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|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|}
|}
There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.
The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p <p> b <b>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
/h̪/ <ɋ>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i <i> y <u>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"|
|}
ɑ̃ <ɯ> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :
Consonants
<poem>
Nasals : /m/ m ; /n/ n ; /ɲ/ nh ; /ŋ/ ng
Plosives : /pʰ/ ph ; /p/ p ; /<sup>m</sup>b/ mb ; /b/ b ; /tʰ/ th ; /t/ t ; /ⁿd/ nd ; /d/ d ; /kʰ/ kh ; /k/ k ; /<sup>ŋ</sup>g/ ngg ; /g/ g
Fricatives : /ɸ/ fh ; /β/ bh ; /f/ f ; /v/ v ; /θ/ c ; /ð/ dh ; /s/ s ; /z/ z ; /ʃ/ sh ; /ʒ/ zh ; /x/ xh ; /ɣ/ gh ; /χ/ x ; /ʁ/ r ; /h/ h
Laterals : /l/ l
Approximants : /j/ y ; /w/ w
Taps : /ɾ/ lh
Trills : /ʀ/ j
</poem>
Vowels
<poem>
/i/ i ; /y/ ü ; /u/ u
/e/ e ; /ø/ ö ; /o/ o
/ɛ/ ä ; /ɔ/ ô
/a/ a
/ɛ̃/ î ; /ɔ̃/ â ; /ɑ̃/ ê
</poem>
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p <p> b <b>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}
/h̪/ <ch>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i <i> y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <u>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ô>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"|
|}
ɑ̃ <ê> ɛ̃ <î> ɔ̃ <â>


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
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====Nouns====
====Nouns====


Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and dative. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the nouns is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.
Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.


=====''Definiteness''=====
=====''Definiteness''=====
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=====''Gender''=====
=====''Gender''=====


On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' is a feminine marker. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into [w] after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.
On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.


Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.
Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.
Line 275: Line 565:
=====''Case''=====
=====''Case''=====


Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, but also other functions which are not covered by accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix which is different depending on the animatedness status of the noun : the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun. Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into [w] after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns, although if the stem ends in a consonant diverse morphophonological changes take place depending on that consonant : aspirated plosives lose their aspiration ; voiceless obstruents become voiced ; the palatal nasal gets partially assimilated and turns into ''n'' ; the voiced velar fricative gets partially assimilated and turns into the plosive ''g'' (its distribution being limited to V_V contexts) ; prenasalised occlusives get totally nasalised (their distribution being limited to _V contexts) ; the bilabial fricative becomes a labio-velar approximan [w] ; and there's gemination with the dental occlusives : [dd]. Those changes are usually not reflected in the orthography.
Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, but also other functions which are not covered by accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix which is different depending on the animatedness status of the noun : the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun. Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns, although if the stem ends in a consonant diverse morphophonological changes take place depending on that consonant : aspirated plosives lose their aspiration ; voiceless obstruents become voiced ; the palatal nasal gets partially assimilated and turns into ''n'' ; prenasalised occlusives get totally nasalised ; the bilabial fricative becomes a labio-velar approximant [w] ; and there's gemination with the dental occlusives : [dd]. Those changes are usually reflected in the orthography.
 
<poem>
[+asp] -> [-asp] /_-do
[-voice] -> [+voice] / _-do
[+bilabial] -> /w/ / _-do
[+prenasalized] -> [nasal] / _-do
/ɲ/ -> /n/ / _-do
</poem>


====Verbs====
====Verbs====
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</poem>  
</poem>  


=====''Mode''=====
=====''Grammatical Mood''=====
 
Realis
 
Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.
 
Irrealis
 
The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.
 
=====''Polarity''=====
 
The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.
 
Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".


