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TODO: should have a celtic name
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|nativename = κubrīyā
|nativename = *hak-kana3nījō
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = [[User:IlL/Lõis|Lõis]]
|setting = [[Verse:Irta]]
|name = Ancient Cubrite
|name = Ancient Knench
|pronunciation = /'kʰubri:ja:/
|pronunciation =  
|region = Cyprus
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
|speakers =  
|speakers =  
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|fam2=Semitic
|fam2=Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam4=Togarmo-Canaanite
|fam4=Canaanite
|fam5=Canaanite
}}
}}


'''Ancient Cubrite''' (natively 𐤄𐤋𐤔𐤅𐤍 𐤄𐤒𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤀 ''hal-lasōn haκ-κubrīyā'' 'the Cubrite language' /ʔal'lasoːn ʔak'kʰubri:ja:/ or ''hal-lasōn hat-turūdīyā'' 'the Druidic language') is the stage of [[Cubrite]] after the split from Pre-Exilic Biblical Hebrew. It was used as a literary language during this period and was the language of Near-East druidism, a form of Celtic druidism incorporating Semitic pagan elements, before the religion was supplanted by Henosis Ousias. It was then that the drastic changes that had occurred in the spoken language began to be reflected in writing, thus ushering in the era of modern Cubrite.  
'''Ancient Knench''', also called "Punic" in Irta (natively ''*hal-lasūn hak-kana3nījō'' 'the Canaanite language') is the earliest attested stage of [[Knench]], first attested in the era of Biblical Hebrew. Post-Christianity it underwent drastic changes in mere centuries, thus ushering in the era of modern [[Knench]]. Ancient Knench was spoken in Iberia. Its premise is "Phoenician or Punic but a bit more Proto-Germanic".
 
Ancient Knench developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Azalic languages and Latin. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Irta.
 
Ancient Knench speakers were mostly Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. As such their religion differed markedly from ancient Hebrew polytheism (and seems to have adopted Semitic religious terms for concepts that were very different).


Ancient Cubrite developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Galatian. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Lõis.
Surviving literature in Ancient Knench are attested in the Phoenician alphabet and in transcriptions into Greek or Latin. It includes a portion of the epic ''*Tabarē [?]'' (Tales of [?]) and some incantations.


Surviving literature in Ancient Cubrite includes bardic poetry; one Beowulf-length heroic epic, ''Hikkēdē Harδūr'' (Tales of Arthur); incantations; and instructions for various rituals.
(Grimm should happen during Old Knench stage)


==Todo==
==Todo==
*Long and overlong vowels?
*When should matres lectionis be used?
*When should matres lectionis be used?
*some a-priori roots
*some a-priori roots
*Vowel reduction:
**final originally unstressed long > short


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
Ancient Cubrite was written in an abjad descended from the Proto-Hebrew script. Incantations were completely vocalized, other religious texts less so.
Ancient Knench was written in an abjad descended from the Proto-Hebrew script, and sometimed used a native invented vocalization system. Incantations were completely vocalized, other religious texts less so.


Since Ancient Cubrite merged /ʔ/ and /h/ completely, the letters aleph (''half'') and he (''hê'') are confused in earlier texts. Eventually the letter he was only used for a few function words and particles such as the definite article ''haC-''.
Since Ancient Knench merged /ʔ/ and /h/ completely, the letters aleph (''half'') and he (''hê'') are confused in earlier texts. Eventually the letter he was only used for a few function words and particles such as the definite article ''haC-''.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Out of the 25 consonants of Proto-Canaanite, Ancient Cubrite merged:
Out of the 25 consonants of Proto-Canaanite, Ancient Knench merged:
* /x/ with /ħ/ into /ħ/
* /x/ with /ħ/ into /ħ/
* /ɬ/ with /t/ (taw) into /θ/
* /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ into /ɣ̃/
* /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ into /ɣ̃/
* /h/ and /ʔ/ into /ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ ([h] was an allophone used for emphasis.)
* /h/ and /ʔ/ into /ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ ([h] was an allophone used for emphasis.)
* /s/ and /š/ into /s/
* /s/ and /š/ into /s/


