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User:IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic: Difference between revisions
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[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]] | [[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]] | ||
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Diachronics]] | |||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|creator = [[User:IlL|Inthar]] | |creator = [[User:IlL|Inthar]] | ||
|nativename = | |nativename = Xnɪəni | ||
|image = | |image = | ||
|setting = [[Verse:Irta]] | |setting = [[Verse:Irta]] | ||
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|fam6=[[Knench/Ancient|Ancient Knench]] | |fam6=[[Knench/Ancient|Ancient Knench]] | ||
|fam7=[[Knench/Middle|Middle Knench]] | |fam7=[[Knench/Middle|Middle Knench]] | ||
}} | }}ɵ | ||
'''Knench''' (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench ''χnānī'' via [[Old Azalic]] '' | '''Knench''' (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench ''χnānī'' via [[Old Azalic]] ''{{ng}}noinisχ''; natively ''Xnɪəni'' /xnɪəni/ or ''nɨɨm Xnɪən'' /nɨːm xnɪən) is a Semitic language spoken in the Irta timeline and the closest living relative to Hebrew in Irta. The name of the language comes from Ancient Knench ''kanaȝn'' 'Canaan'. Knench has received strong Azalic influence throughout its history since Ancient Knench times, and genetic studies have shown that the Knench are descendants of Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language descends from a close relative of Biblical Hebrew which was spoken in North Africa (which was spoken instead of our Punic in Irta), but its grammar is far less synthetic than its ancestor: lexical verbs were completely restructured to use constructions with auxiliaries and infinitives instead of the older prefix and suffix conjugations, and it has lost grammatical gender like [[Togarmite]] and [[Far East Semitic]]. Knench has many loanwords from various sources including Greek, Azalic, Coptic, Berber, Arabic, Aramaic, Romance, and English. | ||
A majority of modern Knench people are Muslim; some are Christian, Jewish or neopagan. There is a Judeo-Knench, with Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords. | |||
It's inspired grammatically by Welsh, and aesthetically by English, | It's inspired grammatically by Welsh and Irish, and aesthetically by English, Danish, [[Naeng]], and Khmer. | ||
== Names == | == Names == | ||
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==TODO== | ==TODO== | ||
* | * Focus prominence (like Welsh) | ||
* retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries | * retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries | ||
* vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH ''wayhi'') | * vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH ''wayhi'') | ||
* -x > -rh | * -x > -rh | ||
* A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds? | * A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds? | ||
** I dal | ** I dal bə kpeen pnaarə. = I don't see any wolves. (Heb: Ani lo ro'e ze'evim.) | ||
* Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme | * Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme | ||
*Swadesh list | *Swadesh list | ||
*''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-) | *''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-) | ||
*Many adverbs from infinitive absolute | *Many adverbs from infinitive absolute | ||
*Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''peþ'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'') | *Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''peþ'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'') | ||
*''Mén fows ta xett kori?'' = Why did you have to die? | *''Mén fows ta xett kori?'' = Why did you have to die? | ||
* replace a lot of | * replace a lot of Canaanite vocabulary with other words | ||
===Some sound changes=== | ===Some sound changes=== | ||
* Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century) | * Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century) | ||
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==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
*/m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j | */m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j ɹ{{ret}}/ {{angbr|m n ł h l w j r}} | ||
