Linguifex

Volapűük nulíik: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Volapűük nulíik (view source)

Revision as of 15:34, 8 April 2020

9,078 bytes added ,  8 April 2020
→‎Slot X / Bóok X
 
(37 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 541: Line 541:
===Vowels===
===Vowels===


Volapȕük nulíik has a quite large vowel inventory. Besides the quality of a vowel, the length of a vowel plays an important role as well. The the proto language, the inventory was rather small:
Volapȕük nulíik has a quite large vowel inventory. Besides the quality of a vowel, the length of a vowel plays an important role as well. In the proto-language, the inventory was rather small:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Line 547: Line 547:
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
|-
! High
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
|-
|-
!! Close-mid
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|-
|-
!! Close-open
! Close-open
|-
|| ä /ɛ/ || ||
|| ä /ɛ/ || ||
|-
|-
!! Open
! Open
|-
|| a /a/ || ||  
|| a /a/ || ||  
|}
|}


===Prosody===
All vowels shared a closed quality and could be combined quite freely into combinations of two vowels which did not form a single syllable, thus dipthongs were unknown in the proto-language.
====Stress====
 


The term ''stress'' refers to an articulatory phenomenon that causes one syllable in one word to be spoken at a higher pitch than all other syllables in a word. In Volapȕük nulíik this syllable is in defined position in verbs and nouns. Verbs feature a main stress and, under certain conditions a second, less higher pitch. Nouns only have one stressed syllable. The main stress is marked by an acute accent (´) on a vowel, giving [á, é, í, ó, ú] and on vowels with a trema [··] [ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. The main stress is always set first. The second stress is uniformously marked by grave accent [`] giving [à, è, ì, ò, ù, ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. In handwriting, the main stress is also done with a double acute accent on [ä, ö, ü], yet due to technical restriction this has not been possible and thus the language board has decided to allow a grave accent to mark main stress on these three vowel letters.
Over time this inventory underwent several changes. The first of those changes was that almost all highly articulated vowels were lowered when they occured in an open syllable. Later, this process took also place in closed syllables which had single vowels. Combinations of two vowels remained higher or kept a higher pronounciation. This devision broadened the vowel inventory:




History
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || || u: /ʊ/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || || o: /ɔ/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ||
|-
! Open
||  || a /ä/ ||
|}


The main stress used to fall always on the last sylable in Volapük. This means that nouns used to have a main stress on its stem, e.g. dóm 'house', however when a case ending was added to the stem, it shifted from the stem to the last vowel, giving e.g domá 'of the house', domí 'the house (acc.)' This principle is still visible in the present noun declension: dóom : domá : domí : niđomé. In nouns this main stress on monosyllabical words led to a lengthening of the consonant and created finally the length distinction between nominative / vocative and all other oblique cases and nounforms with a reduced [unshortened] stem vowel. With verbs this principle gave the following pen'ön 'to write' : pen'ob 'I write' : epen'ob 'I have written'. Due to a reanalysis of the future forms, e.g. open'ob 'I will write', the second vowel before the personal pronoun suffix was reanalysed as the carrier of the tense information and thus changed analogically: epen'eb, open'ob, ipen'ib, etc. The first letter was abandoned leaving only the vowel before the personal pronoun suffix with the information concerning time. This gave rise to the present situation that the mains tress falls on the time slot and also explains why a tense has always to be stated in every verb. 


The next big change in the inventory was the lengthening of short vowels which occur in main-stressed syllables of the stem. Vowels of inflectional suffixes do not undergo this shift. Due to this change in pronounciation, the opposition between short and long vowels is established.


Verbs


In conjugated verb forms falls the main stress on the first vowel after the stem and before the personal pronoun suffix: penáb 'I write', löfábaf 'I love her'. kabenbóleb. 'You will be able to write me.' In non-conjugated forms, however, not the tense marker is not stressed but the last suffix: pen'ön 'to write', pepen'öl 'written'. This main stress is however not marked on the last syllable as this rule dates back to the very beginning of the language.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || || || u /u/ ||
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || || || o /o/ ||
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| || || a /ä/ ||  aa /ä:/ ||  ||
|}


====Intonation====


===Phonotactics===
This system starts to develop further in this sense that those combinations of vowels containing an /i/ as the second part start to shift to /e/ (with the exception of /ui/, /üi/ and /ii/) and furthermore become long vowels. The quantity of these long vowels is slightly longer than the quantity of those close-mid and near-open long vowels with a roughly distinction of (short : long 'open' : long 'closed') 1 : 1,75 : 2. This means that now both "closed" and "open" vowels have an opposition of quantity between long vs. short. The vowel /ä/ splits into the vowels /a/, /a:/ for open vowel positions and /ɑ/, /ɑ:/ for closed vowel positions.
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->


