they, them, their', use of hers, yours etc.).

Phonology

Dialects

There is a great deal of dialect variation across Norþimer, but there are generally considered to be four main dialects:

  • Southern, which is the closest to a 'standard' dialect, found in Yorucscir
  • Northern, extending north from Weer Ei (River Wear) to the Scottish border
  • Western, the dialect west of the moors
  • South-western, the dialect of the Þreiplands, sometimes called Þreiplandris

Consonants

Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive p     b t     d k     g
Fricative f     v θ     ð s     z ʃ       h      
Affricate t͡ʃ     d͡ʒ
Approximant ʍ     w ɹ j
Flap or tap ɾ
Lateral app. l

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close
Near-close ɪ ʊ
Close-mid
Mid ə
Open-mid ɛ
Near-open æː
Open a ɒ

Stress

Primary stress is usually on the first syllable of a word (e.g. ápel, átermot, héfenlie). The prefixes a-, be- and fer- do not usually bear stress, so the following element takes it (e.g. ahínt, fersétand).

Orthography

Norþimris is written with a Latin alphabet consisting of the following letters:

a b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y z

The letters j, k, q and v do not occur, except in unassimilated borrowings.

The orthography is almost entirely phonemic, except notably in the case of s, the pronunciation of which is not always predictable in final position. The following table gives all the relevant values of the letters and digraphs.

Graph IPA Comments
a /a/
au /oː/ sometimes /aː/ in parts of the W
b /b/
c /k/
ch /t͡ʃ/
cg /d͡ʒ/ traditionally not permitted to occur word initially, but now used in borrowings such as cgin 'engine'
d /d/
ð /ð/
e /ɛ/
ea /eː/ tending towards /eə/
/ja/ often word initially or after initial /h/, particularly in N & W (e.g. ean 'one' /jan/, heam /hjam/)
ee /iː/ often /iə/ in N & W
ei /iə/ but /iː/ in open syllables (e.g. sei 'sea'). Often /ei/ in N & W
eo /iː/ /ɪu̯/ in areas bordering Scotland
ey /ei̯/
f /f/ initially or before a voiceless plosive
/v/ medially and finally
ff /f/
g /g/
h /h/ initially
/f/ medially and finally; tends to become /x/ in the far N
Ø generally before -t
i /ɪ/
ie /ɪ/ word-finally in unstressed syllables, notably the endings -ie, -lie (e.g. nouhtie 'poor').
/iː/ in stressed position
iy /æː/
l /l/
m /m/
n /n/
ng /ŋ/
o /ɒ/
oo /oː/
ou /ɔu̯/
p /p/
r /ɾ/ before a vowel
/ɹ/ before a consonant
s /s/ initially, adjacent to a voiceless consonant and sometimes finally after a vowel
/z/ between vowels or adjacent to a voiced sound, sometimes finally after a vowel
sc /ʃ/
sk /sk/ the only permitted use of k in native words
ss /s/ only occurs following short vowels
t /t/
þ /θ/
u /ʊ/
uu /uː ~ ʊu̯/
w /w/
hw /ʍ/ in some dialects, tending to become /h/ before round vowels and /w/ elsewhere
x /ks/
z /t͡s/ used mostly in borrowed words


Notes:

  • the only letter which should present any difficulty to the reader is <s>, the pronunciation of which is not always predictable. In this article, voiceless /s/ will be written <> where confusion may arise (e.g. huuṡ 'house', riyṡ 'rice').

Grammar

Articles

The indefinite article is identical to English: a before a consonant and an before a vowel (e.g. a man, an apel).

The definite article is 't in all cases (e.g. 't man, 't apel).

Nouns

Nouns have no grammatical gender and case is limited to the genitive.

Plurals

The plural of most nouns ends in -s, or -es after a sibilant (e.g. apels, huuses).

A few nouns have a rare plural in -en or -er:

  • een 'eyes', ousen 'oxen', sceon 'shoes'
  • lamer 'lambs', caufer 'calves', childer 'children'

There is also a small number of nouns with a change of vowel in the plural:

  • man 'man' → men, wiman 'woman' → wimen, hand 'hand' → hend
  • teoþ 'tooth' → teeþ, feot 'foot' → feet, geoṡ 'goose' → geeṡ
  • muuṡ 'mouse' → miys, cuu 'cow' → ciy

Genitive

The genitive has two forms:

  • the dependent genitive is used directly before a noun or noun phrase and is unmarked (e.g. 't man huuṡ 'the man's house', his faðer sun 'his father's son').
  • the independent genitive usually occurs as the complement in a copular construction and is marked with -s (-es after a sibilant; e.g. 't huuṡ is Cetels 'the house is Cetel's', ðat 's his faðers 'that's his fathers').

