Pulqer/Old Pulqer: Difference between revisions

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==Phonology and Orthography==
==Phonology and Orthography==
===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Old Pulqer had the following short vowels:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; "|
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|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| i(ː)
| '''i''' /i/
| u(ː)
| '''u''' /u/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
! style="" |Open-mid
| ɛ
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! style="" |Open
| a
| '''a''' /a/
| '''ą''' /ɑ/
|}
 
All long vowels were converted to diphthongs, merging with some existing diphthongs:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''ie''' /iə/
| '''ue''' /uə/ <br> ''ui'' /ui/
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| '''ei''' /ɛɪ/
|  
|  
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''ae''' /ae/ <br> ai /aɪ/
| '''au''' /ao/
|}
|}
The high vowels /i, u/ are long in stressed open syllables, when followed by a single consonant + vowel (e.g. ''muru'' /muːru/), and they are short in all other environments. The low vowels /a, ɛ/ are always short (their long variants are diphthongised to /ae, ei/).
The following diphthongs also occur: /ae, ai, au, ei, ui/.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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! style="" rowspan="2;" |Plosive
! style="" rowspan="2;" |Plosive
! Aspirated   
! Aspirated   
| '''ph, pp''' /pʰ/
| '''ph''' /pʰ/
| '''th, tt''' /tʰ/
| '''th''' /tʰ/
|
|
| '''kh, kk''' /kʰ/
| '''kh''' /kʰ/
| '''qh, qq''' /kʷʰ/
| '''qh''' /kʷʰ/
|-
|-
! Unaspirated   
! Unaspirated   
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Notes:  
Notes:  
* The aspirated plosives are written ''ph, th'' etc word-initially and ''pp, tt'' etc medially.
* Geminate consonants are written double: ''khapallu'' "horse".
* Plosives and fricatives may not occur as geminates.
* Liquids (/n, m, l, r/) may be geminated and are written double, e.g. ''nn, rr'' etc.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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Examples:
Examples:
* ''unu unne'' "a man"
* ''unu anne'' "a man"
* ''at une khaese'' "to a house"
* ''at une khaese'' "to a house"
* ''una arpre'' "a tree"
* ''una alpre'' "a tree"


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
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|-
|-
! Nom-Acc
! Nom-Acc
| ''puenu''
| ''paunu''
| rowspan="2; | ''pueni''
| rowspan="2; | ''pauni''
| ''puena''
| ''pauna''
| ''puene''
| ''paune''
|-
|-
! Gen-Dat.
! Gen-Dat.
| ''pueni''
| ''pauni''
| ''puene''
| ''paune''
| ''pueni''
| ''pauni''
|}
|}


Examples:
Examples:
* ''isu unne puenu'' "the good man"
* ''isu anne paunu'' "the good man"
* ''isa tśaena mantśa'' "the big door"
* ''isa tśaena mantśa'' "the big door"
* ''aratsueni pueni'' "good reasons"
* ''aratsueni pauni'' "good reasons"


: '''E-Stems'''
: '''E-Stems'''
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Examples:
Examples:
* ''isu unne thriste'' "the sad man"
* ''isu anne thriste'' "the sad man"
* ''ise tśaene pirte'' "the green doors"
* ''ise tśaene filte'' "the green doors"
* ''isa filtśa filiekke te une finne thristi'' "the happy daughter of a sad woman"
* ''isa filtśa filiekhe te une finne thristi'' "the happy daughter of a sad woman"


====Comparison====
====Comparison====
The comparative of regular adjectives may be formed with the adverbs ''mai'' "more" or ''mankku'' "less" followed by the positive adjective:
The comparative of regular adjectives may be formed with the adverbs ''mai'' "more" or ''mankhu'' "less" followed by the positive adjective:
* ''mai filiekke'' "happier"
* ''mai filiekke'' "happier"
* ''mankku thriste'' "less sad"
* ''mankhu thriste'' "less sad"
* ''mai nu'' "newer"
* ''mai nuu'' "newer"


The object of comparison is introduced with ''qha'', e.g. ''mai khaltu qha fuekku'' "hotter than fire".
The object of comparison is introduced with ''qha'', e.g. ''mai khaltu qha faukhu'' "hotter than fire".