The syllabic structure of a language can be analysed from different perspectives. One perspective is to take a look at the maximum structure of a syllable. Another perspective is the question, which sounds are allowed on which position.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || ii /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || u /u/ || uu /u:/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || ee /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || o /o/ || oo /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || a: /ɑ/  || aa: /ɑ:/
|}


The latest development was the creation of the sound /ɒ:/ <åå> that evolved from the combination / later dipthong /o.a/ ~ /o‿a/. This vowel does not occur in every dialect, however it is recognised as in the standard language.


''Maximum syllable structure''


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || ii /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || u /u/ || uu /u:/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || ee /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || o /o/ || oo /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || a: /ɑ/  || aa: /ɑ:/ åå /ɒ:/
|}


The maximum syllable structure in Volapȕük nulíik is:
(C(C(CV)(V)C))C).


A minimum syllable consists of CV, which indicates that no syllable may beginn with a vowel. Personal pronouns are an exception to this rule, since they favour a syllabic structure V:C. The maximum structure consisting of three consonants in the onset is mainly reserved for clusters like ''str-'', ''skr-''.
The last change occurred in the 1920s, when the orthographic representation was modified to represent current usages:


===Morphophonology===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
|-
===Lenition===
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| î /i/ ü /ü/ || îi/íî /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || û /u/ || ûu/úû /u:/
|-
! Near-close
|| i /ɪ/ ü /ʏ/ || ii /ɪ:/ üü /ʏ:/ || || || u /ʊ/ || uu /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| ê /e/ ö /ö/ || êe/éê /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || ô /o/ || ôo/óô /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| e /ɛ/ ö /œ/ || ee /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || â /ɑ/  || âa/áâ /ɑ:/ åå /ɒ:/
|}
 
===Prosody===
====Stress====
 
The term ''stress'' refers to an articulatory phenomenon that causes one syllable in one word to be spoken at a higher pitch than all other syllables in a word. In Volapȕük nulíik this syllable is in defined position in verbs and nouns. Verbs feature a main stress and, under certain conditions a second, less higher pitch. Nouns only have one stressed syllable. The main stress is marked by an acute accent (´) on a vowel, giving [á, é, í, ó, ú] and on vowels with a trema [··] [ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. The main stress is always set first. The second stress is uniformously marked by grave accent [`] giving [à, è, ì, ò, ù, ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. In handwriting, the main stress is also done with a double acute accent on [ä, ö, ü], yet due to technical restriction this has not been possible and thus the language board has decided to allow a grave accent to mark main stress on these three vowel letters.


===Consonantal gemination===


==Morphology==
History
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
The basic morphology of '''Volapȕük nulíik''' encompasses only three categories:


-Nouns
The main stress used to fall always on the last sylable in Volapük. This means that nouns used to have a main stress on its stem, e.g. dóm 'house', however when a case ending was added to the stem, it shifted from the stem to the last vowel, giving e.g domá 'of the house', domí 'the house (acc.)' This principle is still visible in the present noun declension: dóom : domá : domí : niđomé. In nouns this main stress on monosyllabical words led to a lengthening of the consonant and created finally the length distinction between nominative / vocative and all other oblique cases and nounforms with a reduced [unshortened] stem vowel. With verbs this principle gave the following pen'ön 'to write' : pen'ob 'I write' : epen'ob 'I have written'. Due to a reanalysis of the future forms, e.g. open'ob 'I will write', the second vowel before the personal pronoun suffix was reanalysed as the carrier of the tense information and thus changed analogically: epen'eb, open'ob, ipen'ib, etc. The first letter was abandoned leaving only the vowel before the personal pronoun suffix with the information concerning time. This gave rise to the present situation that the mains tress falls on the time slot and also explains why a tense has always to be stated in every verb. 


-Verbs


-Interjections
Verbs


'''Adjectives'''  
In conjugated verb forms falls the main stress on the first vowel after the stem and before the personal pronoun suffix: penáb 'I write', löfábaf 'I love her'. kabenbóleb. 'You will be able to write me.' In non-conjugated forms, however, not the tense marker is not stressed but the last suffix: pen'ön 'to write', pepen'öl 'written'. This main stress is however not marked on the last syllable as this rule dates back to the very beginning of the language.