On the other hand, it gained consonants allophonically (see [[Ancient Cubrite#Mutations|#Mutations]]).
/m p b n t d t(phar) ts s(retracted) ts(phar) ɬ (Philly L) ħ k g q l w j r ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ {{angbr|''m p b n t d ᴛ z s c ś ȝ ħ k g ᴋ l w y r h''}}
 
/m p b f v n t d tʰ θ ð ts s tsʰ ɣ̃ ħ k g kʰ x ɣ l w j r ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ {{angbr|''m p b f v n t d ᴛ θ δ z s c ȝ ħ k g ᴋ χ γ l w y r h''}}
 
====Mutations====
Words can undergo initial mutation but the mutations are different from the begadkefat spirantization in Tiberian Hebrew. The following mutations occur after a vowel:
 
*beth /p/ → /b/
*pe /f/ → /v/
*daleth /t/ → /d/
*taw /θ/ → /ð/
*gimel /k/ → /g/
*kaph /x/ → /ɣ/
*zayin /ts/ → /dz/
*samekh /s/ → /z/


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Ancient Cubrite had overlong vowels.
Ancient Knench retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels. It had the chain shift ''ā'' > ''ō'' > ''ū'', similar to our timeline's Punic and Irta's Tsarfati Hebrew, and developed a new ''ā'' from compensatory lengthening.


'''a e i u ā ē ī ō ū â ê î ô û''' /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː aːː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/
'''a e i u ā ē ī ō ū ê î ô û''' /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/


The phonemic distinction between /e/ and /i/ is doubtful.
Minimal pairs and triples for overlong vowels in Ancient Knench:
* ''malkō'' 'a queen', ''malkô'' 'her king'
* ''suprī'' 'count! (f.sg.)', ''suprî'' 'literary, written'
* ''harbi!'' 'do something a lot! (m.sg.)' ''harbī!'' 'ibid., f.sg.' ''harbî'' 'numerous'
* ''dammim'' 'bleed!', ''dammīm'' 'bloodshed', ''dammîm'' 'bloody, of or like blood (masculine plural)'
* ''bētū'' 'his house', ''bētû'' 'his houses'
* ''rū3ē'' 'the evils of', ''rū3ê'' 'the friends of'


Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: ''pû'' 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *būʔ < *buʔ,  Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)
Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: ''pû'' 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *būʔ < *buʔ,  Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)
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===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
There were major stress shifts away from final stress from Pre-Exilic Hebrew to Ancient Cubrite, eventually resulting in unconditional initial stress.
# Stress shifted to penultimate for feminine singular nouns ending in ''-ā'' in adjectives, then nouns, by analogy with the unstressed 3SG.F perfect affix ''-ā''.
# By analogy, stress shifted to penultimate for nouns ending in a plural suffix ''-īm'', ''-ē'', or ''-ōδ''.
# Stress became uniformly initial, ignoring proclitics such as the definite article ''haC-'', and prepositions ''ka-'' 'and', ''li-'' 'dative', ''bi-'' 'locative/instrumental', ''miC-'' 'from'. Vowel reduction in surviving texts (missing matres lectionis, or changes in vowels) suggests that at first this was done deliberately as a stylized way to chant incantations.


====Intonation====
==Morphophonology==
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
==Grammar==
Syntax was retained as VSO under the influence of Celtic.
===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Independent====
====Independent====
*1sg: ''hanī, nī''
*1sg: ''hani, ni''
*2sg: ''haθθa, θa'' (m); ''haθθe, θe'' (f)
*2sg: ''hatta, ta'' (m); ''hatte, te'' (f)
*3sg: ''hū'' (m); ''hī'' (f)
*3sg: ''hū'' (m); ''hī'' (f)
*1pl: ''haħnu,''
*1pl: ''haħnu''
*2pl: ''haθθemma, θemma'' (m); ''haθθenna, θenna'' (f)
*2pl: ''hattemma, temma'' (m); ''hattenna, tenna'' (f)
*3pl: ''hemma'' (m), ''henna'' (f)
*3pl: ''hemma'' (m), ''henna'' (f)


===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Inflection====
====Inflection====
The definite article was ''ʔaC-'' (~ Biblical Hebrew ''*haC-''). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ''ʔā-''.
The definite article was ''ʔaC-'' (~ Biblical Hebrew ''*haC-''). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ''ʔō-''.


