Proto-Rathmosian: Difference between revisions

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Proto-Rathmosian (view source)

Revision as of 13:52, 17 July 2019

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! style="" |Nasal
! style="" |Nasal
|style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
| style="width: 68px; "| m
| style="width: 68px; "| '''m''' /m/
|style="width: 68px; "|  
|style="width: 68px; "|  
| style="width: 68px; "| n
| style="width: 68px; "| '''n''' /n/
| style="width: 68px; "|
| style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
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|-
|-
! style="" |Plosive
! style="" |Plosive
| p
| '''p''' /p/
| b
| '''b''' /b/
| t  
| '''t''' /t/
| d
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
|
|
| k  
| '''k''' /k/
| g
| '''g''' /g/
|-
|-
! style="" |Fricative
! style="" |Fricative
| ɸ  
| '''f''' /ɸ/
|
|
| s  
| '''s''' /s/
|
|
|  
|  
|
|
| x  
| '''h''' /x/
|
|
|-
|-
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|  
|  
|
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| ts  
| '''ts''' /ts/
|
|
|  
|  
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|
|
|  
|  
| r
| '''r''' /r/
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|
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! style="" |Approximant
! style="" |Approximant
|  
|  
| w
| '''w''' /w/
|
|
|  
|  
|
|
| j
| '''y''' /j/
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| l
| '''l''' /l/
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Nouns are declined according to eight cases:
Nouns are declined according to eight cases:


* '''Absolutive''' denotes the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb.
* '''Absolutive''' denotes the patient of a verb, either the direct object of a transitive verb or the subject of certain intransitive verbs.
* '''Ergative''' denotes the subject of a transitive verb.
* '''Ergative''' denotes the agent of the verb, either the subject of a transitive or certain intransitive verbs.
* '''Dative''' denotes the indirect object of a verb and describes motion towards.
* '''Dative''' denotes the indirect object of a verb and describes motion towards.
* '''Genitive''' denotes the possessor of an object.
* '''Genitive''' denotes the possessor of an object.
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===Number===
===Number===
There are three numbers: '''singular''', '''plural''' and '''collective''', the last of which may denote a discrete group of objects or a class as a whole.
There are two numbers: '''singular''' and '''plural'''.


===Inflexion===
===Inflexion===
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|-
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''negu'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''neguwa''
| width="10%;" | - || ''nega'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''negawa''
|-
|-
! Ergative  
! Ergative  
| '''''-s'''''|| ''negus'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''neguns''
| '''''-s'''''|| ''negas'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''negans''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| '''''-yep''''' || ''neguyep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''negunep''  
| '''''-yep''''' || ''negayep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''neganep''  
|-
|-
! Genitive  
! Genitive  
| '''''-y'''''|| ''neguy'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''neguni''  
| '''''-y'''''|| ''negay'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''negani''  
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''neguta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''negunta''  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''negata''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''neganta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''negura'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negurra''  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''negara'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negarra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
| '''''-yen''''' || ''neguyen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''negunen''  
| '''''-yen''''' || ''negayen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''neganen''  
|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''negukun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''negunkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''negakun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''negankun''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! Ergative  
! Ergative  
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kers'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''kerəns''
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kers'' || '''''-əns''''' || ''kerəns''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
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|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''kerənta''  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerta''|| '''''-ənta''''' || ''kerənta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerra'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''kerərra''  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''kerərra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
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|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerkun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''kerənkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerkun''|| '''''-ənkun''''' || ''kerənkun''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! Ergative  
! Ergative  
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kerils'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''keriləns''
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kerils'' || '''''-əns''''' || ''keriləns''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
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|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerilta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''kerilənta''  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerilta''|| '''''-ənta''''' || ''kerilənta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerilra'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''kerilərra''  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerilra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''kerilərra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
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|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerilkun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''kerilənkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerilkun''|| '''''-ənkun''''' || ''kerilənkun''
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: vocalic stem (''keril'' "lord, king")
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: vocalic stem (''hemaku'' "sky")
|-
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural  
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural  
|-
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''keril'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''kerilwa''
| width="10%;" | - || ''hemaku'' || width="10%;" | '''''-r''''' || ''hemakur''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-m''''' || ''hemakum'' || '''''-rm'''''|| ''hemakurm''
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-ya'''''|| ''hemakuya'' || '''''-rya''''' || ''hemakurya''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''hemakuta''|| '''''-rta''''' || ''hemakurta''
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''hemakura'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''hemakurra''
|-
! Locative
| '''''-yen''''' || ''hemakuyen'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''hemakuren''
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-kun''''' || ''hemakukun''|| '''''-rkun''''' || ''hemakurkun''
|-
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: consonantal stem (''renadik'' "book")
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
|-
! Ergative
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kerils'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''keriləns''
| width="10%;" | - || ''renadik'' || width="10%;" | '''''-ər''''' || ''renadikər''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| '''''-ep''''' || ''kerilep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''kerilnep''  
| '''''-m''''' || ''renadikəm'' || '''''-ərm'''''|| ''renadikərm''  
|-
|-
! Genitive  
! Genitive  
| '''''-i'''''|| ''kerili'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''kerilni''  
| '''''-ya'''''|| ''renadikya'' || '''''-ərya''''' || ''renadikərya''  
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerilta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''kerilənta''  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''renadikta''|| '''''-ərta''''' || ''renadikərta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerilra'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''kerilərra''  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''renadikra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''renadikərra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
| '''''-en''''' || ''kerilen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''kerilnen''  
| '''''-en''''' || ''renadiken'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''renadikren''  
|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerilkun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''kerilənkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''renadikkun''|| '''''-ərkun''''' || ''renadikərkun''
|-
|-
|}
|}
Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
Verbal conjugation is agglutinative and verbs may be marked for aspect (imperfective, perfective), valency (transitive, intransitive, medial, causative, reflexive, ...), and argument (absolutive, ergative).  
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. Verbal stems are divided into five classes, according to agency, transitivity and activity. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
| style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Suffixes ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}