Adjectives are predominantly nouns - they have a fixed position within the noun phrase and may function as nouns on their own. However, they may also function as a verb in conjunction with the copula verb "binön" or they may function as a verb on their own, which is considered a higher style.:
====Intonation====


{|
===Phonotactics===
|-
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
|Binán             
 
||klotéedat                   
The syllabic structure of a language can be analysed from different perspectives. One perspective is to take a look at the maximum structure of a syllable. Another perspective is the question, which sounds are allowed on which position.  
||šerlíik.
|-
|Bin-á-n
||klotéed-at
||šer-líik.
|-
|BE-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near       
||EXPENSIVE-adj.
|}


{|
|-
|Šerlikán                             
||klotéedat.
|-
|Šer-lik-á-n 
||klotéed-at
|-
|[EXPENSIVE-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near
|}


"This dress is expensive."


The first version is more common among speakers of a lower social status, whereas the second has a more official and literary style. The first version, however, may also be used by people of higher status, especially in situations when someone wants to emphasize that the dress really IS expensive. This is in contrast to languages like German or English, as Volapűük_nulíik expresses emphasis not on the intonational level but on the morphological.
''Maximum syllable structure''


'''Numerals'''


Numerals also belong, just like adjectives, predominantly to the category of nouns, but can be used as verbs as well:
The maximum syllable structure in Volapȕük nulíik is:


{|
(C(C(CV)(V)C))C).  
|-
|Lödáps
||niđom
||žönlig
||giló
|-
|Löd-á-p-s
||ni-đom
||žön-lig
||gil-ó
|-
|RESIDE-pres.-m./f.pl.
||IN-HOUSE-abs.
||BEAUTIFUL-adj.abs.
||THREE-loc.
|}


"They live in three beautiful houses."
A minimum syllable consists of CV, which indicates that no syllable may beginn with a vowel. Personal pronouns are an exception to this rule, since they favour a syllabic structure V:C. The maximum structure consisting of three consonants in the onset is mainly reserved for clusters like ''str-'', ''skr-''.


{|
===Morphophonology===
|-
|Telđegänáms.
|-
|Telđeg-an-á-m-s.
|-
|[TWENTY]verb.copula-pers.n-pres.-m.pl.
|}


"We are twenty men."
===Lenition===


===Consonantal gemination===


==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
The basic morphology of '''Volapȕük nulíik''' encompasses only three categories:


Nummerals will be discussed in detail in the section "Nummerals".
-Nouns


-Verbs


'''Adverbs'''
-Interjections


This category does not appear as a category of itself but appears in different forms:
'''Adjectives'''


1. suffixes
Adjectives are predominantly nouns - they have a fixed position within the noun phrase and may function as nouns on their own. However, they may also function as a verb in conjunction with the copula verb "binön" or they may function as a verb on their own, which is considered a higher style.:


2. incorporated roots
{|
 
|-
3. nouns in essive case
|Binán             
 
||klotéedat                   
4. nouns in a noun phrase starting with "mod".
||šerlíik.
|-
|Bin-á-n
||klotéed-at
||šer-líik.
|-
|BE-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near       
||EXPENSIVE-adj.
|}


{|
|-
|Šerlikán                             
||klotéedat.
|-
|Šer-lik-á-n 
||klotéed-at
|-
|[EXPENSIVE-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near
|}


"This dress is expensive."


''Suffixes''
The first version is more common among speakers of a lower social status, whereas the second has a more official and literary style. The first version, however, may also be used by people of higher status, especially in situations when someone wants to emphasize that the dress really IS expensive. This is in contrast to languages like German or English, as Volapűük_nulíik expresses emphasis not on the intonational level but on the morphological.


This type of adverbs encompasses adverbs of time, place and degree. They are suffixed to verbal structures and nouns and thus cannot appear on their own. If one wants to emphasise these adverbal meanings, they have to use a similar meaning noun, add suffixes and place it before the verb, for example:
'''Numerals'''


"Deedȁpšimokdȁäl." [no emphasis]
Numerals also belong, just like adjectives, predominantly to the category of nouns, but can be used as verbs as well:


{|
|-
|Lödáps
||niđom
||žönlig
||giló
|-
|Löd-á-p-s
||ni-đom
||žön-lig
||gil-ó
|-
|RESIDE-pres.-m./f.pl.
||IN-HOUSE-abs.
||BEAUTIFUL-adj.abs.
||THREE-loc.
|}


DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-ok-dȁäl.
"They live in three beautiful houses."


KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-here-yesterday
{|
|-
|Telđegänáms.
|-
|Telđeg-an-á-m-s.
|-
|[TWENTY]verb.copula-pers.n-pres.-m.pl.
|}


They killed him here yesterday.
"We are twenty men."






