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|image = Ahba.svg | |image = Ahba.svg | ||
|imagesize = 100px | |imagesize = 100px | ||
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] | |||
|name = Ash | |name = Ash | ||
|nativename = '' | |nativename = ''ạ̉hgaa'' | ||
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː] | |pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː] | ||
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]] | |creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]] | ||
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==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
'''Ash''' ('' | '''Ash''' (''ạ̉hgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqɑː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ảhba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives. | ||
The language is | The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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===Phonemes=== | ===Phonemes=== | ||
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Vocalic | ! Vocalic | ||
| {{IPA|/a | | {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Plosive | ! Plosive | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Glottal | ! Glottal | ||
| {{IPA|/h | | {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nasal | ! Nasal | ||
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|} | |} | ||
The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair | The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic. | ||
===Romanisation=== | ===Romanisation=== | ||
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following | The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| a | | a | ||
| e | | e | ||
| y | | y | ||
| o | | o | ||
| w | | w | ||
| b | | b | ||
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| ŋ | | ŋ | ||
|} | |} | ||
Tilde (e.g. '''ã''') is used to mark nasalisation. Hook above (e.g. '''ả''') denotes a word-initial glottal stop. Dot below (e.g. '''ạ''') signifies otherwise ambiguous stress. An apostrophe ('''’''') is placed before a syllabic consonant. | |||
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation: | An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| {{IPA|// | | {{IPA|//iʔ.Vʔˈuʔ.t͡si//}} | ||
| → {{IPA|/ | | → {{IPA|/ʔiʔˈwuʔ.t͡si/}} | ||
| → {{IPA|[ | | → {{IPA|[ˈʔe̞ʍˈʍo̞ʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}} | ||
| → '' | | → ''ẻhhodse'' "hungry" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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===Prosody and stress=== | ===Prosody and stress=== | ||
Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition | Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so. | ||
=== | ===Clusters=== | ||
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels. | Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels. | ||
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process. | * A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process. | ||
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate. | * All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate. | ||
* /h~ʔ/ | * {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates. | ||
* Affricates are | * Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped). | ||
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades bidirectionally through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} word-finally and cluster-initially. | |||
<div style="float: left"> | <div style="float: left"> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//N-//}} | ! {{IPA|//N-//}} | ||
| [ɲ.ɲ] | | {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}} | ||
| [m.m] | | {{IPA|[m.m]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ||
| [ç.ç] | | {{IPA|[ç.ç]}} | ||
| [ʍ.ʍ] | | {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}} | ||
| [ɕ.ɕ] | | {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}} | ||
| [s̠.s̠] | | {{IPA|[s̠.s̠]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}} | ||
| | | {{IPA|[ʎ.ʎ]}} | ||
| {{IPA|[ɫ.ɫ]}} | |||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ||
|rowspan="2"| /h.P/ [ħ.P] | |rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ||
| /t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P] | | {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ! {{IPA|//h-//}} | ||
| [ħ.P] | | {{IPA|[ħ.P]}} | ||
| [ʔ.P͡F] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}} | ||
| /ʔ. | | {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ! {{IPA|//p-//}} | ||
| [ʔ.ᵇm] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ! {{IPA|//t-//}} | ||
| [ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ! {{IPA|//k-//}} | ||
| [ʔ.ᶢŋ] | | {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
<div style="clear: both"></div> | <div style="clear: both"></div> | ||
===Laterals=== | |||
The lateral affricate {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} patterns phonotactically just like the sibilant affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} but is not always produced as a fricative, but sometimes also as an approximant. In contexts where the affrication remains, regardless of voicing, so does the frication, i.e. {{IPA|[t͡ɬ~d͡ɮ]}}. In leniting contexts the realisation depends on the environment, remaining a fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in a voiceless environment while defaulting to a pure lateral approximant {{IPA|[l]}} in a voiced one, but when geminated by the absorption of a following palatal glide it assimilates to it as {{IPA|[ʎ̥]}}. | |||
===Syllabification=== | |||
In unstressed prefixes, colourless or epenthetic vowels may drop out in favour of syllabification of an adjacent fricative or nasal. This is represented in the romanisation by an apostrophe '''’''' placed before the non-vocalic consonant letter. | |||
An example is the inalienable possession prefix ''n-'' becoming ''’n-''. Some word stems have inherent consonantal prefixes that get resolved the same way: ''n-doo-'' "(fire) smoke" becomes ''’ndoo-'' in the absence of a prefix, and ''ảd’ndoo-'' when the direct marker ''ảh-'' is added. | |||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and | Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them. | ||
=== Verbs === | === Verbs === | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="3" | | ||
! colspan="5" | Stem | ! colspan="5" | Stem | ||
| colspan=" | | colspan="2" | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Deixis | | Deixis | ||
| | | Agency | ||
| Incorp. | | Incorp. | ||
| '''Root''' | | '''Root''' | ||
| | | Deriv. | ||