*/p b f v t d θ ð k g/ {{angbr|p b f v t d þ ð k g}} | */p b f v t d θ ð k g/ {{angbr|p b f v t d þ ð k g}} | ||
*/s z | */s{{den}} z{{den}} t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}} ʃ ʒ tʃ s{{ret}} t{{ret}}{{tiebar}}s{{ret}} x h/ {{angbr|s z c š ž č ś ć x h}} | ||
/t d/ are alveolar, and /θ ð/ are dental. /θ ð/ may be realized as [t̪ d̪]. | |||
/s{{den}} z{{den}} t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}}/ are lamino-dental, like Basque ''z''. | |||
/s{{ret}} t{{ret}}{{tiebar}}s{{ret}}/ are retracted apico-alveolar, like Greek /s/. | |||
Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa. | Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa. | ||
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Stops are unaspirated. | Stops are unaspirated. | ||
Judeo-Knench has final r in borrowed Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
{{PAGENAME}} has | {{PAGENAME}} has the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language in Irta. It has many diphthongs. | ||
===Prosody=== | ===Prosody=== | ||
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===Intonation=== | ===Intonation=== | ||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
===Morphophonology=== | ===Morphophonology=== | ||
==Orthography== | ==Orthography== | ||
Modern Knench has | Modern Knench has an orthography using an alphabet descended from the Paleo-Hebrew script, where spelling reflects Middle Knench. | ||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
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Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender. | Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender. | ||
==== Number and definiteness ==== | ==== Number and definiteness ==== | ||
{{PAGENAME}} has regularized | {{PAGENAME}} has regularized most plurals to ''-ə'' (from a merger of Ancient Knench ''-īn'' > ''*-ī'' and ''-ūδ''). ''-u'' nouns become ''-lə'' in the plural: ''þebu, þeblə'' 'a world, worlds'. | ||
Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows: | Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows: | ||
*Singular: -əs (after C | *Singular: -əs (after C), (from haz-ze and haz-zū) | ||
*Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix ''-ə'' if any (from ha-2ili), -u + -il > -ul | |||
*Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix ''- | ** Plurals must be memorized! For example -u may become -ləs (specifically when the -u comes from a vocalized /-l/). | ||
** | |||
Words ending in a | Words ending in a schwa add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix. | ||
Some irregular plurals: ''penš, plenš'' = human | Some irregular plurals: ''penš, plenš'' = human | ||
Examples: | Examples: | ||
*'' | *''śadə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adə/ = an apartment/flat | ||
*''śadrəs'' / | *''śadrəs'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹəs/ = the flat | ||
*'' | *''śadrə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹə/ = flats | ||
*''śadril'' / | *''śadril'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹɪl/ = the flats | ||
*'' | *''śadə bušət'' /ˈs{{ret}}adə ˈbʊʃət/ = a big flat | ||
*'' | *''śadrəs bušət'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹəs ˈbʊʃət/ = the big flat | ||
*'' | *''śadrə buštə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹə ˈbʊʃtə/ = big flats | ||
*''śadril | *''śadril buštə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹɪl ˈbʊʃtə/ = the big flats | ||
''-ma'' nouns from Greek become ''-mat'' nouns: ''þemat, þematas, | ''-ma'' nouns from Greek become ''-mat'' nouns: ''þemat, þematas, þematə, þematil'' 'topic, theme'. | ||
==== Predicative adjectives ==== | ==== Predicative adjectives ==== | ||
The predicative/adverbial marker ''bə'' | The predicative/adverbial marker ''bə'' followed by the bare form is used for predicative adjectives: ''Ri śadrəs bə bušət'' 'The room is big'. | ||
==== Degree ==== | ==== Degree ==== | ||
*Equative: ''de'' = as X as; equally X (~ BH ''day'' 'enough') | *Equative: ''de'' = as X as; equally X (~ BH ''day'' 'enough') | ||
*Comparative/Superlative: ''-ur'' = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes '' | *Comparative/Superlative: ''-ur'' = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes ''prej'' 'than' (from Ancient Knench ''pirūðī'' 'when I see'). The ''-ur'' form is indeclinable. | ||