Adjectives

Adjectives precede the noun they qualify and are generally immutable, regardless of number or case (e.g. a micel hund 'a big dog', 't hwiyt deors 'the white doors').

All regular adjectives may form a comparative with the addition of -ar and a superlative with -ast (e.g. aud 'old' → audar, audast, healie 'holy' → healiar, healiast).

Positive Comparative Superlative
bad il wer, werṡ werst
good geod beter best
large micel mear, mea meast
small liytel, liyl leiṡ leist.
near nar narmar narmast

The alternative endings -mar and -mast are also sometimes added colloquially to other adjectives, creating forms such as betermar, betermast.

The comparative adjective is frequently used with an 'than' (e.g. Cetel 's mear an Micel 'Cetel's bigger than Michael'). An equative structure can be created with the adverbs auṡ ... auṡ or swea ... auṡ and the positive adjective (e.g. auṡ hwiyt auṡ snea 'as white as snow', swea stil auṡ a muuṡ 'as quiet as mouse').

Numerals

Cardinal Ordinal
1 ean first
2 twea anar
3 þree þird
4 four ferd
5 fiyf fift
6 sex sext
7 sefen sefend
8 auht auhted
9 niyn niynd
10 tein tend
11 elefen eleft
12 twelf twelft
13 þretein þreteind
14 fourtein fourteind
15 fiftein fifteind
20 twentie twentiand
21 ean an twentie ean an twentiand
30 þritie þritiand
40 fourtie fourtiand
50 fiftie fiftiand
100 hunreþ hunreþd
1000 þuusan þuusand
1,000,000 milyoon milyoond

Pronouns

Personal

Subject Object
Unstressed Stressed Unstressed Stressed
1sg i ic mi mie
2sg ðu, -tu ðuu ði ðie
3sg m. hi hie him
3sg f. scu sceo her
3sg n. hit
1pl wi wie us uus
2pl yi yie yu yuu
3pl ðey ðam

Several of the personal pronouns have different stressed and unstressed forms. The stressed forms are only used in speech and writing when particular emphasis is put on the pronoun, such as when they occur independently (e.g. ic leof him 'I love him', hwea didd ðat? Yuu 'who did that? You') . Elsewhere, the unstressed forms are used (e.g. hi wuns in Yoruc 'he lives in York').

Notes:

  • the 2nd person singular -tu is an enclitic form used with interrogative verbs (e.g. censtu Cetel? 'do you know Cetel?').
  • the 3rd person singular forms him, her and hit are pronounced without the h in unstressed position, but this is not expressed in writing.
  • as in English, 'hi/hie' are used for male humans, scu/sceo for females and hit for inanimate objects.
  • Norþimris maintains a T/V distinction, in which 2nd person plural yie etc. can be used as formal 'you' when addressing a single person. Its use is generally more restricted than in many European languages, only used in particularly formal situations and not necessarily expected when speaking to elders or strangers.
  • there is an informal use of us/uus in place of mi/mie (e.g. gie us hit 'give me it').

The genitive pronouns have dependent and independent forms, used like the nominal equivalents.

Dependent Independent
1sg miy(n) miyn
2sg ðiy(n) ðiyn
3sg m. his
3sg f. her hers
3sg n. his  
1pl uur uurs
2pl your yours
3pl ðer ðers

There is no independent form for the 3rd person neuter.

Reflexive pronouns are formed with -(s)seln, irregularly pronounced /sɛl/ or /sɛn/ according to dialect, which is added to the object pronouns (e.g. misseln 'myself', herṡeln 'herself'). These pronouns are more emphatic than their English counterparts and the object pronouns are preferred when the sense of reflexiveness is already implied (e.g. i sau mi i 't scewer 'I saw myself in the mirror').

Demonstrative

The demonstrative pronouns are:

  • ðiss 'this' and ðir 'these', used for objects close at hand or abstracts metaphorically so;
  • ðat 'that' and ðea 'those', used for objects or abstracts at a distance or out of sight;
  • yon 'that, those', used only for objects in sight but at a distance.

These may be employed as demonstrative adjectives, preceding the noun (e.g. ðat wiyff 'that woman', yon fel 'that mountain').

Interrogative

The interrogatives are:

  • pronouns: hwea 'who', hwat 'what', hwilc 'which', referring to things already mentioned or implied, hweðer 'which of two';
  • adjectives: hwilc 'what, which', hweaṡ 'whose';
  • adverbs: hwiy 'why', huu 'how', hwear 'where', hwan 'when'.