===Verbal Classes===
===Verbal Classes===
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===Voice===
===Voice===
Voice is marked exclusively by suffixes, which follow the root or aspectual suffixes.
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb.
 
* '''''-a-''''' is used to mark verbs where the subject is not the semantic agent, i.e. is not considered to have control over the action of the verb. This includes intransitive verbs of actions and states, or verbs with a passive meaning, e.g. ''plusa-'' "is sick", ''kekera-'' "was ruled"
* '''''-i-''''' is used with transitive verbs, where both the subject and object are stated, e.g. ''keri-''
* '''''-u''''' is used with intransitive verbs where the subject is considered to have control over the action, or with transitive verbs where the object of the verb is not stated, e.g. ''yuru-'' "run", ''kuku-'' "eats"
* '''''-e-''''' is used to give the verb a '''reciprocal''' or '''reflexive''' meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself".
* '''''-im-''''' is a '''causative''' suffix, meaning "cause to do", e.g. ''kukim-'' "feed s.o.", ''mlagnim-'' "kill".
* '''''-am-''''' is an '''anticausative''' suffix, describing an action forced upon someone or something, e.g. ''kukam-'' "force feed"
* '''''-em''''' is an '''autocausative''' suffix, describing an action in which the subject of the sentence causes an action that effects themselves, e.g. ''mlagnem-'' "kill oneself"
 
The primary division in verbal morphology is made between '''dynamic''' ('''Class I''') verbs and '''stative''' ('''Class II''') verbs. Dynamic verbs denote actions and verbs of motion while stative verbs refer to states of being and include the large class of adjectival verbs, such as ''dreh-'' "to be red", ''mlak-'' "to be dead". A verbal stem belongs primarily to one or other class, depending on its semantics but the boundaries are not inflexible.


Class I verbs are marked for aspect. The '''imperfective''', denoting incompleted or continuous action and often understood as non-past, is marked with the infix ''-n-'' following the root. The '''perfective''', denoting completed action and usually referring to the past, takes ''-t-''. For example ''yur-'' "run" → ''yurn-'' "runs, running", ''yurt-'' "ran". Class II verbs are not marked for tense. As stative verbs they are understood to be imperfective and general in time. Because of the way aspect marking occurs, verbs are able to pass between classes. Class I verbs may be treated as Class II (i.e. unmarked) in order to give a gnomic sense, though this is generally restricted to poetic and proverbial usage ''hedər hedus'' "birds fly". Far more common is the use of Class II roots with Class I aspect markers to give an inchoative sense, e.g. ''mlak-'' "be dead" → ''mlagn-'' "become dead die", ''mlakt-'' "became dead, died".
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.  
* '''Causative''' verbs are marked with '''''-im-''''', which is added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakim-'' "kill", ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykim-'' "show, explain". The subject ('causer') of the verb is always in the ergative. The subject of an originally intransitive verb or the direct object of an originally transitive verb remains in the absolutive case. The subject of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''Patient Causative''' verbs take '''''-am-''''' and are used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', creating a passive causative, e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykam-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakam-'' "is killed"
* '''Autocausative''' verbs take '''''-em''''' and create a causative in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakem-'' "kill oneself".


The aspect markers, or the stem directly in Class II verbs, are followed by valency markers: ''-a-'' for intransitive verbs, ''-i-'' for passive verbs and ''-u-'' for transitive verbs. Class II verbs are always intransitive.
===Subject and Object Markers===
 
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
| Prefixes || '''Root''' || Derivation || Aspect Marker || Valency Marker || Absolutive || Ergative
|}
 
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate. The 1st and 2nd person forms differ depending on whether they are followed by an ergative marker.  


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''-f-, -p'' || ''-mf-, -mp''
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
|-
! 2  
! 2  
| ''-h-, -k'' || ''-nh-, -nk''
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
|-
! 3an
! 3an
| ''-s-'' || ''-ns-''
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
|-
! 3in
! 3in
| ''-b-'' || ''-w-''
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}
|}
Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mumubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''


The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''-em'' || ''-ib''
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
|-
! 2  
! 2  
| ''-en'' || ''-ig''
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
|-
! 3an
! 3an
| ''-er'' || ''-id''
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}
|}
Examples:
* ''reeykinu'' "I love you"
* ''kekeykiran'' "we saw them"
* ''faalad'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuyurut'' "he/she ran"


=Syntax=
=Syntax=
=Vocabulary=
=Vocabulary=
Psammead
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