Example: '' | Example: ''bušət'' 'big', ''de bušət'' 'as big as'; ''buštur'' 'bigger/biggest' | ||
=== Pronouns === | === Pronouns === | ||
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! Basic forms | ! Basic forms | ||
| ''i, ni'' | | ''i, ni'' | ||
| '' | | ''tə'' | ||
| ''ti'' | | ''ti'' | ||
| ''u'' | | ''u'' | ||
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==== Interrogative pronouns ==== | ==== Interrogative pronouns ==== | ||
* '' | * ''da, ida'' = what? (nominal) (*hajj dabar 'what thing') | ||
* ''ew'' = who? (*2ajj hū) | |||
* ''ew'' = who? (* | |||
** poetic ''mi'' | ** poetic ''mi'' | ||
* '' | * ''ajšə'' = which? | ||
* '' | * ''énə'' = where? | ||
* ''məðé'' = when? | * ''məðé'' = when? | ||
* '' | * ''əziəp'' = why? (the reason something happened) (or from another phrase of the form "ayy [NOUN]") | ||
* | * ''maləx'' = why? (the reason someone does something) (*ma lak 'what's the matter') | ||
* '' | * ''xam'' = how many? | ||
* '' | * ''xiəlt'' = how? | ||
===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
Almost all verbs use only one form, | Almost all verbs use only one form. For native verbs, this form may be derived from: | ||
* the infinitive construct or the imperative (mostly basic verbs) | |||
* a deverbal noun pattern (most common) | |||
* a univerbation of a verb + noun collocation | |||
The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed ''l-'', depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- often display a voicing mutation attesting to the historical lV- (e.g. ''žbuð'' 'to be idle, to lie fallow'). Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the relevant triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb (e.g. ''benin'' 'to build', cognate to the Hebrew noun ''binyan''; from the root b-n-y) | |||
The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ''ðeht ló oj!'' = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing ''bal'' or ''bawði'' before the verb. | The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ''ðeht ló oj!'' = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing ''bal'' or ''bawði'' before the verb. | ||
====Inflected verbs==== | ====Inflected verbs==== | ||
Knench has only | Knench has only six inflected verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms): | ||
*'' | *''luð'' 'to be' | ||
*'' | *''śuð'' 'to do' (from *ʕaśō, with contamination from *paȝal): used to form past and future perfective tenses | ||
*''buð'' 'to come' ( | *''buð'' 'to come' (from *bô): sometimes means 'must, have to'. ''bu'' is still used as a directional. | ||
*''leht'' 'to go' (from *halak) | *''leht'' 'to go' (from *halak), also used as a passive auxilliary for dechticaetiative objects | ||
*''kaht'' 'to take' (from *laqaħ) | *''kaht'' 'to take' (from *laqaħ): also used for animate patients of ditransitive verbs | ||
*''ðeht'' 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath') | *''ðeht'' 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath'): also used for causatives | ||
Their forms have become more similar to each other due to analogy. | |||
The | Knench maintains a distinction between independent and dependent forms for finite verbs, like Old Irish. The independent forms come from the Ancient Knench waw-consecutive. Using a preverb such as ''lu'' 'not', ''veə'' '(interrogative form of present marker ''ri'')', ''xaž'' 'relativizer', or ''śu'' 'I'm sure that...' (from the infinitive absolute *3aśū of *3aśō 'to do'; generalized from ''*3aśū ja3śiju'' 'he will indeed do') requires the dependent form. Dependent past forms and future forms are formally identical to independent future forms and past forms, respectively, except for ''luð'' 'to be'. | ||
Even verbs with finite forms are defective verbs, since finite forms are always perfective (except forms of ''luð''). To express the imperfective with these verbs, you still have to use the copula + bə + VN construction. The negator ''lu'' only negates finite verbs. | |||
The present particle ''ri'' comes from ''ru{{aleph}}i'', the imperative of ''ra{{aleph}}ō'' 'to see'. ''Ri'' is not used in subordinate clauses: | |||
*'''''Ri''' Đavíð þaś žin.'' = David is about to sleep. | |||
*'''''Pið''' Đavíð þaś žin, r'u dal bə xapuð uras.'' = When David goes to sleep, he doesn't turn off the lights. | |||