Verbs

Regular Verbs

Norþimris has only two conjugated tenses: the present and the past. Beyond this, a number of moods, tenses and voices are created using auxiliary verbs and modals.

Present Tense

All regular verbs follow the same pattern in the present tense, given below with leof 'love':

Sg Pl
1 leof leof
2 leofs
3

Whenever the present tense verb is separated from its pronoun or is used with a noun, the -s form is used throughout (e.g. ic, your cining, beeds yu 'I, your king, command you', 't men sings 'the men sing').

Past Tense

In the past tense, regular verbs may be divided into strong and weak conjugations, the former conjugating by a vowel change, the latter by the addition of a suffix. There are no distinctions of person in the past tense.

Following the typical Germanic classification, there are 7 classes of strong verb, each with different changes in the past tense and the past participle:

Class Present Past Past Participle
1 biyt beat biten
2 beed bead boden
3a cerf carf corfen
3b sing sang sungen
4 beir bar boren
5 eit eat eten
6 fear feor faren
7 mau miw maun
grou griw groun
faud feld fauden

Weak verbs form their past tense with a dental suffix, the form of which depends on the stem:

  • stems ending in -l, -m, -n, -nd or a voiceless consonant take -t (e.g. smelt 'smelled', fiyct 'fidgetted', lamt 'beat');
  • stems ending in -d or -t take -it (e.g. liltit 'hummed', bratit 'curdled, breidit 'stretched');
  • other stems take -d (e.g. bleðerd 'talked loudly', ligd 'lay', hiysd 'hoisted').

A number of verbs in <ee> may undergo shortening in the past (e.g. bleedbledd, meetmett, sleepslept/sleept). A number of other verbs have a past tense ending in -ht (e.g. seecsouht, wurcwrouht, lach 'catch' → lauht).

Imperative

The imperative of regular verbs is identical to the stem (e.g. leof mi 'love me', eit ðiy meit 'eat your food').

Participles

The present participle of all verbs is formed with -and (e.g. leofand 'loving', singand 'singing').

The past participle of most weak verbs is identical to the past tense form (e.g. leofd 'loved', ligd 'layed'). The strong verbs form a past participle with -(e)n and a change of vowel, as shown in the table above but a number of weak verbs ending in -d, -t also form their past participle in -en (e.g. breiden 'stretched', leaden 'loaded').

Irregular Verbs

A number of irregular verbs occur in Norþimris, the most important of which is bie 'be':

Sg Pl Participle
Present is, 's ar, 'r bieand
Past wer bien
Imperative bie

The contracted forms 's and 'r are very common in all but the most formal writing and stand alone in the sentence (e.g. 't man 's singand 'the man's singing').

Other irregular verbs are:

Present Past Present Ptc Past Ptc
do deo didd deond deon
have hea, has hadd heand hadd
go gang/gea gangd gangand gean
gan gand ganand
give gie gaf giend gien
make mac mead macand mead
take tac teac tacand tean

Each of the present forms takes -s in the 2nd and 3rd person singular, but hea has the separate form has.

Periphrastic Tenses

The majority of tenses in Norþimris are form periphrastically.

Tense Structure Example
Present Continuous present of bie + present participle i 's singand I am singing
Past Continuous past of bie + present participle i wer singand I was singing
Perfect present of hea + past participle i hea sungen I have sung
present of bie + past participle i 's faun I have fallen
Pluperfect past of hea + past particple i hadd sungen I had sung
past of bie + past participle i wer faun I had fallen
Future auxiliary sal + stem i sal sing I will sing

In the perfect and pluperfect, bie is used with unaccusative verbs, i.e. verbs in which the subject is not the agent but the patient of the verb (e.g. 't snea 's mouten 'the snow has melted').

Derivation

Prefixes

Prefix Use Example
au- all-, pan-, omni- augeod 'omnibenevolent'
be- makes intrans. verbs trans. beþink 'consider'
ean- one, mono-, uni-, sole, only eanreid 'unanimous, resolute'
ed- re-, again, edgrou 'regrow'
eir- early, ancient, primary eirdey 'ancient times'
em- even, equal, co- emlang 'of equal length'
feor- fore-, before, pro-, pre- feorgang 'precede'
forþ-, for- forward, pro- forgang 'proceed, progress'
heid- head, chief, main heidcirc 'cathedral'
heih- high, arch-, main heihstreet 'highstreet, main road'
leis- false, pseudo- leisneam 'pseudonym'
miṡ- bad, wrong, fault misdeo 'do wrongly'
un- un-, in- uncuuþ 'unknown'