Unstressed ''-ā'' corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending ''*-ā́''. Other possible feminine endings are ''-t'', ''-θ'' or ''-δ''. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed ''-īm'' and unstressed ''-ōδ'', ~ Biblical Hebrew ''*-ī́m'' and ''*-ṓt''.  
Unstressed ''-ō'' corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending ''*-ā''. ''-t'' was a much less common ending than in Biblical Hebrew. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed ''-īn'' and unstressed ''-ūt'', ~ Biblical Hebrew ''*-ī́m'' and ''*-ṓt''.  


Often ''-ā'' is found where Hebrew has ''-t''.
Often ''-ō'' is found where Hebrew has ''-t''.


The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.
The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.
Example with ''sūs'' 'horse' and ''sūsā'' 'female horse':
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ '''Noun declension'''
! number
!colspan=2| singular
!colspan=2| plural
|-
! gender
! m. !! f. !! m. !! f.
|-
! indef.
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sūs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''sūsā'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''sūsīm'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sūsōδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
|-
! def.
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''has-sūs'' <br/> /ʔassuːs/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''has-sūsā'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''has-sūsīm'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''has-sūsōδ''  <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsoːð/
|-
! const.
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sūs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕 ''sūsaδ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsað/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sūsē'' <br/> /ˈsuːseː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sūsōδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
|-
! "my"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉 ''sūsī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉 ''sūsaδī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sūsê'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉‎‎ ''sūsuδê''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːː/
|-
! "thy" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sūsaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sūsaδaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sūsēγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sūsuδēγa''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣa/
|-
! "thy" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sūsaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sūsaδaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sūsēγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sūsuδēγe''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣɛ/
|-
! "his"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅 ''sūsō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤅 ''sūsaδō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤅‎ ''sūsô'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤅‎‎ ''sūsuδô''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðoːː/
|-
! "her"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤀 ''sūsâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤀 ''sūsaδâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤀‎ ''sūsehâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːseʔaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤀‎‎ ''sūsuδēhâ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːʔaːː/
|-
! "our"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤍 ''sūsinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤍 ''sūsaδinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤍‎ ''sūsēnu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːnu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδēnu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːnu/
|-
! "y'all's" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sūsaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤌 ''sūsaδaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤌‎ ''sūsēγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sūsuδēγem''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣem/
|-
! "y'all's" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤍 ''sūsaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤍 ''sūsaδaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤍‎ ''sūsēγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδēγen''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣen/
|-
! "their" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤌 ''sūsām(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤌 ''sūsaδām(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎  ''sūsêm, sūsēmu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːm, ˈsuːseːmu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎‎‎ ''sūsuδêm, sūsuδēmu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːm ˈsuːsuðeːmu/
|-
! "their" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤍 ''sūsān'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤍 ''sūsaδān'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤍‎ ''sūsên'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδên''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːn/
|}
TODO: Principal parts for segolates and other specific patterns


====Other inflections====
====Other inflections====
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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ''ħṓli hā́bā'' 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (''ħṓli'' is the construct of ''ħṓlē'' 'sick').
Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ''ħṓli hṓbō'' 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (''ħṓli'' is the construct of ''ħṓlē'' 'sick').


A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the prefix ''rō-'' (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic ''*ɸro-''; cognate to Irish ''ró-'', Welsh ''rhy'', both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).
A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the clitic ''rū-'' (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic ''*ɸro-''; cognate to Irish ''ró-'', Welsh ''rhy'', both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Ancient Cubrite used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל ''pôlêl'') remained fully productive in Ancient Cubrite. Ancient Cubrite also developed the binyan ''fuȝal'' (passive of ''faȝal'') completely, instead of merging it completely with ''fuȝȝal'' like Tiberian Hebrew.
todo: get rid of 3fp forms
 
Ancient Knench used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל ''polėl'' and ''polal'') remained fully productive in Ancient Knench.