* ''Veə Đavíð þaś žin?'' = Is David going to bed? (neutral) | |||
* '''''Ri''' Đavíð dar þaś žin.'' = David is not going to bed. | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 750px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 750px; text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Inflected verbs in {{PAGENAME}} | |+ Inflected verbs in {{PAGENAME}} | ||
! colspan=2 style="width: 75px; "| → Person | ! colspan=2 style="width: 75px; "| → Person | ||
! style="width: 75px; " | I | ! style="width: 75px; " | I | ||
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! colspan=2|Present ''ri/r' '' | ! colspan=2|Present ''ri/r' '' | ||
| ''i, ni'' | | ''i, ni'' | ||
| '' | | ''tə'' | ||
| ''ti'' | | ''ti'' | ||
| ''r'u'' | | ''r'u'' | ||
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| ''r'im'' | | ''r'im'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!rowspan= | !rowspan=4| ''luð'' | ||
! future | ! future indep. | ||
| '' | | ''wej(ð) i'' | ||
| '' | | ''wejs tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''wejs ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''wii u'' | ||
| '' | | ''wieþ oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''wejn nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''wejs tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''wilu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! future dep. | ||
| '' | | ''jie i'' | ||
| '' | | ''þies tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''þies ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''jie u'' | ||
| '' | | ''þieþ oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''nien nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''þies tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''juu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! past indep. | ||
| ''waj i'' | |||
| '' | | ''was tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''was ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''waj u'' | ||
| '' | | ''waþ oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''wan nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''was tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''waju'm'' | ||
| '' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! past | ! past dep. | ||
| '' | | ''hej(ð) i'' | ||
| '' | | ''hejs tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''hejs ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''hie u'' | ||
| '' | | ''hieþ oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''hejn nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''hejs tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''hilu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!rowspan=2| '' | !rowspan=2| ''śuð'' | ||
! future | ! future indep. | ||
| '' | | ''fow(ð) i'' | ||
| '' | | ''fows tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''fows ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''fow u'' | ||
| '' | | ''foəþ oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''fown nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''fows tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''folu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past | ! past indep. | ||
| '' | | ''woś i'' | ||
| '' | | ''þoś tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''þoś ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''joś u'' | ||
| '' | | ''þoś oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''noś nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''þoś tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''jośu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!rowspan=2| ''buð'' | !rowspan=2| ''buð'' | ||
! | ! future indep. | ||
| '' | | ''pow(ð) i'' | ||
| '' | | ''pows tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''pows ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''pow u'' | ||
| '' | | ''poəþ oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''pown nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''pows tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''polu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! past indep. | ||
| '' | | ''pax i'' | ||
| '' | | ''tpax tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''tpaj ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''pax u'' | ||