The superlative is formed in the same way with the article preceding either the adverb (in predicates) or the noun (in attributes):
The superlative is formed in the same way with the article preceding either the adverb (in predicates) or the noun (in attributes):
* ''Martsu es isu mai filiekke'' "Martsu is the happiest"
* ''Martsu es isu mai filiekhe'' "Martsu is the happiest"
* ''isa nutte mai lunku'' "the longest night"
* ''isa nutthe mai lunku'' "the longest night"
* ''ise phersuene mai thristi te isu muntu'' "the saddest people in the world"
* ''ise phersuene mai thristi te isu muntu'' "the saddest people in the world"


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! style="width: 120px;" | Superlative
! style="width: 120px;" | Superlative
|-
|-
| ''puenu'' "good" || ''meltśuere'' || ''isu meltśuere''
| ''paunu'' "good" || ''meltśuere'' || ''isu meltśuere''
|-
|-
| ''maelu'' "bad" || ''petśuere'' || ''isu petśuere''
| ''maelu'' "bad" || ''petśuere'' || ''isu petśuere''
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===Numerals===
===Numerals===
====Cardinals====
====Cardinals====
Cardinals are placed before the noun they qualify and most are indeclinable. Only ''unu'' "one", ''tuu'' "two", or compounds ending in these numerals (e.g. ''pintiunu'' "21") are declined, agreeing in gender, number and case with the following noun. As with English, nouns following "one" are in the singular and all other nouns, including those following compounds of "one" are in the plural. Thus, when followed by a noun, a numeral like ''pintiunu'' will always be in the plural (e.g. ''pintiuni khaeni'' "21 dogs". Note that ''khentu'' "hundred" does not decline, but the plural ''-kkenti'' used in compounds has feminine forms ''-kkente'' (NApl) and ''-kkenti'' (GDpl), e.g. ''tukkenti unni'' "two hundred men", ''tukkente finne'' "two hundred women".
Cardinals are placed before the noun they qualify and most are indeclinable. Only ''uenu'' "one", ''tuu'' "two", or compounds ending in these numerals (e.g. ''pintiuenu'' "21") are declined, agreeing in gender, number and case with the following noun. As with English, nouns following "one" are in the singular and all other nouns, including those following compounds of "one" are in the plural. Thus, when followed by a noun, a numeral like ''pintiuenu'' will always be in the plural (e.g. ''pintiueni khaeni'' "21 dogs". Note that ''khentu'' "hundred" does not decline, but the plural ''-khenti'' used in compounds has feminine forms ''-khente'' (NApl) and ''-khenti'' (GDpl), e.g. ''tukhenti anni'' "two hundred men", ''tukhente finne'' "two hundred women".