Verbs inherited the following forms from Biblical Hebrew:
Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:
*preterite independent (from the BH waw-consecutive preterite)
*preterite independent (~ BH waw-consecutive preterite)
*present independent (from the BH waw-consecutive imperfect)
*present independent (~ BH waw-consecutive imperfect)
*preterite dependent (from the BH perfect)
*preterite dependent (~ BH perfect)
*present dependent (from the BH imperfect)
*present dependent (~ BH imperfect)
*imperative
*imperative
*cohortative ''-a''
*cohortative ''-a''
Line 216: Line 112:
The following verb forms lost their productivity:
The following verb forms lost their productivity:
*emphatic m.sg. imperative ''-a''
*emphatic m.sg. imperative ''-a''
*jussive (only survives in ''hayā'' 'to be')
*jussive (only survives in ''hajō'' 'to be')
*infinitive absolute
*infinitive absolute


The Biblical Hebrew waw-consecutive now came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as ''lō'' 'not', ''him'' 'if; definitely not', ''ha-'' 'question particle', ''χī'' 'when', ''hinni'' 'but; nut then'). This is similar to Old Irish or Egyptian verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.
The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as ''lū'' 'not', ''him'' 'if; definitely not', ''ha-'' 'question particle', ''kī'' 'when', ''(wa)hinni'' 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
Line 226: Line 122:
|-
|-
! preterite
! preterite
| waw-preterite: ''wayyōγal''<br/>'he ate' || perfect: ''lō haγal''<br/>'he did not eat'
| waw-preterite: ''wayyūγal''<br/>'he ate' || perfect: ''lū haγal''<br/>'he did not eat'
|-
|-
! present
! present
| waw-stative: ''wāhaγal''<br/>'he eats' || imperfect: ''lō yōγal''<br/>'he does not eat'  
| waw-stative: ''wōhaγal''<br/>'he eats' || imperfect: ''lū yūγal''<br/>'he does not eat'  
|}
|}