| '' | | ''tpax oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''pax nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''tpaw tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''paw'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!rowspan=2| ''leht'' | !rowspan=2| ''leht'' | ||
! future | ! future indep. | ||
| '' | | ''law(ð) i'' | ||
| ''laws | | ''laws tə'' | ||
| ''laws ti'' | | ''laws ti'' | ||
| ''law u'' | | ''law u'' | ||
| '' | | ''laəþ oj'' | ||
| ''lawn nu'' | | ''lawn nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''laws tim'' | ||
| ''lalu'm'' | | ''lalu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past | ! past indep. | ||
| '' | | ''lax i'' | ||
| '' | | ''tlax tə'' | ||
| ''tlej ti'' | | ''tlej ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''lax u'' | ||
| '' | | ''tlax oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''lax nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''tlaw tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''law'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!rowspan=2| ''kaht'' | !rowspan=2| ''kaht'' | ||
! future | ! future indep. | ||
| '' | | ''kaw(ð) i'' | ||
| ''kaws | | ''kaws tə'' | ||
| ''kaws ti'' | | ''kaws ti'' | ||
| ''kaw u'' | | ''kaw u'' | ||
| '' | | ''kaəþ oj'' | ||
| ''kawn nu'' | | ''kawn nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''kaws tim'' | ||
| ''kalu'm'' | | ''kalu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past | ! past indep. | ||
| '' | | ''kax i'' | ||
| '' | | ''tkax tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''tkaj ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''kax u'' | ||
| '' | | ''tkax oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''kax nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''tkaw tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''kaw'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!rowspan=2| ''ðeht'' | !rowspan=2| ''ðeht'' | ||
! future | ! future indep. | ||
| '' | | ''naw(ð) i'' | ||
| ''naws | | ''naws tə'' | ||
| ''naws ti'' | | ''naws ti'' | ||
| ''naw u'' | | ''naw u'' | ||
| '' | | ''naəþ oj'' | ||
| ''nawn nu'' | | ''nawn nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''naws tim'' | ||
| ''nalu'm'' | | ''nalu'm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past | ! past indep. | ||
| '' | | ''nax i'' | ||
| '' | | ''tnax tə'' | ||
| '' | | ''tnaj ti'' | ||
| '' | | ''nax u'' | ||
| '' | | ''tnax oj'' | ||
| '' | | ''nax nu'' | ||
| '' | | ''tnaw tim'' | ||
| '' | | ''naw'm'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Regular pa3al verbs==== | ====Regular pa3al verbs==== | ||
The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC. | The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC. | ||
When C1 is a | When the historical C1 is a pharyngeal, the ''l-'' usually resurfaces: | ||
* C1 = ayin: '' | * C1 = ayin: ''lubuə'' 'to go past' /lʊˈbuə/ | ||
* C1 = heth: ''litul'' 'to cease/stop' /lɪˈtʊl/ | |||
* C1 = heth: '' | |||
This doesn't happen when C1 = aleph/he: ''vuð'' /vʊð/ 'to bake, to fire', ''zuð'' /z{{den}}ʊð/ 'to be crazy, to be cool'. | |||
==== | ====*-t verbs==== | ||
*leht /lɛht/ = to go by foot | |||
*kaht /kaht/ = to take | |||
= | *žeht /ʒɛht/ = to go back<!-- | ||
*łef /ʀɛf/ = to be hateful (dative-stative; Ri vivliəs bə łef u li ni 'I hate the book')--> | |||
*žef /ʒɛf/ = to sit | |||
*les /lɛs{{den}}/ = to be born | |||
*res /ɹɛs{{den}}/ = to go down | |||
*reš /ɹɛʃ/ = to acquire; to get | |||
*ðeht /ðɛht/ = to give | |||
*śeht /s{{ret}}ɛht/ = to carry, to owe, should | |||
*ceht /t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}}ɛht/ = to go out, to start X-ing | |||
= | *žoot /ʒoːt/ = (of time) to go by | ||
*goot /goːt/ = to do X correctly | |||
* | *doot /doːt/ = to know | ||
* | *toot /toːt/ = to farm, to grow (plants) | ||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
===Prepositions=== | ===Prepositions=== | ||
Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: ''lah | Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: ''lah tə'' /'lax tə/ 'to you' vs. ''lah tan'' /lax 'tan/ 'to you, specifically'. | ||
example of a {{PAGENAME}} inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly | example of a {{PAGENAME}} inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly | ||