====Ordinals====
====Ordinals====
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''unu, una''
| ''uenu, uena''
| ''phriemu''
| ''phriemu''
|-
|-
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! 3
! 3
| ''thri''
| ''thri''
| ''thertsu''
| ''theltsu''
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| ''qattru''
| ''qathru''
| ''qartu''
| ''qaltu''
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
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|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| ''sette''
| ''setthe''
| ''settimu''
| ''setthimu''
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| ''uttu''
| ''ątthu''
| ''uttaepu, uttimu''
| ''ątthaepu, ątthimu''
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| ''nuepe''
| ''nuefe''
| ''nunu, nuepimu''
| ''nunu, nuefimu''
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| ''tekke''
| ''tekhe''
| ''tetsimu''
| ''tetsimu''
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! 17
! 17
| ''tekkesette''
| ''tekhesetthe''
| ''tekkesettimu
| ''tekhesetthimu
|-
|-
! 18
! 18
| ''tekkuttu''
| ''tekhątthu''
| ''tekkuttimu''
| ''tekhątthimu''
|-
|-
! 19
! 19
| ''tekkenupe''
| ''tekkenuefe''
| ''tekkenupimu''
| ''tekkenuefimu''
|-
|-
! 20
! 20
| ''pinti''
| ''finti''
| ''pikkismu'', ''pintimu''
| ''fintimu''
|-
|-
! 21
! 21
| ''pintiunu''
| ''fintiuenu''
| ''pintiunimu''
| ''fintiuenimu''
|-
|-
! 22
! 22
| ''pintituu''
| ''fintituu''
| ''pintituimu''
| ''fintituimu''
|-
|-
! 23  
! 23  
| ''pintittri''
| ''fintithri''
| ''pintittrimu''
| ''fintithriemu''
|-
|-
! 30
! 30
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|-
|-
! 70
! 70
| ''settainta''
| ''setthainta''
| ''settaintimu''
| ''setthaintimu''
|-
|-
! 80
! 80
| ''uttainta''
| ''ąttainta''
| ''uttaintimu''
| ''ąttaintimu''
|-
|-
! 90
! 90
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|-
|-
! 101
! 101
| ''khentu unu''
| ''khentu uenu''
| ''khentu phrimu''
| ''khentu phriemu''
|-
|-
! 102
! 102
| ''khentu tuu''
| ''khentu tuu''
| ''khentu sekkuntu''
| ''khentu sekhuntu''
|-
|-
! 200
! 200
| ''tukkenti''
| ''tukhenti''
| ''tukkentimu''
| ''tukhentimu''
|-
|-
! 300
! 300
| ''thrikkenti''
| ''thrikhenti''
| ''thrikkentimu''
| ''thrikhentimu''
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
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====Fractions====
====Fractions====
Most fractions are identical to their ordinal form, e.g. ''unu thertsu'' "one third", ''qattru sesti'' "four sixths", ''thri qarti'' "three quarters". The word for "half" is ''metśu''.
Most fractions are identical to their ordinal form, e.g. ''uenu theltsu'' "one third", ''qathru sesti'' "four sixths", ''thri qalti'' "three quarters". The word for "half" is ''metśu''.


There are extended nominal forms indicating standard parts of a whole, ''meittatte'' "half", ''thertsaertśu'' "third", ''qartaertśu'' "quarter", ''tsintaertśu'' "fifth", ''sestaertśu'' "sixth".
There are extended nominal forms indicating standard parts of a whole, ''meithathe'' "half", ''theltsaeltśu'' "third", ''qaltaeltśu'' "quarter", ''tsintaeltśu'' "fifth", ''sestaeltśu'' "sixth".


====Multiplicatives====
====Multiplicatives====
Multiplicatives are formed from the cardinal numerals followed by the feminine noun ''pieke'' "time" (pl. ''pieki''), e.g. ''una pieke'' "once", ''tua pieki'' "twice", ''thri pieki'' "thrice" etc.
Multiplicatives are formed from the cardinal numerals followed by the feminine noun ''fieke'' "time" (pl. ''fieki''), e.g. ''uena fieke'' "once", ''tua fieki'' "twice", ''thri fieki'' "thrice" etc.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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|-  
|-  
! Dat.
! Dat.
| ''nupi''
| ''nufi''
| ''pupi''
| ''pufi''
| ''isi / ise''
| ''isi / ise''
| ''isi''
| ''isi''
| colspan="2;" | ''sipi''
| colspan="2;" | ''sifi''
|}
|}


====Possessive Pronouns====
====Possessive Pronouns====
The possessive pronouns are really adjectives that decline much like any other, agreeing in gender, case and number with the noun they modify. They may be used pronominally as a predicate (e.g. ''{THIS} es thuu'' "this is yours", or adjectivally preceding a noun (e.g. ''thua matre'' "your mother"). There are different pronouns for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons in singular and plural, but no distinction is made between the gender of the 'subject'. The basic (masc. sing.) forms are ''meu'' "my", ''theu'' "thy, you (sg)", ''seu'' "his, her, its", ''nustru'' "our", ''pustru'' "your (pl.)" and ''isuru'' "their". For example, ''seu khaene'' "his dog" vs ''sua khatta'' "his cat" vs ''sue pakke'' "his cows" vs ''at sue khaese'' "to his house".
The possessive pronouns are really adjectives that decline much like any other, agreeing in gender, case and number with the noun they modify. They may be used pronominally as a predicate (e.g. ''{THIS} es thuu'' "this is yours", or adjectivally preceding a noun (e.g. ''thua maethre'' "your mother"). There are different pronouns for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons in singular and plural, but no distinction is made between the gender of the 'subject'. The basic (masc. sing.) forms are ''meu'' "my", ''theu'' "thy, you (sg)", ''seu'' "his, her, its", ''nustru'' "our", ''fustru'' "your (pl.)" and ''isuru'' "their". For example, ''seu khaene'' "his dog" vs ''sua khattha'' "his cat" vs ''sue pakkhe'' "his cows" vs ''at sue khaese'' "to his house".