Line 252: Line 148:
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmurī''
| ''waθθesmurī''
| ''wayyesmur''
| ''wajjesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''wannesmur''
| ''wannesmur''
| ''waθθesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''wayyesmurū''
| ''wajjesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''waθθesmurna''
|-
|-
! <small>dep.</small>
! <small>dep.</small>
| ''samarθī''
| ''samarθi''
| ''samarθa''
| ''samarθa''
| ''samarθe''
| ''samarθe''
| ''samar''
| ''samar''
| ''samarā''
| ''samarō''
| ''samarnu''
| ''samarnu''
| ''samarθem''
| ''samarθem''
Line 273: Line 169:
! rowspan=2|present  
! rowspan=2|present  
! <small>indep.</small>
! <small>indep.</small>
| ''wassamarθī''
| ''wassamarθi''
| ''wassamarθa''
| ''wassamarθa''
| ''wassamarθe''
| ''wassamarθe''
| ''wassamar''
| ''wassamar''
| ''wassamarā''
| ''wassamarō''
| ''wassamarnu''
| ''wassamarnu''
| ''wassamarθem''
| ''wassamarθem''
Line 287: Line 183:
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmurī''
| ''θesmurī''
| ''yesmur''
| ''jesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''nesmur''
| ''nesmur''
| ''θesmurū''
| ''θesmurū''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''yesmurū''
| ''jesmurū''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''θesmurna''
|-
|-
Line 308: Line 204:
|-
|-
!colspan=2|active participle
!colspan=2|active participle
|colspan=10| ''sōmḗr''
|colspan=10| ''sūmḗr''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|passive participle
!colspan=2|passive participle
|colspan=10| ''samū́r''
|colspan=10| ''samȳ́r''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|infinitive
!colspan=2|infinitive
Line 319: Line 215:
====Binyan ''nivȝal'' (nifʕal)====
====Binyan ''nivȝal'' (nifʕal)====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ ''niktab'' 'it was written'
|+ ''nixθab'' 'it was written'
! style="width: 1505px; " colspan=2| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 1505px; " colspan=2| → Person<br/>↓ Tense
! style="width: 75px; " | 1s
! style="width: 75px; " | 1s
Line 334: Line 230:
! rowspan=2|preterite  
! rowspan=2|preterite  
! <small>indep.</small>
! <small>indep.</small>
| ''wêkkatib''
| ''wêxxaδib''
| ''waθθikkatib''
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''waθθikkatibī''
| ''waθθixxaδibī''
| ''wayyikkatib''
| ''wajjixxaδib''
| ''waθθikkatib''
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''wannikkatib''
| ''wannixxaδib''
| ''waθθikkatibū''
| ''waθθixxaδibū''
| ''waθθikkatibna''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''wayyikkatibū''
| ''wajjixxaδibū''
| ''wattikkatibna''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
|-
|-
! <small>dep.</small>
! <small>dep.</small>
| ''niktabθī''
| ''nixθabθi''
| ''niktabθa''
| ''nixθabθa''
| ''niktabθe''
| ''nixθabθe''
| ''niktab''
| ''nixθab''
| ''niktabā''
| ''nixθabō''
| ''niktabnu''
| ''nixθabnu''
| ''niktabθem''
| ''nixθabθem''
| ''niktabθen''
| ''nixθabθen''
|colspan=2| ''niktabū''
|colspan=2| ''nixθabū''
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|present  
! rowspan=2|present  
! <small>indep.</small>
! <small>indep.</small>
| ''wanniktabθī''
| ''wannixθabθi''
| ''wanniktabθa''
| ''wannixθabθa''
| ''wanniktabθe''
| ''wannixθabθe''
| ''wanniktab''
| ''wannixθab''
| ''wanniktabā''
| ''wannixθabō''
| ''wanniktabnu''
| ''wannixθabnu''
| ''wanniktabθem''
| ''wannixθabθem''
| ''wanniktabθen''
| ''wannixθabθen''
|colspan=2| ''wanniktabū''
|colspan=2| ''wannixθabū''
|-
|-
! <small>dep.</small>
! <small>dep.</small>
| ''hikkatib''
| ''hixxaδib''
| ''θikkatib''
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''θikkatibī''
| ''θixxaδibī''
| ''yikkatib''
| ''jixxaδib''
| ''θikkatib''
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''nikkatib''
| ''nixxaδib''
| ''θikkatibū''
| ''θixxaδibū''
| ''θikkatibna''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''yikkatibū''
| ''jixxaδibū''
| ''θikkatibna''
| ''θixxaδibna''
|-
|-
!colspan=2| imperative
!colspan=2| imperative
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hikkatib!''
| ''hixxaδib!''
| ''hikkatibī!''
| ''hixxaδibī!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hikkatibū!''
| ''hixxaδibū!''
| ''hikkatibna!''
| ''hixxaδibna!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|participle
!colspan=2|participle
|colspan=10| ''niktāb''
|colspan=10| ''nixθōb''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|infinitive
!colspan=2|infinitive
|colspan=10| ''hikkatib''
|colspan=10| ''hixxaδib''
|}
|}


Line 416: Line 312:
!rowspan=2| preterite
!rowspan=2| preterite
!|indep.
!|indep.
| ''wâgattil''
| ''wôgattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattilī''
| ''waθθagattilī''
| ''wayyagattil''
| ''wajjagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''wannagattil''
| ''wannagattil''
| ''waθθagattilū''
| ''waθθagattilū''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''wayyagattilū''
| ''wajjagattilū''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''waθθagattelna''
|-
|-
!|dep.
!|dep.
| ''kittelθī''
| ''kittelθi''
| ''kittelθa''
| ''kittelθa''
| ''kittelθe''
| ''kittelθe''
| ''kittil''
| ''kittil''
| ''kittilā''
| ''kittilō''
| ''kittelnu''
| ''kittelnu''
| ''kittelθem''
| ''kittelθem''
Line 440: Line 336:
!rowspan=2| present  
!rowspan=2| present  
!|indep.
!|indep.
| ''wakkittelθī''
| ''wakkittelθi''
| ''wakkittelθa''
| ''wakkittelθa''
| ''wakkittelθe''
| ''wakkittelθe''
| ''wakkittil''
| ''wakkittil''
| ''wakkittilā''
| ''wakkittilō''
| ''wakkittelnu''
| ''wakkittelnu''
| ''wakkittelθem''
| ''wakkittelθem''
Line 454: Line 350:
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattilī''
| ''θagattilī''
| ''yagattil''
| ''jagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''nagattil''
| ''nagattil''
| ''θagattilū''
| ''θagattilū''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''yagattilū''
| ''jagattilū''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''θagattelna''
|-
|-
Line 482: Line 378:


====Binyan ''fuȝȝal'' (puʕal)====
====Binyan ''fuȝȝal'' (puʕal)====
====Binyan ''fōȝil'' (poʕel)====
====Binyan ''fūȝal'' (poʕal)====
====Binyan ''hivȝīl'' (hifʕil)====
====Binyan ''hivȝīl'' (hifʕil)====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
Line 502: Line 394:
|-
|-
! preterite indep.
! preterite indep.
| ''wâbdīl''
| ''wôbdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīlī''
| ''waθθabdīlī''
| ''wayyabdīl''
| ''wajjabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''wannabdīl''
| ''wannabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''wayyabdīlū''
| ''wajjabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''waθθabdelna''
|-
|-
Line 518: Line 410:
| ''hibdelθe''
| ''hibdelθe''
| ''hibdīl''
| ''hibdīl''
| ''hibdīlā''
| ''hibdīlō''
| ''hibdelnu''
| ''hibdelnu''
| ''hibdelθem''
| ''hibdelθem''
Line 529: Line 421:
| ''wêbdelθe''
| ''wêbdelθe''
| ''wêbdel''
| ''wêbdel''
| ''wêbdelā''
| ''wêbdelō''
| ''wêbdelnu''
| ''wêbdelnu''
| ''wêbdelθem''
| ''wêbdelθem''
Line 539: Line 431:
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīlī''
| ''θabdīlī''
| ''yabdīl''
| ''jabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''nabdīl''
| ''nabdīl''
| ''θabdīlū''
| ''θabdīlū''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''yabdīlū''
| ''jabdīlū''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''θabdelna''
|-
|-
Line 583: Line 475:
|-
|-
! preterite indep.
! preterite indep.
| ''wâθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wôθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''wayyiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wajjiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wanniθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wanniθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''wayyiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''wajjiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
|-
|-
! preterite dep.
! preterite dep.
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθī''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθi''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθa''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθa''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimā''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimō''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemnu''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemnu''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθem''
Line 606: Line 498:
|-
|-
! present indep.
! present indep.
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθī''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθi''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθa''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθa''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋimā''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋimō''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
Line 620: Line 512:
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''yiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''jiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''niθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''niθnaᴋᴋim''
Line 647: Line 539:
|}
|}


====Other derivations====
====Object suffixes====
''θivȝil'' and ''šavȝil''
*1sg: -ni
*2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
*3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ȳ), -ū (after C) (m); -ô, -hô (f)
*1pl: -nu
*2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
*3pl: -hem, -m, -im, -mu, -imu (m); -hen, -n, -in (f)


====Object suffixes====
====Gzarot====
====Gzarot====
:''Main article: [[Ancient Cubrite/Gzarot]]''
:''Main article: [[Ancient Knench/Gzarot]]''
 
===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
*jūδ = direct object marker
*li- = to, for, of
*li- = to, for, of
*pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
*pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
*χamó- = like, as
*tum la- = like, as
*miC- = from
*miC- = from
*3im = with (comit.)
*ȝim, hiδ = with (comit.)
*wēn = without
*wēn = without
*ya3n = because of
*jaȝn = because of
*ȝalē = on
 
===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
*χa- = and ('like' > 'and')
*xa- = and ('like' > 'and')
*ja3n = because
==Syntax==
Ancient Knench syntax is similar to Bibical Hebrew but appears more streamlined from an IE perspective. Basic word order was retained as VSO (unlike in spoken Biblical Hebrew).


==Usage==
===Tense constructions===
===Tense constructions===
Ancient Cubrite preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.
Ancient Knench preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.
*Pluperfect: ''hayā'' or ''wayyê'' + perfect
*Pluperfect: ''hajō'' or ''wajjê'' + perfect
*Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
*Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
*Past imperfect: ''hayā'' or ''wayyê'' ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
*Past imperfect: ''hajō'' or ''wajjê'' ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
*Present: imperfect or waw-stative
*Present: imperfect or waw-stative  
*Future imperfective: ''yî'' or ''wāyā'' + imperfect  
**Jussive uses the present dependent
*Future perfective: ''wāyā'' + perfect (remnant of BH ''*wahayā'', waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
*Future imperfective: ''jî'' or ''wājō'' + imperfect  
*Jussive: ''yê'' 'let it be' + imperfect or perfect depending on aspect
*Future perfective: ''wājō'' + perfect (~ BH ''*wahajō'', waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
*As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use ''hal'' + 2nd person present dependent.