*1sg: l'i, li ni | *1sg: l'i, li ni | ||
*2sg.m: lah | *2sg.m: lah tə | ||
*2sg.f: lah ti | *2sg.f: lah ti | ||
*3sg.m: lom u | *3sg.m: lom u | ||
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Other prepositions: | Other prepositions: | ||
*''men'' = from | *''men'' = from | ||
*'' | *''tubel'' = for | ||
*'' | *''jaən'' = because of (also "reason") | ||
*''łaj'' = on, above | *''łaj'' = on, above | ||
*'' | *''jaś, jaśəm'' = with (both inst. and com.) | ||
*'' | *''pəłee'' = inside, within | ||
**sim. '' | **sim. ''ləłee, məłee'' 'into, out of' | ||
*''pəlip'' = amidst | *''pəlip'' = amidst | ||
*''wen'' = without | *''wen'' = without | ||
*'' | *''mənie'' = before, in front of | ||
*''kodm'' = before (temporally) | *''kodm'' = before (temporally) | ||
*'' | *''śni'' = after (Hitsi šeni 'second half') | ||
*'' | *''məłææl'' = above | ||
*'' | *''məþææl'' = below | ||
*''þaht'' = instead of | *''þaht'' = instead of | ||
*''til'' = like, as | *''til'' = like, as | ||
*'' | *''śakə'' = until | ||
=== Numbers === | === Numbers === | ||
0-10: sifə, śaa, hniəm/hniə (attributive), hluž, arvu, śami, šeš, šebu, hmɨɨn, þež, łaaś | |||
11-20: štoo, hnajoo, hlužoo, arvoo, śamižoo, šešoo, šeboo, hmɨɨnoo, þežoo, hniə łəəśi | |||
21-30: łəəśi śaa, łəəśi hniəm, ... łəəśi łaaś | |||
31-40: łəəśi štąh, ..., hniə łəəśi | |||
41, 42, ...: hniə łəəśi śaa, hniə łəəśi šném, ... | |||
60: hluž łəəśi | |||
60: | |||
... | ... | ||
100: | 100: miə | ||
1000: awv | 1000: awv | ||
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The order is tense-subject-verb-object. | The order is tense-subject-verb-object. | ||
:'''''R'ižəs ław | :'''''R'ižəs ław bloo u abləs.''''' | ||
:''The man is eating the apple.'' | :''The man is eating the apple.'' | ||
:'''''Ri | :'''''Ri piəð u bə de kruu til stadi.''''' | ||
:''His house is as big as a stadium.'' | :''His house is as big as a stadium.'' | ||
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The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is ''suð''. | The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is ''suð''. | ||
===Verb phrase=== | ===Verb phrase=== | ||
Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries: | Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries: | ||
: '''''R'oj bə | : '''''R'oj bə kofstəl* oj gąt latsææg.''''' | ||
: 3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke | : 3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke | ||
: ''Her jokes never fail to land.'' | : ''Her jokes never fail to land.'' | ||
(*) | (*) a loan from an unknown source | ||
====VN constructions==== | ====VN constructions==== | ||
Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect. | Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect. | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''bə''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm goes | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''ław''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''ław''' leht oj'' = Parm is going | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''þax''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''þax''' leht oj'' = Parm is about to go | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''xni''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''xni''' leht oj'' = Parm has gone | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''xni juð oj bə''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''xni juð oj bə''' leht'' = Parm has been going | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''dəž''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''dəž''' leht oj'' = Parm just went | ||
*'''''ri''' Parm '''wen''' | *'''''ri''' Parm '''wen''' leht oj'' = Parm hasn't went | ||
*'''''fól''' Parm '''ðə''' | *'''''fól''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm went (perfective; cf. AAVE ''She done went'') | ||
*'''''þąf''' Parm '''ðə''' | *'''''þąf''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm will go (perfective) | ||
*'''''han''' Parm '''bə''' | *'''''han''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm went (imperfective) | ||
*'''''þé''' Parm '''bə''' | *'''''þé''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm will go (imperfective) | ||
*'' | *''leht!'' = Go! (number neutral) | ||
*'''''gwenu''' | *'''''gwenu''' leht!'' (3uqbinu lekt "follow us to go") = Let's go! | ||