The full declension is shown below:
The full declension is shown below:
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! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 2nd Pl. <br /> "your"
! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 2nd Pl. <br /> "your"
! style="width: 100px;" | Nom-Acc
! style="width: 100px;" | Nom-Acc
| ''pustru''
| ''fustru''
| rowspan="2; | ''pustri
| rowspan="2; | ''fustri
| ''pustra''
| ''fustra''
| ''pustre''
| ''fustre''
|-
|-
! Gen-Dat.
! Gen-Dat.
| ''pustri''
| ''fustri''
| ''pustre''
| ''fustre''
| ''pustri''
| ''fustri''
|-
|-
! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 3rd Pl. <br /> "their"
! style="width: 40px;" rowspan="2;" | 3rd Pl. <br /> "their"
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===Verbs===
===Verbs===
: '''First Conjugation: ''-aere'' verbs'''
Regular verbs conjugate only in the present and imperfect indicative; all other tenses are composed through periphrasis.
 
 
 
: '''Regular Verbs'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px;" | ''AMAERE'' <br /> "love"
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2;" | Indicative
! colspan="2;" | 1. ''amaere'' "to love"
! colspan="2;" | Subjunctive
! colspan="2;" | 2. ''thimiere'' "to fear"
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 120px;"  | Imperative
! colspan="2;" | 3. ''pheithre'' "to ask"
|-
|-
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
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|-
|-
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl
| ''aemu'' <br /> ''aema'' <br /> ''aematt'' <br /> ''amaemu'' <br /> ''amaetti'' <br /> ''aemant''
| ''aemu'' <br /> ''aema'' <br /> ''aemath'' <br /> ''amaemu'' <br /> ''amaethi'' <br /> ''aemant''
| ''amaepu'' <br /> ''amaepa'' <br /> ''amaepatt'' <br /> ''amapaemu'' <br /> ''amapaetti'' <br /> ''amaepant''
| ''amaefu'' <br /> ''amaefa'' <br /> ''amaefath'' <br /> ''amafaemu'' <br /> ''amafaetti'' <br /> ''amaefant''
| ''aeme'' <br /> ''aemi'' <br /> ''aemett'' <br /> ''ameimu'' <br /> ''ameitti'' <br /> ''aement''
| ''thiemu'' <br /> ''thiemi'' <br /> ''thiemith'' <br /> ''thimiemu'' <br /> ''thimiethi'' <br /> ''thiemunt''
| ''amaere'' <br /> ''amaeri'' <br /> ''amaerett'' <br /> ''amariemu'' <br /> ''amarietti'' <br /> ''amaerent''
| ''thimiefu'' <br /> ''thimiefa'' <br /> ''thimiefath'' <br /> ''thimifaemu'' <br /> ''thimifaethi'' <br /> ''thimiefant''
| - <br /> ''aema'' <br /> - <br /> - <br /> ''amaette'' <br /> -
| ''pheithu'' <br /> ''pheithi'' <br /> ''pheithith'' <br /> ''pheithimu'' <br /> ''pheithithi'' <br /> ''pheithunt''
| ''phethiefu'' <br /> ''phethiefa'' <br /> ''phethiefath'' <br /> ''phethifaemu'' <br /> ''phethifaethi'' <br /> ''phethiefant''
|-
|-
! Infinitive <br /> Gerund <br /> Past Participle
! Imperative
| colspan="6;" style="text-align:left;" | ''amaere'' <br /> ''amantu'' <br /> ''amaettu''
| colspan="2;" | ''aema'' (sg.), ''amaethe'' (pl.) || colspan="2;" | ''thiemi'' (sg.) ''thimiette'' (pl.) || colspan="2;" | pheithe (sg.), pheithithe (pl.)
|}
 