| State | | State | ||
| Mood | | Mood | ||
| | | Involv. | ||
| Converb. | | Converb. | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Stems==== | ====Stems==== | ||
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine": | Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! Stative | ! Stative | ||
! Active | ! Active | ||
! | ! Inchoative | ||
! Terminative | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Indicative | ! Indicative | ||
| '''''oada''''' | | '''''oada''''' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑː.ðɐ]}} | |||
| ''oahda'' | | ''oahda'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑħ.t̠ɐ]}} | |||
| ''oadna'' | | ''oadna'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐ]}} | |||
| ''oasda'' | |||
{{IPA|[ˈɔ̯ɑs̠.t̠ɐ]}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Optative | ! Optative | ||
| '' | | ''oese'' | ||
| '' | {{IPA|[ˈʊːɪ̯.ʑɪ]}} | ||
| '' | | ''oedse'' | ||
{{IPA|[ˈo̞e̞̯ʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}} | |||
| ''oedne'' | |||
{{IPA|[ˈo̞e̞̯ʔ.ᶡɲɪ]}} | |||
| ''oesde'' | |||
{{IPA|[ˈʊɪ̯ɕ.ȶ͡ɕɪ]}} | |||
|} | |} | ||
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The | All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative. | ||
====Derived verbs==== | ====Derived verbs==== | ||
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'' | Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-j-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs), inchoative, terminative and so on. These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume": | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! Stative | ! Stative | ||
! Active | ! Active | ||
! | ! Inchoative | ||
! Terminative | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Basic | ! Basic | ||
| colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo''''' | | colspan="2" | <center>'''''oo'''''</center> | ||
| ''oona'' | | ''oona'' | ||
| ''ooda'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Causative | ! Causative | ||
| colspan="2" | <center>''oyya'' | | colspan="2" | <center>''oyya''</center> | ||
| ''oena'' | | ''oena'' | ||
| | | ''oeda'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Frequentative | ! Frequentative | ||
| colspan="2" | <center>''odsa'' | | colspan="2" | <center>''odsa''</center> | ||
| '' | | ''osna'' | ||
| ''osda'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
===Nominals=== | ===Nominals=== | ||
Nominals are mostly unmarked | Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! Distal | ! Distal | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''’mmõõ'' | ||
| ''emmõõ'' | | ''emmõõ'' | ||
| ''ommõõ'' | | ''ommõõ'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor. | |||
=== | ===Converbs=== | ||
Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs. | |||
Some prominent | Some prominent converbialising suffixes: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! | ! | ||
! | ! Long | ||
! Short | |||
! Example | ! Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| ''-da'' | | ''-da'' | ||
| '' | | ''-s'' | ||
| ''’nsooda'' "where they live; by the house; at home" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Durative | ! Durative | ||
| ''-go'' | | ''-wo'', ''-go'' | ||
| '' | | ''-h'' | ||
| ''oadnah'' "when it gets bright; in the morning" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Benefactive | ! Benefactive | ||
| ''-ba'' | | ''-wa'', ''-ba'' | ||
| '' | | ''-o'' | ||
| ''eawa'' "in order to see" | |||
|- | |||
! Semblative | |||
| ''-ya'' | |||
| ''-e'' | |||
| ''ảyya'' "sea-like; blue; green" | |||
|} | |} | ||
The shorter forms are used unstressed vowels and in a few irregular instances, and are for example always used with the reduced forms of locative verbs (e.g. ''ảhba las'' "in Appa"); irregular instances include the contractions ''eas'' "here" and ''eah'' "now". | |||
===Deixis=== | ===Deixis=== | ||
The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); | The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question. | ||
The deictic stems are as follows: | The deictic stems are as follows: | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals '' | Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa'' (reduced from ''eyya'' and ''owwa'' still used for emphasis), generally shortened and tending to blend into the next word, often as {{IPA|[-ɛ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-e̞(ː)ɪ̯]~[-e̞j-]}} and {{IPA|[-ɔ(ː~ˑ)-]~[-o̞(ː)ʊ̯]~[-o̞w-]}}, but also with the glide assimilating, leading to forms such as {{IPA|[-ɪw-]}} and {{IPA|[-ʊj-]}}. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ả-'' becomes ''ẻ-''. | ||
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs=== | ===Conjunct and disjunct verbs=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct | ! Conjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u>''<br />"I am pale" | ||
| - | | - | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you pale?" | ||
| - | | - | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct | ! Disjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada''<br />"you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) oada''<br />"they are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada no''<br />"am I pale?" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) oada no''<br />"are they pale?" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct | ! Conjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ảhhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at you" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ảssea<u>s</u>''<br />"you look at me" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ảhhea<u>s</u>''<br />"I look at them" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ảssea<u>s</u>''<br />"they look at me" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct | ! Disjunct | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ảhhea''<br />"you look at them" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) ảssea''<br />"they look at you" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ảhhea''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>" | ||
| ''( | | ''(oa go) ảssea''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! rowspan="2" | | ! rowspan="2" | | ||
! colspan="2" | Proximal | ! colspan="2" | Proximal | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct source | ! Conjunct source | ||