===Uses of the infinitive construct===
===Uses of the infinitive construct===
Many of the Biblical or quasi-Biblical uses of the infinitive construct were retained:
Many of the Biblical or quasi-Biblical uses of the infinitive construct were retained:
#la + IC may be used to indicate purpose or "while VERBing/by VERBing"
#la + IC may be used to indicate purpose
#there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
#there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
#ba- or χa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
#ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
#*more generally IC + NOUN serves to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB" or subordinate clauses where English would use a tensed verb form.
#more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": ''lū jūʕīl hiwwasivū laθ-θessuᴋō'' = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'
#IC was often used to give further descriptions of what someone did in addition to the main verb, could often be translated as "X-ing" in sentences


===Narratives===
===Narratives===
A narrative is commonly introduced by ''wayyê'' 'it was' (often to give background info).
As in Biblical Hebrew, narratives tend to use the waw-preterite. A narrative is commonly introduced by ''wayyê'' 'it was' (often to give background info).


Hypothetical example:  
Hypothetical example:  
:'''''waθθê lāħamā, pōdīγā smâ. waθθê ȝazzaδ θessuᴋā, hinni hayāδā rō-ħōlyaδ hābā.'''''  
:'''''wajjê faȝm wattê lāħamō, būdīkō smô. wattê ȝazzat tessuᴋō, hinni hajōt rū-ħūljat hābō.'''''  
:''Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.''
:''Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.''


===Wishes===
===Wishes===
Wishes and prayers use a form of ħayy 'alive' + wa + the dependent prefix conjugation (from jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ''ħayy X...'' 'as surely as X lives'.
Wishes and prayers use a form of ''ħajj'' 'alive' + subject + ''wa'' + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ''ħayy X...'' 'I swear by X'.
:'''''ħayyōδ wa δagallēna hā-hasirōδ niᴛavōδ ham-mumallihōδ bā-harc kullâ wa baθ-θōruκaδâ bâ.'''''
:'''''ħajjūt hō-hasirūt wa jagallū niᴛafūt ham-mumallihūt bō-harc kullô wa bat-tūruκō bô.'''''
:''May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.''
:''May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.''
A somewhat less common option is to use ''mī jeθθin wa'' + present dependent (lit. who will give that...).
One can also simply use the present dependent.


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Ancient Cubrite vocabulary was mostly Semitic, but with some Celtic loans. The inherited Semitic vocabulary shows some semantic drift relative to Biblical Hebrew, as well as additional coinages.
Ancient Knench vocabulary was mostly Semitic, but with many Azalic loans and a few Celtic loans. The inherited Semitic vocabulary shows some semantic drift relative to Biblical Hebrew, as well as additional coinages.
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Mishkalim====
====Mishkalim====
*ᴋaᴛāl, ᴋaᴛēl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
*ᴋaᴛōl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛūl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
*masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
*ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
*feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlā, ᴋiᴛlā, ᴋuᴛlā
*ᴋaᴛīlō = noun pattern
*ᴋaᴛalā (''paraγā'' 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
*masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīn (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
*ᴋaᴛilā
*feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlō, ᴋiᴛlō, ᴋuᴛlō, pl. ᴋVᴛalūδ
*ᴋaᴛulā (''kadúlā'' 'magnificence', ''zarúħā'' 'radiance')
*ᴋaᴛalō (''paraγō'' 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
*ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ā) = diminutive
*ᴋaᴛilō
*meᴋᴛal(ā) = often place
*ᴋaᴛulō (''kadulō'' 'magnificence', ''zaruħō'' 'radiance')
*maᴋᴛel(ā) = instrument
*ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ō) = diminutive
*meᴋᴛōl
*meᴋᴛal(ō) = often place
*meᴋᴛul(ā)
*maᴋᴛel(ō) = instrument
*θaᴋᴛilā, θeᴋᴛulā
*meᴋᴛūl
*ᴋaᴛlōn
*meᴋᴛul(ō)
*ᴋiᴛᴛalōn
*θaᴋᴛilō, θeᴋᴛulō
*ᴋaᴛᴛal(ā) = agentive
*ᴋaᴛlūn
*ᴋaᴛᴛelā = disease
*ᴋiᴛᴛalūn
*ᴋaᴛᴛulā
*ᴋaᴛᴛal(ō) = agentive
*θaᴋᴛelā
*ᴋaᴛᴛelō = disease
*θeᴋᴛūlā = system of, art of, study of
*ᴋaᴛᴛulō
*θaᴋᴛelō
*θeᴋᴛulō = system of, art of, study of