 
: '''Second Conjugation: ''-iere'' verbs'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px;" | ''THIMIERE'' <br /> "fear"
! colspan="2;" | Indicative
! colspan="2;" | Subjunctive
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 120px;"  | Imperative
|-
|-
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! Infinitive
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
| colspan="2;" | ''amaere'' || colspan="2;" | ''thimiere'' || colspan="2;" | ''pheithre''
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
|-
|-
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl
! Gerund
| ''thiemu'' <br /> ''thiemi'' <br /> ''thiemitt'' <br /> ''thimiemu'' <br /> ''thimietti'' <br /> ''thiemunt''
| colspan="2;" | ''amantu'' || colspan="2;" | ''thimentu'' || colspan="2;" | ''phethentu
| ''thimiepu'' <br /> ''thimiepa'' <br /> ''thimiepatt'' <br /> ''thimipaemu'' <br /> ''thimipaetti'' <br /> ''thimiepant''
| ''thiema'' <br /> ''thiema'' <br /> ''thiematt'' <br /> ''thimaemu'' <br /> ''thimaetti'' <br /> ''thiemant''
| ''thimiere'' <br /> ''thimieri'' <br /> ''thimierett'' <br /> ''thimiriemu'' <br /> ''thimirietti'' <br /> ''thimierent''
| - <br /> ''thiemi'' <br /> - <br /> - <br /> ''thimiette'' <br /> -
|-
|-
! Infinitive <br /> Gerund <br /> Past Participle  
! Past Participle  
| colspan="6;" style="text-align:left;" | ''thimiere'' <br /> ''thimentu'' <br /> ''thimiettu''
| colspan="2;" | ''amaethu'' || colspan="2;" | ''thimiethu'' || colspan="2;" | ''pheithithu''
|}
|}




: '''Third Conjugation: ''-re'' verbs'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px;" | ''PHEITTRE'' <br /> "ask"
! colspan="2;" | Indicative
! colspan="2;" | Subjunctive
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 120px;"  | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
! style="width: 120px;" | Present
! style="width: 120px;" | Imperfect
|-
! 1st Sg <br /> 2nd Sg <br /> 3rd Sg <br /> 1st Pl <br /> 2nd Pl <br /> 3rd Pl
| ''pheittu'' <br /> ''pheitti'' <br /> ''pheittitt'' <br /> ''pheittimu'' <br /> ''pheittitti'' <br /> ''pheittunt''
| ''phettiepu'' <br /> ''phettiepa'' <br /> ''phettiepatt'' <br /> ''phettipaemu'' <br /> ''phettipaetti'' <br /> ''phettiepant''
| ''pheitta'' <br /> ''pheitta'' <br /> ''pheittatt'' <br /> ''phettaemu'' <br /> ''phettaetti'' <br /> ''pheittant''
| ''pheittre'' <br /> ''pheittri'' <br /> ''pheittrett'' <br /> ''phettriemu'' <br /> ''phettrietti'' <br /> ''pheittrent''
| - <br /> ''pheitte'' <br /> - <br /> - <br /> ''pheittitte'' <br /> -
|-
! Infinitive <br /> Gerund <br /> Past Participle
| colspan="6;" style="text-align:left;" | ''pheittre'' <br /> ''phettentu'' <br /> ''pheittittu''
|}


:


: '''Irregular: ''eisre'' "to be"
: '''Irregular: ''eisre'' "to be"

Revision as of 16:10, 12 September 2020

Old Pulqer (Pul. Pulkaeri) is a Romance language spoken between approximately the 3rd and 10th centuries AD in the island of Jaques (Pul. Tśaqa).

Phonology and Orthography

Vowels

Old Pulqer had the following short vowels:

Front Back
Close i /i/ u /u/
Open-mid e /ɛ/
Open a /a/ ą /ɑ/

All long vowels were converted to diphthongs, merging with some existing diphthongs:

Front Back
Close ie /iə/ ue /uə/
ui /ui/
Open-mid ei /ɛɪ/
Open ae /ae/
ai /aɪ/ 		au /ao/

Consonants

Bilabial Alveolar Post-alveolar Velar
Plain Labial
Nasal m /m/ n /n/
Plosive Aspirated ph /pʰ/ th /tʰ/ kh /kʰ/ qh /kʷʰ/
Unaspirated p /p/ t /t/ k /k/ q /kʷ/
Fricative f /ɸ/ s /s/ ś /ʃ/
Affricate ts /t͡s/ tś /t͡ʃ/
Trill r /r/
Lateral app. l /l/

Notes:

  • Geminate consonants are written double: khapallu "horse".