! Disjunct source | ! Disjunct source | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Conjunct target | ! Conjunct target | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said I am pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said you are pale" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Disjunct target | ! Disjunct target | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u>''<br />"I said you are pale" | ||
| ''( | | ''(ea go) oada (ea go) ogaa''<br />"you said I am pale" | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Indirect involvement==== | ====Indirect involvement==== | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair | |translation=Ao is braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with | The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb. | ||
===Valency=== | ===Valency=== | ||
==== | ====Agency==== | ||
Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs. | Transitivity and volition are tied up in a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs. | ||
{| | {| | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo go bahba ẻ<u>hh</u>ea | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔe̞çˈçɛːɑ̯] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u> | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog | |translation=Ao is looking at the dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo go bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.IND | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | |translation=Ao is being watched by the dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ẻhheas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔe̞çˈçɛːɑ̯ɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I am looking at them | |translation=I am looking at them | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ẻsseas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯ɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.IND-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=they are looking at me | |translation=they are looking at me | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=oadnah ảesããs | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐħ ħɐɪ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ːs̠] | ||
|gloss=shine. | |gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I wash in the morning | |translation=I wash in the morning | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=oadnah ảo go ảosãã ma | ||
|IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ. | |IPA=[ˈʔɔ̯ɑʔ.ᵈn̠ɐħ ħɑːʊ̯‿ɣo̞ ʔɐʊ̯ˈz̠ɑ̃ː‿mɐ] | ||
|gloss=shine. | |gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND NEG | ||
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning | |translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ea ảhbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=you are braiding my hair | |translation=you are braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ea ẻebadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ ˈjɛˑ ʔe̞ɪ̯ˈβɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=I am braiding my hair | |translation=I am braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo go bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ʊj.jɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog DIST- | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink | |translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink | ||
}} | }} | ||
==== | ====Converbialisation==== | ||
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into | The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking. | ||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo go bahba mea<u>da</u> odsoyya | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ ˈmɛːɑ̯.ðɐ wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ʊj.jɐ] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>LOC</u> DIST- | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog fire-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND | ||
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire | |translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire | ||
}} | }} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| '' | | ''bahba go ảhhea''<br />"dogs watch it" | ||
| '' | | ''bahba go ảssea''<br />"dogs are watched" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| ''sãã sa | | ''sãã sa ảhhea''<br />"water is watched" | ||
| ''*sãã sa | | ''*sãã sa ảssea''<br />(ungrammatical) | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Topicalisation=== | ===Topicalisation=== | ||
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus | New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Animate | ! Animate | ||
| '' | | ''ảo go <u>bahba</u> ỏhhea''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog" | ||
| ''<u> | | ''<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Inanimate | ! Inanimate | ||
| '' | | ''ảo go <u>sãã</u> ỏhhoo''<br />"Ao was drinking water" | ||
| ''<u>sãã sa</u> | | ''<u>sãã sa</u> ảo ỏhhoo''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=[ | |phrase=[owahdah bahba go ỏssoeda]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseanas]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[o̞ˈwɑħ.t̠ɐħ ˈpɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ʔʊs̠ˈs̠ʊːɪ̯.ðɐ jɪˈwɑħ.t̠ɐ.wo̞ħ ħɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯.n̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS. | |gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.TERM.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub> | |translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub> | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=oasya bahba go ẻsseanas no | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈɔ̯ɑɕ.ɕɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ʔɪɕˈɕɛːɑ̯.n̠ɐz̠‿ᵈn̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see. | |gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q | ||
|translation=have you seen the white dog? | |translation=have you seen the white dog? | ||
}} | }} | ||
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| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving" | | ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving" | ||
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving" | | ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving" | ||
| ''ebadsa no | | ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?" | ||
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!" | | ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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====Evidentiality==== | ====Evidentiality==== | ||
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as '' | Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving" | | ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving" | ||