In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: ''R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs''. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)". | In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: ''R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs''. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)". | ||
The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: ''Ðób | The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: ''Ðób tə ð'i nr?'' 'Do you love me?' | ||
==== Passive and causative ==== | ==== Passive and causative ==== | ||
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To form passives two different auxiliaries are used: | To form passives two different auxiliaries are used: | ||
* ''Kaht'' 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb. | * ''Kaht'' 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb. | ||
* '' | * ''leht'' 'to go' is used to raise the inanimate object of both monotransitive and ditransitive verbs (as well as the object of the original verb which is causativized). | ||
: '' | : ''Kawð u đə ląbur mitəs rup məšólə.'' | ||
: 'He was made to suffer so many things.' | : 'He was made to suffer so many things.' | ||
: '' | : ''Lawð łeśwəs đə hél men kapwəs.'' | ||
: 'The grass was fed to the horse.' | : 'The grass was fed to the horse.' | ||
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===Relativizer=== | ===Relativizer=== | ||
In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer '' | In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer ''xaž'' (from ''*χa-ʔašir'' 'like that which'). ''n'' may appear after the resumptive pronoun if one is used. | ||
Subject of a copula auxiliary: | Subject of a copula auxiliary: | ||
: '''''paras | : '''''paras xaž hie __ bə gri u "pnar"''''' | ||
: the boy who cried (would cry) wolf | : the boy who cried (would cry) wolf | ||
Subject with a non-copula auxiliary: | Subject with a non-copula auxiliary: | ||
: '''''paras | : '''''paras xaž fow __ gri "pnar"''''' | ||
: the boy who cried wolf (once) | : the boy who cried wolf (once) | ||
Direct object: | Direct object: | ||
: '''''vivlias | : '''''vivlias xaž fown nu ðə gru (se (n))''''' | ||
: the book that we read | : the book that we read | ||
Oblique object: | Oblique object: | ||
: '''''péðas | : '''''péðas xaž hieþ oj bə xun oj pəze (n)''''' | ||
: the house she used to live in | : the house she used to live in | ||
To relativise the subject of a ''present'' copula, ''łom'' (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used: | To relativise the subject of a ''present'' copula, ''łom'' (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used: | ||
: R' abwas pə | : R' abwas pə śadə i. -> '''''abwas łom pə śadə i''''' | ||
: the apple in my flat | : the apple in my flat | ||
: Ri | : Ri plenžil śni leht im. -> '''''plenžil łom xni leht im''''' | ||
: the people who have gone | : the people who have gone | ||
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Serial verbs are also very common in Knench: | Serial verbs are also very common in Knench: | ||
: '''''Pow Móšé ðə kaht | : '''''Pow Móšé ðə kaht vdųś prið u. / Fow Móšé ðə buð kaht vdųś prið u. ''''' | ||
: come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M | : come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M | ||
:Moshe came, took, and opened his gift. | :Moshe came, took, and opened his gift. | ||
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No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case ''łom'' is used after the wh-word. However, ''łom'' is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ''ri'' is dropped in questions.) | No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case ''łom'' is used after the wh-word. However, ''łom'' is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ''ri'' is dropped in questions.) | ||
:'''''Dar | :'''''Dar Petə bə fluð?''''' | ||
:''What's Peter doing?'' | :''What's Peter doing?'' | ||
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:''Where are you?'' | :''Where are you?'' | ||
:'''''Énr fows | :'''''Énr fows tə ðə leht?''''' / '''''Énr laws tr?''''' | ||
:''Where have you been?'' | :''Where have you been?'' | ||
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Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such: | Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such: | ||