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns are marked for gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular or plural) and case (Nominative-Accusative or Genitive-Dative). These are marked on the noun with suffixes according to three declensions:

1. A-Stems (feminine)
filtśa "daughter"
Sing. Pl.
Nom-Acc. filtśa filtśe
Gen-Dat. filtśe filtśi


2. U-Stems (masculine)
mueru "wall"
Sing. Pl.
Nom-Acc. mueru mueri
Gen-Dat. mueri


3. E-Stems (masculine & feminine)
ifante "baby"
Sing. Pl.
Nom-Acc. ifante ifanti
Gen-Dat. ifanti ifantu

Articles

There are both definite (isu) and indefinite (unu) articles, declined in much the same way as nouns and agreeing in gender, number and case with the noun they qualify. Unu occurs only in the singular.

isu (definite article)
Masculine Feminine
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Nom-Acc isu isi isa ise
Gen-Dat. isi ise isi

Examples:

  • isu unne "the man"
  • isa filtśa te isi unni "the man's daughter"
  • ise khatte "the cats"
unu (indefinite article)
Masculine Feminine
Sing. Sing.
Nom-Acc unu una
Gen-Dat. uni une

Examples:

  • unu anne "a man"
  • at une khaese "to a house"
  • una alpre "a tree"

Adjectives

Positive adjectives are declined in much the same way as nouns and agree in gender, number and case with the noun they qualify. There are two declensions for adjectives: the first takes u-stem endings for masculine nouns and a-stem endings with feminine nouns; the second follows the e-stem endings end does not differ for gender. Adjectives follow their head noun.

A/U-Stems
puenu
"good" 		Masculine Feminine
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Nom-Acc paunu pauni pauna paune
Gen-Dat. pauni paune pauni

Examples:

  • isu anne paunu "the good man"
  • isa tśaena mantśa "the big door"
  • aratsueni pauni "good reasons"
E-Stems
thriste
"sad" 		Masculine/Feminine
Sing. Pl.
Nom-Acc thriste thristi
Gen-Dat. thristi thristu

Examples:

  • isu anne thriste "the sad man"
  • ise tśaene filte "the green doors"
  • isa filtśa filiekhe te une finne thristi "the happy daughter of a sad woman"

Comparison

The comparative of regular adjectives may be formed with the adverbs mai "more" or mankhu "less" followed by the positive adjective:

  • mai filiekke "happier"
  • mankhu thriste "less sad"
  • mai nuu "newer"

The object of comparison is introduced with qha, e.g. mai khaltu qha faukhu "hotter than fire".

The superlative is formed in the same way with the article preceding either the adverb (in predicates) or the noun (in attributes):

  • Martsu es isu mai filiekhe "Martsu is the happiest"
  • isa nutthe mai lunku "the longest night"
  • ise phersuene mai thristi te isu muntu "the saddest people in the world"

The following adjectives have irregular comparative forms:

Comparative Superlative
paunu "good" meltśuere isu meltśuere
maelu "bad" petśuere isu petśuere
tśuene "young" tśuntśuere isu tśuntśuere
mantśu "big" matśuere isu matśuere

Numerals

Cardinals

Cardinals are placed before the noun they qualify and most are indeclinable. Only uenu "one", tuu "two", or compounds ending in these numerals (e.g. pintiuenu "21") are declined, agreeing in gender, number and case with the following noun. As with English, nouns following "one" are in the singular and all other nouns, including those following compounds of "one" are in the plural. Thus, when followed by a noun, a numeral like pintiuenu will always be in the plural (e.g. pintiueni khaeni "21 dogs". Note that khentu "hundred" does not decline, but the plural -khenti used in compounds has feminine forms -khente (NApl) and -khenti (GDpl), e.g. tukhenti anni "two hundred men", tukhente finne "two hundred women".

Ordinals

The ordinal numerals are adjectives that decline like any other and usually follow the noun they modify, agreeing in gender, case and number with that noun. Note that phriemu "first" means simply the first in a series when following the noun, but means "foremost, superior" when preceding (e.g. isu phriemu arike "the foremost king" vs. isu arike phriemu "the first man").