=====''Conjugation''=====
=====''Conjugation''=====
Line 310: Line 622:
!  !! Class A Animate Gender !! Class A Inanimate Gender
!  !! Class A Animate Gender !! Class A Inanimate Gender
|-
|-
| Indicative Present || stemV-∅ ; stemV-s ; stemV-t ; stemV-m ; stemV-ts ; stemV-n ; stemV-ne || stem-jV ; stem-jVs ; stem-jVt ; stem-jVm ; stem-jVts ; stem-jVn ; stemV-je
| '''Indicative Present''' || stemV-∅ ; stemV-s ; stemV-t ; stemV-m ; stemV-ts ; stemV-n ; stemV-ne || stem-jV ; stem-jVs ; stem-jVt ; stem-jVm ; stem-jVts ; stem-jVn ; stemV-je
|-
|-
| Indicative Imperfect Past || stem-(i)tV ; stem-(i)tVs ; stem-(i)tVt ; stem-(i)tVmo ; stem-(i)tVts ; stem-(i)tVn ; stem-(i)tVne || stem-(i)tʃV ; stem-(i)tʃVs ; stem-(i)tʃVt ; stem-(i)tʃVmo ; stem-(i)tʃVts ; stem-(i)tʃVn ; stem-(i)tVje
| '''Indic. Imperfect Past''' || stem-(i)tV ; stem-(i)tVs ; stem-(i)tVt ; stem-(i)tVmo ; stem-(i)tVts ; stem-(i)tVn ; stem-(i)tVne || stem-(i)tʃV ; stem-(i)tʃVs ; stem-(i)tʃVt ; stem-(i)tʃVmo ; stem-(i)tʃVts ; stem-(i)tʃVn ; stem-(i)tVje
|-
|-
| Indicative Perfect Past || stem-(i)fV ; stem-(i)fVs ; stem-(i)fVt ; stem-(i)fVmo ; stem-(i)fVti ; stem-(i)fVn ; stem-(i)fVne || stem-(i)fjV ; stem-(i)fjVs ; stem-(i)fjVt ; stem-(i)fjVmo ; stem-(i)fjVti ; stem-(i)fjVn ; stem-(i)fVje
| '''Indic. Perfect Past''' || stem-(i)fV ; stem-(i)fVs ; stem-(i)fVt ; stem-(i)fVmo ; stem-(i)fVti ; stem-(i)fVn ; stem-(i)fVne || stem-(i)fjV ; stem-(i)fjVs ; stem-(i)fjVt ; stem-(i)fjVmo ; stem-(i)fjVti ; stem-(i)fjVn ; stem-(i)fVje
|-
|-
| Indicative Future || stem-(i)rV ; stem-(i)rVs ; stem-(i)rVt ; stem-(i)rVmo ; stem-(i)rVti ; stem-(i)rVn ; stem-(i)rVne || stem-(i)rjV ; stem-(i)rjVs ; stem-(i)rjVt ; stem-(i)rjVmo ; stem-(i)rjVti ; stem-(i)rjVn ; stem-(i)rVje
| '''Indicative Future''' || stem-(i)rV ; stem-(i)rVs ; stem-(i)rVt ; stem-(i)rVmo ; stem-(i)rVti ; stem-(i)rVn ; stem-(i)rVne || stem-(i)rjV ; stem-(i)rjVs ; stem-(i)rjVt ; stem-(i)rjVmo ; stem-(i)rjVti ; stem-(i)rjVn ; stem-(i)rVje
|-
|-
| Subjunctive || stemV-ko ; stemV-kos ; stemV-kot ; stemV-komus ; stemV-kotis ; stemV-kona ; stemV-ke || stemV-kjo ; stemV-kjos ; stemV-kjot ; stemV-kjomus ; stemV-kjotis ; stemV-kjona ; stemV-kje
| '''Subjunctive''' || stemV-ko ; stemV-kos ; stemV-kot ; stemV-komus ; stemV-kotis ; stemV-kona ; stemV-ke || stemV-kjo ; stemV-kjos ; stemV-kjot ; stemV-kjomus ; stemV-kjotis ; stemV-kjona ; stemV-kje
|-
|-
| Conditional || stemV-no ; stemV-nos ; stemV-not ; stemV-nomus ; stemV-notis ; stemV-nona ; stemV-ne || stemV-jo ; stemV-jos ; stemV-jot ; stemV-jomus ; stemV-jotis ; stemV-jona ; stemV-je
| '''Conditional''' || stemV-no ; stemV-nos ; stemV-not ; stemV-nomus ; stemV-notis ; stemV-nona ; stemV-ne || stemV-jo ; stemV-jos ; stemV-jot ; stemV-jomus ; stemV-jotis ; stemV-jona ; stemV-je
|-
|-
| Absolute (Gnomic) || stemV-jo ; stemV-jos ; stemV-jot ; stemV-jof ; stemV-joz ; stemV-jon ; stemV-je || stemV-joh ; stemV-joθ ; stemV-jot̚ ; stemV-joɸ ; stemV-joʒ ; stemV-jowi ; stemV-joð ; stemV-joː
| '''Absolute''' (Gnomic) || stemV-jo ; stemV-jos ; stemV-jot ; stemV-jof ; stemV-joz ; stemV-jon ; stemV-je || stemV-joh ; stemV-joθ ; stemV-jot̚ ; stemV-joɸ ; stemV-joʒ ; stemV-jowi ; stemV-joð ; stemV-joː
|}
|}