| ''ebadsa | | ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving" | ||
| '' | | ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving" | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Locative verbs== | ==Locative verbs== | ||
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. | An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers. | ||
These are some of those verbs: | These are some of those verbs: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! | ! Locative | ||
! Topic | |||
! Gloss | ! Gloss | ||
! Semantic range | ! Semantic range | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''laa'' | | ''laa'' | ||
| ''la'' | |||
| :STAT | | :STAT | ||
| General stative (indefinite or permanent) | | General stative (indefinite or permanent) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''goo'' | | ''goo'' | ||
| ''go'' | |||
| :ACT | | :ACT | ||
| General active (temporary or dynamic) | | General active (temporary or dynamic) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''sãã'' | | ''sãã'' | ||
| ''sa'' | |||
| :LIQ | | :LIQ | ||
| Water and other liquids | | Water and other liquids | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''see'' | | ''see'' | ||
| ''se'' | |||
| :AER | | :AER | ||
| Air and weather | | Air and weather | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''boo'' | | ''boo'' | ||
| ''bo'' | |||
| :CRESC | | :CRESC | ||
| Growth (hair, plants et c.) | | Growth (hair, plants et c.) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''doo'' | | ''doo'' | ||
| ''do'' | |||
| :PART | | :PART | ||
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.) | | Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''mea'' | ||
| ''me'' | |||
| :PYR | | :PYR | ||
| Fire | | Fire (by extension core or centre) | ||
|- | |||
| ''baa'' | |||
| ''ba'' | |||
| :MAN | |||
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools) | |||
|} | |} | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼmmõõ bo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbʊ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:CRESC | |gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC | ||
|translation=hair (on the head) | |translation=hair (on the head) | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ʼmmõõ la | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[m̩ˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | ||
|gloss=POSS-head TOP:STAT | |gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT | ||
|translation=head (on the body) | |translation=head (on the body) | ||
}} | }} | ||
|} | |} | ||
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications | Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications for the syntax. | ||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=emmõõ bo | |phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ɪmˈmũ̯õ̞ː‿ᵐbo̞ ˈʔɑːo̞ ʔe̞ħˈpɑʔ.t̠͡s̠ɐs̠] | ||
|gloss=PROX- | |gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ | ||
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair | |translation=Ao is braiding my hair | ||
}} | }} | ||
===Conjunction=== | ===Conjunction=== | ||
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{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo go bahba go oas egoo | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ˈwɔˑʑ ɪˈɣu̯oː] | ||
|gloss=ao TOP:ACT dog TOP:ACT DIST-LOC PROX-LOC:ACT.IND | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there | |translation=Ao and the dog are over there | ||
}} | }} | ||
=== | ===Use with converbs=== | ||
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning. | |||
{| | {| | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo sas sãã | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd̠͡z̠ɑ̃ː] | ||
|gloss= | |gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea | |translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo sas laa | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿z̠ɐz̠ ˈd͡ɮɑ̃ː] | ||
|gloss= | |gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND | ||
|translation=(be) by the | |translation=(be) by the sea | ||
}} | }} | ||
|} | |} | ||
== | ===Possession=== | ||
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-s'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum. | |||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ảo gos ʼmmõõ la | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ɣʊ‿z̠m̩ˈmũ̯õː‿ⁿd͡ɮɐ] | ||
|gloss= | |gloss=ao=TOP:ACT-CVB:LOC INAL-head=TOP:STAT | ||
|translation= | |translation=Ao's head (lit. "head at Ao") | ||
}} | }} | ||
==Pragmatics and conventions== | |||
===Modality=== | ===Modality=== | ||
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|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ẻhhodses | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔe̞ʍˈʍo̞ʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪɕ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT-CONJ | |gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ | ||
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry | |translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=ẻhhodses no | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ʔe̞ʍˈʍo̞ʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪʑ‿ᵈn̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=PROX-consume.OPT Q | |gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ=Q | ||
|translation=perhaps I should eat something | |translation=perhaps I should eat something | ||
}} | }} | ||
|{{gloss | |{{gloss | ||
|phrase= | |phrase=bahba go ẻhhodse no | ||
|IPA=[ˈbɑħ. | |IPA=[ˈbɑħ.pɐ‿ɣo̞ ʔe̞ʍˈʍo̞ʔ.ȶ͡ɕɪ‿n̠ʊ] | ||
|gloss=dog TOP:ACT PROX-consume.OPT Q | |gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT=Q | ||
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry | |translation=maybe the dog is hungry | ||
}} | }} | ||
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===Colour terms=== | ===Colour terms=== | ||
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mee'' "fire" → ''meyya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ảo'' "sea" → ''ảyya'' "blue; green". | |||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=meyya | |phrase=meyya bahba go | ||
|IPA=[ | |IPA=[ˈme̞j.jɐ ˈβɑħ.pɐ‿ɣʊ] | ||
|gloss=fire-SEMB dog TOP:ACT | |gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT | ||
|translation=a brown dog | |translation=a brown dog | ||
}} | }} | ||
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]] | [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]] | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] |
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