Cardinal Ordinal
1 uenu, uena phriemu
2 tuu, tua sekkuntu
3 thri theltsu
4 qathru qaltu
5 tsinqe qintu
6 ses sestu
7 setthe setthimu
8 ątthu ątthaepu, ątthimu
9 nuefe nunu, nuefimu
10 tekhe tetsimu
11 untsi untsimu
12 tutsi tutsimu
13 thretsi thretsimu
14 qatuertsi qatuertsimu
15 qintsi qintsimu
16 sitsi sitsimu
17 tekhesetthe tekhesetthimu
18 tekhątthu tekhątthimu
19 tekkenuefe tekkenuefimu
20 finti fintimu
21 fintiuenu fintiuenimu
22 fintituu fintituimu
23 fintithri fintithriemu
30 thrinta thrintimu
40 qarainta qaraintimu
50 tsinqainta tsinqaintimu
60 sesainta sesaintimu
70 setthainta setthaintimu
80 ąttainta ąttaintimu
90 nunainta nunaintimu
100 khentu khentimu
101 khentu uenu khentu phriemu
102 khentu tuu khentu sekhuntu
200 tukhenti tukhentimu
300 thrikhenti thrikhentimu
1000 mille millimu
2000 tumille tumillimu

Fractions

Most fractions are identical to their ordinal form, e.g. uenu theltsu "one third", qathru sesti "four sixths", thri qalti "three quarters". The word for "half" is metśu.

There are extended nominal forms indicating standard parts of a whole, meithathe "half", theltsaeltśu "third", qaltaeltśu "quarter", tsintaeltśu "fifth", sestaeltśu "sixth".

Multiplicatives

Multiplicatives are formed from the cardinal numerals followed by the feminine noun fieke "time" (pl. fieki), e.g. uena fieke "once", tua fieki "twice", thri fieki "thrice" etc.

Pronouns

Personal

Personal pronouns are marked for gender, number and case, though they do not follow the same Nom-Acc. and Gen-Dat. distinction as other parts of speech. Personal pronouns proper are only declined according to Nom., Acc. or Dat., agreeing with the referent.

1st 2nd 3rd (m / f) Reflexive
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Nom. tśu nu thu pu isu / isa isi / ise -
Acc. mi thi si
Dat. nufi pufi isi / ise isi sifi

Possessive Pronouns

The possessive pronouns are really adjectives that decline much like any other, agreeing in gender, case and number with the noun they modify. They may be used pronominally as a predicate (e.g. {THIS} es thuu "this is yours", or adjectivally preceding a noun (e.g. thua maethre "your mother"). There are different pronouns for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons in singular and plural, but no distinction is made between the gender of the 'subject'. The basic (masc. sing.) forms are meu "my", theu "thy, you (sg)", seu "his, her, its", nustru "our", fustru "your (pl.)" and isuru "their". For example, seu khaene "his dog" vs sua khattha "his cat" vs sue pakkhe "his cows" vs at sue khaese "to his house".

The full declension is shown below:

Masculine Feminine
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
1st Sg.
"my" 		Nom-Acc meu mei mia mie
Gen-Dat. mei mie mei
2nd Sg.
"thy" 		Nom-Acc theu thei thua thue
Gen-Dat. thei thue thei
3rd Sg.
"his, her, its" 		Nom-Acc seu sei sua sue
Gen-Dat. sei sue sei
1st Pl.
"our" 		Nom-Acc nustru nustri nustra nustre
Gen-Dat. nustri nustre nustri
2nd Pl.
"your" 		Nom-Acc fustru fustri fustra fustre
Gen-Dat. fustri fustre fustri
3rd Pl.
"their" 		Nom-Acc isuru isuri isura isure
Gen-Dat. isuri isure isuri

Demonstratives

The demonstrative pronouns are khustu "this", khullu "that", which decline by gender, number and case according to the noun being described (khustu, khusta, khusti, khuste etc.).

Verbs

Regular verbs conjugate only in the present and imperfect indicative; all other tenses are composed through periphrasis.