Line 350: Line 662:
!  !! Class B Animate Gender !! Class B Inanimate Gender
!  !! Class B Animate Gender !! Class B Inanimate Gender
|-
|-
| Indicative Present || stem-a ; stem-as ; stem-at ; stem-im ; stem-its ; stem-an ; stem-ine or stem-e || stem-ja ; stem-jas ; stem-jat ; stem-jim ; stem-jits ; stem-jan ; stem-jine or stem-je
| '''Indicative Present''' || stem-a ; stem-as ; stem-at ; stem-im ; stem-its ; stem-an ; stem-ine or stem-e || stem-ja ; stem-jas ; stem-jat ; stem-jim ; stem-jits ; stem-jan ; stem-jine or stem-je
|-
|-
| Indicative Imperfect Past || stem-ita ; stem-itas ; stem-itat ; stem-itʃmo ; stem-itʃi ; stem-itan ; stem-itʃne or stem-ite || stem-itʃa ; stem-itʃas ; stem-itʃat ; stem-itʃimo ; stem-itʃits ; stem-itʃan ; stem-itʃe
| '''Indicative Imperfect Past''' || stem-ita ; stem-itas ; stem-itat ; stem-itʃmo ; stem-itʃi ; stem-itan ; stem-itʃne or stem-ite || stem-itʃa ; stem-itʃas ; stem-itʃat ; stem-itʃimo ; stem-itʃits ; stem-itʃan ; stem-itʃe
|-
|-
| Indicative Perfect Past || stem-ifa ; stem-ifas ; stem-ifat ; stem-ifimo ; stem-ifits ; stem-ifan ; stem-ifine or stem-ife || stem-ifja ; stem-ifjas ; stem-ifjat ; stem-ifjimo ; stem-ifjits ; stem-ifjan ; stem-ifje
| '''Indicative Perfect Past''' || stem-ifa ; stem-ifas ; stem-ifat ; stem-ifimo ; stem-ifits ; stem-ifan ; stem-ifine or stem-ife || stem-ifja ; stem-ifjas ; stem-ifjat ; stem-ifjimo ; stem-ifjits ; stem-ifjan ; stem-ifje
|-
|-
| Indicative Future || stem-ira ; stem-iras ; stem-irat ; stem-irimo ; stem-irits ; stem-iran ; stem-irine or stem-ire || stem-irja ; stem-irjas ; stem-irjat ; stem-irjimo ; stem-irjits ; stem-irjan ; stem-irje
| '''Indicative Future''' || stem-ira ; stem-iras ; stem-irat ; stem-irimo ; stem-irits ; stem-iran ; stem-irine or stem-ire || stem-irja ; stem-irjas ; stem-irjat ; stem-irjimo ; stem-irjits ; stem-irjan ; stem-irje
|-
|-
| Subjunctive || stem-iko ; stem-ikos ; stem-ikot ; stem-ikomus ; stem-ikotis ; stem-ikona ; stem-ike || stem-ikjo ; stem-ikjos ; stem-ikjot ; stem-ikjomus ; stem-ikjots ; stem-ikjona ; stem-ikje
| '''Subjunctive''' || stem-iko ; stem-ikos ; stem-ikot ; stem-ikomus ; stem-ikotis ; stem-ikona ; stem-ike || stem-ikjo ; stem-ikjos ; stem-ikjot ; stem-ikjomus ; stem-ikjots ; stem-ikjona ; stem-ikje
|-
|-
| Conditional || stem-o ; stem-os ; stem-ot ; stem-omus ; stem-otis ; stem-ona ; stem-e || stem-jo ; stem-jos ; stem-jot ; stem-jomus ; stem-jotis ; stem-jona ; stem-je
| '''Conditional''' || stem-o ; stem-os ; stem-ot ; stem-omus ; stem-otis ; stem-ona ; stem-e || stem-jo ; stem-jos ; stem-jot ; stem-jomus ; stem-jotis ; stem-jona ; stem-je
|-
|-
| Absolute (Gnomic) || stem-jo ; stem-jos ; stem-jot ; stem-jof ; stem-joz ; stem-jon ; stem-je || stem-joh ; stem-joθ ; stem-jot̚ ; stem-joɸ ; stem-joʒ ; stem-jowi ; stem-joð ; stem-joː
| '''Absolute''' (Gnomic) || stem-jo ; stem-jos ; stem-jot ; stem-jof ; stem-joz ; stem-jon ; stem-je || stem-joh ; stem-joθ ; stem-jot̚ ; stem-joɸ ; stem-joʒ ; stem-jowi ; stem-joð ; stem-joː
|}
|}


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!  !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
!  !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
|-
| Present Participle || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
|-
| Past Participle || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}
|}


Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ ; vekɯ, vekañ''.
Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.


====Adjectives====
====Adjectives====
Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well. Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''. The neutral only exist in the plural form nowadays and is used when an adjective qualifies several nouns of diverging gender. Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Adverbs====
====Adverbs====
Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''liƿn'' or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.


====Prepositions====
====Prepositions====
To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :
<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>
===Derivative Morphology===
TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.
Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :
<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will
'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>


===Syntax===
===Syntax===


====Declarative Sentences====
Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.
====Questions====
In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->


[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]]
Uvie
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