====Affixes====
====Affixes====
*''-î'' (feminine ''-īyā''): adjective-forming affix
*''-î'' (feminine ''-īyō''): adjective-forming affix
*''-ūδ'': abstract noun suffix
*''-ȳδ'': abstract noun suffix
*''hī-'': un-, non-
*''hī-'': un-, non-


Line 728: Line 636:
==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
===An incantation===
===An incantation===
The following incantation has 4 stressed syllables per line (Prosody in Ancient Cubrite poetry is based on the number of stressed syllables per line):
The following incantation has 4 stressed syllables per line (Prosody in Ancient Knench poetry is based on the number of stressed syllables per line):


[...]
[...]
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===A ritual===
===A ritual===
===An excerpt===
===An excerpt===
=== Ha'azinu ===
TODO: weight sensitive stress after stress shift to penultimate and final vowel loss; verbs have earlier stress than nouns
<poem>
hāzī́nū, has-samḗm, bi-dábbirī; súmȝī, hā-harc, jūt millū́lē fî.
tésᴛuf líᴋħī dum lam-maᴛár, tézzal hímratī dum laᴛ-ᴛal,
dum la-natz ȝálē dās, ka dum la-rubb-neᴛī́fō ȝálē ȝiśb.
</poem>


==Lexicon==
==Lexicon==
===h===
===h===
*''hā́bā'' = love
*''hōbō'' = love
*''hilô'' (pl. ''hilṓhīm'') = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese ''kami''
*''hilû'' (pl. ''hiūhīm'') = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese ''kami''
*''hasírā'' = the spirit of a tree
*''hasírō'' = the spirit of a tree
*''hinni'' = but
*''hinni'' = but


===p===
===b===
===k===
*''bēt'' = house
===t===
 
===g===
===d===
===w===
===w===
===z===
===z===
*''zadā'' = defect, crookedness (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
*''zadō'' = injustice, wrong (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
*''zīdā'' = wrongness, injustice
*''zaruħō'' = radiance
*''zaruħā'' = radiance
 
===ħ===
===ħ===
*''ħabab'' = to love (stative)
*''ħabaᴋ'' = to hug, to embrace
*''ħawō'' = to live
** ''ħawe!'' = hail! (u > a after a guttural first consonant) (Source of Latin ''ave'' in Irta)
===ᴛ===
===ᴛ===
===j===
===j===
===χ===
===k===
*''χin'' 'and'
*k-b-d
**''kabed'' 'liver'
**''kabid'' 'heavy'
**''kabūd'' 'honor'
**''kibbid'' 'to honor'
**''kabudō'' 'esteemed position'
***''hak-kabudō'' 'sir, ma'am'
**''makped'' 'scale, balance'
*''kin, ka-'' 'and'


===l===
===l===
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===n===
===n===
*n-ᴛ-f
*n-ᴛ-f
**''níᴛfā'' = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)
**''níᴛfō'' = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)
===s===
===s===
===ȝ===
===ȝ===
*''ȝarábā'' = willow
*''ȝarábō'' = willow
===f===
===p===
*''fárrā'' = cow
*''párrō'' = cow


===c===
===c===
===ᴋ===
===ᴋ===
===r===
===r===
*''rimmṓn'' = pomegranate
*''rimmūn'' = pomegranate
===θ===
 
===t===
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
IlL
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