Regular Verbs
1. amaere "to love" 2. thimiere "to fear" 3. pheithre "to ask"
Present Imperfect Present Imperfect Present Imperfect
1st Sg
2nd Sg
3rd Sg
1st Pl
2nd Pl
3rd Pl 		aemu
aema
aemath
amaemu
amaethi
aemant 		amaefu
amaefa
amaefath
amafaemu
amafaetti
amaefant 		thiemu
thiemi
thiemith
thimiemu
thimiethi
thiemunt 		thimiefu
thimiefa
thimiefath
thimifaemu
thimifaethi
thimiefant 		pheithu
pheithi
pheithith
pheithimu
pheithithi
pheithunt 		phethiefu
phethiefa
phethiefath
phethifaemu
phethifaethi
phethiefant
Imperative aema (sg.), amaethe (pl.) thiemi (sg.) thimiette (pl.) pheithe (sg.), pheithithe (pl.)
Infinitive amaere thimiere pheithre
Gerund amantu thimentu phethentu
Past Participle amaethu thimiethu pheithithu



Irregular: eisre "to be"
EISRE
"be" 		Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
Present Imperfect Present Imperfect
1st Sg
2nd Sg
3rd Sg
1st Pl
2nd Pl
3rd Pl 		sue
ei
est
sumu
eisti
sunt 		eiru
eira
eiratt
eraemu
eraetti
eirant 		sie
sie
sitt
siemu
sietti
sint 		eisre
eisri
eisrett
esriemu
esrietti
eisrent 		-
ei
-
-
este
-
Infinitive
Gerund
Past Participle 		eisre
esentu
eisittu

Vocabulary

English Old Pulqer
before ante
to at
action attsune, f.
act (n.) attu, m.
act (v) aekre, aek-
other altru
love (v.) amaere, aem-
friend amiekka, f., amiekku, m.
year annu, m.
water aqqa, f.
tree arpre, f.
or autt
bath pantśu, m.
good, well (adv.) peine
arm prattsu, m.
good puenu
horse khapallu, m.
fall khatre, khaet-
dog khaene, m.
sing khantaere, khant-
song khantsune, f.
house (humble) khaesa, f; (elite) tuemu, m.
centre khenttru, m.
city tsuttaette, f.
start khumintsaere, khumints-
count khuntaere, khunt-
heart khure, m.
body khurpu, m.
believe khretre, khreit-
belief khretentsa, f.
with khun
of te
owe tipiere, tiep-
say tiekre, tiek-
lady tunna, f.
lord tunnu, m.
I tśu
mare eqqa, f.
be esre (irreg.)
and ett
speak faplaere, fapl-
make faekre, faek-
fact fattu, m.
happy filiekke
woman finna, f.
daughter filtśa, f.
son filtśu, m.
finish finiere, fien-
flower fluere, m.
fire fuekku, m.
shape furma, f.
have apiere (irreg.)
if ukk
today utśe
man unne, m.
already tśa
in in'
he ise
she isa
the isu, isa
work lapuere, m.
milk latte, m.
lake laekku', m.
language linqa, f.
light (n.) luekke, f.
success lukkru, m.
beast, monster lueppu, m.
big mantśu
more mai
inn maśune, f.
hand maenu, m.
mother mattre, f.
me me (acc.), mi (dat.)
less manku
recently muetu
wall mueru, m.
wife multśeire, f,
night nutte, f.
name nunne, m.
not nun
we, us nu
new nuevu
nothing nulla
father phattre, m.
skin phelle, f.
lose phertre, phert-
stone phettra, f.
hair phielu, m.
rain phrutśa, f.
door tśaena, f.
gate phurtta, f.
for phor
than qha
which qhaele
when qhantu
how much qhanttu
seek kheirre, kheir-
who khi
what khit
that khut
how khumu
reason ratsune, f.
blood sanqine, m.
know astsiere
write askripre, asckrip-
sign sintśu, m.
hope aspiraere, aspier-
above supre
late tharte
you sg: thu (nom.), the (acc.), thi (dat.); pl: pu
hold theniere, thein-
time themppu, m.
land therra, f.
fear thimre, thiem-
sad thriste
one unu
a, an unu, una
come peniere, pein-
wind pentu, m.
word perpu, m.
truth pirttaette, f.
true piru
see pitiere, piet-
live piepre, piep-
voice puekke, f.
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