Suffixes

Suffix Use Example
Adjectives & Adverbs
-en made of, like a material gouden 'golden', eacen 'oaken'
-ffast stuck, firm, secure cragffast 'stuck on a crag'
-ffaud multiplicative þreeffaud 'threefold', menieffaud 'numerous'
-ffuu full of sacffuu 'quarrelsome', earffuu 'compassionate'
-ie general adj. ending dewie 'dewy', pretie 'cunning, sly'
-iṡ of, pertaining to (particularly with countries etc.) Skotis 'Scottish', foucis 'popular'
-leṡ deprivative neamleṡ 'nameless', freendleṡ 'friendless'
-lie like, pertaining to hefenlie 'heavenly', sumerlie 'summerlike'
-ṡum characterised by, having; -able angṡum 'irritating', leofṡum 'lovable'
-wiyṡ like in manner reehtwiyṡ 'just', needwiyṡ 'necessary'
Nouns
-craft skill, occupation develcraft 'Satanism', taucraft 'arithmetic'
-dem i. domain, jurisdiction
ii. condition, state
ciningdem 'kingdom'
wisdem 'wisdom'
-en feminine giden 'goddess', fixen 'vixen'
-er i. male agent
ii. instrument
iii. inhabitant of
leofer 'lover'
scewer 'mirror'
Yorucer 'inhabitant of York'
-ffuu measurement of handfuu 'handful'
-head abstract, condition, quality; office, rank preesthead 'priesthood', woruldhead 'secular world'
-ing verbal nouns geting 'conception'
-iṡ languages Engliṡ 'English', Ebriṡ 'Hebrew'
-leyc condition, state reifleyc 'robbery'
-ling diminutive (often pejorative), also man' recling 'runt', manling 'little man'
-man agent, person freeman, pleohman 'ploughman'
-neṡ abstract state, quality geodneṡ 'goodness', micelneṡ 'largeness, abundance'
-reden condition, state sibreden 'relationship', cinreden 'kin'
-ric office, dominion cinric 'kingdom', biscopric 'bishopric'
-scip condition, state manscip 'humanity'
-ster female agent spinster 'spinner'
-ṡum a group of sexṡum 'group of six'
-uc diminutive paduc 'toad'
-wiyff female agent, woman huuṡwiyff 'housewife'
Verbs
-el frequentative hancel 'tangle'
-en causative, to make or become hwiyten 'make white'

Compounds

Syntax

The basic word order of Norþimris is Subject-Verb-Object:

  • i leof ði 'I love you'
  • Cetel sang 't sang 'Cetel sang the song
  • Maria leirs Frencis 'Maria teaches French'

Unlike some other Germanic languages, Norþimris prefers to keep auxiliary and lexical verbs together:

  • Cetel 's singand 't sang 'Cetel is singing the song'
  • ðu hadd seen him 'you had seen him'

A direct object follows an indirect object, unless both are personal pronouns, in which case the direct object comes first:

  • hi gaf Askil 't beoc 'he gave Askil the book'
  • hi gaf hit him 'he gave it to him'

Adverbial expressions are not in a fixed position and generally come at the beginning or end of the sentence:

  • yestren, gangd i til 't seekhuuṡ 'yesterday, I went to the hospital'
  • i gangd til 't seekhuuṡ yestren 'I went to the hospital yesterday'

Adverbs of manner are placed close to the words to which they relate:

  • scu leyct wel 't geamen / scu leyct 't geamen wel 'she played the game well'
  • wi ran snel heam / wi ran heam snel 'we ran home fast'

When an adverbial or other element is placed before the verb, the subject is moved to come after the auxiliary verb:

  • in a circ wer ðey wedit 'in a church they were married'
  • tomorn, sal i gang til 't skeol 'tomorrow I will go to school'

The relative pronoun is at:

  • 't wiyff at i leof 'the woman who I love'
  • a barn at cens au 'a child that knows everything'

Sample Texts

Norþimris English
Þt Dreet Beid
Uur Faðer at is in hefen
Halud siy ðiy neam
Ðiy cinric becum
Ðiy wil wurð deon
On erd auṡ in hefen
Gie uss uur deylie leaff todey
An fergie uss uur scilds
Auṡ wie fergie uur scildiers
Leid not uss til costing
Auh free uss frea il
Þiyn is 't cinric an 't meyn an 't wuuder, for-ea
Amen
Our father who is in heaven
Hallowed be thy name
Thy kingdom come
Thy will be done
On earth as it is in heaven
Give us this day our daily bread
And forgive us our sins
As we forgive those who sin against us
Lead us not into temptation
But deliver us from evil
Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, forever
Amen