*'' | *''əmbein'' 'brick' from ''*habanē binjan'' 'building stones' | ||
*'' | *''həvgom'' 'massacre; (slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from ''*šafx dam'' 'spilling of blood' | ||
*'' | *''łienəm'' 'source' from ''ʕēn mayim'' 'spring of water' | ||
*''xifin'' 'to like' from ''*śe'θ fin'' lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor' | *''xifin'' 'to like' from ''*śe'θ fin'' lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor' | ||
*'' | *''xihniem (el)'' 'to look at' from ''*śe'θ 3ēnajim'' 'lift eyes' | ||
*'' | *''krəlieb'' 'conscience' from ''*qūl hal-lēbb'' lit. 'voice of the heart' | ||
Some productive affixes are: | Some productive affixes are: | ||
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** ''pnar'' 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench ''zēb'', which had become taboo by Old Knench | ** ''pnar'' 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench ''zēb'', which had become taboo by Old Knench | ||
*peδ- = place noun | *peδ- = place noun | ||
*pəd-/ | *pəd-/pd- = associated inanimate, esp. singulative of a collective noun (from peθθ 'daughter') | ||
** '' | ** ''pdoo'' = tree (*pett ja3r) | ||
** ''pdam'' = wave (*pett jamm) | ** ''pdam'' = wave (*pett jamm) | ||
** '' | ** ''pdəəm'' = word (irreg. metathesis from *pett himrō) | ||
** ''pdeš'' = flame | ** ''pdeš'' = flame | ||
** ''pled'' = echo | ** ''pled'' = echo | ||
** '' | ** ''pədnə'' = stream | ||
** '' | ** ''pəmtaa'' = dew (from ''mtaa'' 'rain') | ||
** '' | ** ''pədkažəm'' = (''poetic'') petrichor | ||
*''-l'' = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ - | *''-l'' = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -ul alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs) | ||
** ''hamžəl'' 'to dry' < ''hamž'' '(archaic) sun' | |||
* -is: -ess (from Greek) | * -is: -ess (from Greek) | ||
** ''vazilis'' 'queen' < ''vazil'' 'king' | ** ''vazilis'' 'queen' < ''vazil'' 'king' | ||
** '' | ** ''mææšivis'' 'witch' < ''mææšiv'' 'mage, wizard' | ||
* ''lið-'' = mediopassive | * ''lið-'' = mediopassive | ||
* ''məð-'' is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles | * ''məð-'' is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles | ||
** ''luri'' 'to amaze'; ''muri'' 'amazing'; ''məðuri'' 'amazed' | ** ''luri'' 'to amaze'; ''muri'' 'amazing'; ''məðuri'' 'amazed' | ||
==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
===UDHR, Article 1=== | ===UDHR, Article 1=== | ||
:''''' | :'''''Law xol plææžil ðə les im bə śraa ej bə haw łaj hogləs ej rejtil. Kalu'm ðə lugud jaś režən ej krəliəb, ej r'im bə śeht im liðali śad jaśəm hɨɨv p nažəm axə.''''' | ||
:PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood. | :PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood. | ||
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.'' | :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.'' | ||
===Schleicher's Fable=== | ===Schleicher's Fable=== | ||
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==Phrasebook== | ==Phrasebook== | ||
When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively. | When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively. | ||
*'' | *''Hlum!'' = Hello! / Goodbye! | ||
* '' | * ''Matin tub!'' = Good morning! | ||
* '' | * ''Śnitsoə tub!'' = Good afternoon! | ||
* '' | * ''Łaab tub!'' = Good evening! | ||
* '' | * ''Liəl tub!'' = Good night! | ||
*'' | *''Śakə!'' = See you! | ||
*''Bu | *''Bu də/di/dim!'' = Welcome! | ||
*''Praw lah | *''Praw lah tə/ti [lam tim]!'' = Thank you! | ||
*'' | *''Im tsəśiəm tə/ti/tim'' = Please (etym. ''himm jimtsā Hinn ba3ēnēxa'' 'if it finds favor in your eyes') | ||
**also '' | **also ''pləiz'' (from English) | ||
*''łeþ tub'' = have fun | *''łeþ tub'' = have fun | ||
* '' | * ''Ajžə heməs kaws tə/ti [kawðu tim]?'' = What's your name? | ||
*''Kawð i ðə | *''Kawð i ðə [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME]. | ||
*''Powð i men...'' = I'm from... | *''Powð i men...'' = I'm from... | ||
*'' | *''Lawð i les pə...'' = I was born in... | ||
*''I bə fu.'' = I'm here. | *''I bə fu.'' = I'm here. | ||
*''(I bə) | *''(I bə) ðuəb i ðah tə/ti [ðam tim].'' = I love you. | ||
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]] | [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]] | ||