"Topakó deedȁpšimdȁäl." [place emphasised]
Nummerals will be discussed in detail in the section "Nummerals".




TOP-ak-ó | DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-dȁäl
'''Adverbs'''


PLACE-this-loc. | KIIL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-yesterday
This category does not appear as a category of itself but appears in different forms:


1. suffixes


2. incorporated roots


Dȁälú topakó deeddȁpšim. [place and time emphasised, place a bit more important than time]
3. nouns in essive case


4. nouns in a noun phrase starting with "mod".


DÄÄL-ú. | TOP-ak-ó | DEEL-ȁ-pš-i-m


YESTERDAY-ess. | PLACE-this-loc. | KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.


''Suffixes''


The word right before the verb structure receives the most emphasis and the farer away a word stands, it is less emphasised. This implies that normally only about three or four words are put separately before a verbal structure.
This type of adverbs encompasses adverbs of time, place and degree. They are suffixed to verbal structures and nouns and thus cannot appear on their own. If one wants to emphasise these adverbal meanings, they have to use a similar meaning noun, add suffixes and place it before the verb, for example:


"Deedȁpšimokdȁäl." [no emphasis]




''Incorporated roots''
DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-ok-dȁäl.
 
KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-here-yesterday
 
They killed him here yesterday.
 
 
 
"Topakó deedȁpšimdȁäl." [place emphasised]
 
 
TOP-ak-ó | DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-dȁäl
 
PLACE-this-loc. | KIIL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-yesterday
 
 
 
Dȁälú topakó deeddȁpšim.  [place and time emphasised, place a bit more important than time]
 
 
DÄÄL-ú. | TOP-ak-ó | DEEL-ȁ-pš-i-m
 
YESTERDAY-ess. | PLACE-this-loc. | KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.
 
 
The word right before the verb structure receives the most emphasis and the farer away a word stands, it is less emphasised. This implies that normally only about three or four words are put separately before a verbal structure.
 
 
 
''Incorporated roots''




Line 1,556: Line 1,689:
===''Examples / sáams''===
===''Examples / sáams''===


kozdudannotúbabagee
kozdudannotúbabagèe


ko-STUDAN-[n]ot-ú-ba-ba-ee
ko-STUDAN-[n]ot-ú-bi-ba-èe


with-STUDENT-all-ess.-1.sg.-gen.-maybe-and
with-STUDENT-all-ess.-1.sg.-acc.-maybe-and


"and maybe with all my students"
"and maybe with all my students"




kååpáfa mevaabotúnotiguu
kååpáfa mevaabotúnotigùu


kååp-á-f-a | me-FAAB-ot-ú-n-o-ti-uu
kååp-á-f-a | me-FAAB-ot-ú-n-o-ti-uu
Line 1,917: Line 2,050:
|| [-Cäm] || deggäm [1.000.000] || tummäm [100.000.000.000] || milläm [1.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|| [-Cäm] || deggäm [1.000.000] || tummäm [100.000.000.000] || milläm [1.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|-
|| [-Cev] ||
|| [-Cev] || deggev [10.000.000] || tummev [100.000.000.000.000] || millev [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|-
|| [-Cöš] ||
|| [-Cöš] || deggöš [100.000.000] || tummöš [10.000.000.000.000.000] || millöš [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|-
|| [-Cüts] ||
|| [-Cüts] || deggüts [1.000.000.000] || tummüts [1.000.000.000.000.000.000] || millüts [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|-
|| [-Ceg/-Ced] ||
|| [-Ceg/-Ced] || deggeg/degged [10.000.000.000] tummeg / tummed [100.000.000.000.000.000.000] || milleg / milled [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|}
|}


Line 1,935: Line 2,068:




méet [metre] + Cik > *méettik > mettíik 'cubic metre' [m.-ik]
metíil [kilometre] + Cet > *metiillet > metilléet 'squarekilometre' [mm.-et]




Since numeral expressions follow the noun, kilo-, mega - a.s.o. are expressed in the format ''unit of measurement''[partitive] + numeral expression. Examples:
metáak [centimetre] + Cet > *metaakket > metakkéet 'squarecentimetre' [mdg.-et]


kilometre:


dammetá [metre, part.] + mil > dammetamíil [mm.] 'kilometre' [coll. metíil]  
méet [metre] + Cik > *méettik > mettíik 'cubic metre' [m.-ik]




daghramá [gram, part.] + mil > daghramamíil [gm.]'kilogram' [coll. gramíil]  
metáak [centimetre] + Cik > *metaakkik > metakkíik 'cubic centimetre' [mdg.-ik]
 
 
metíll [kilometre] + Cik > *metiillik > metillíik 'cubic kilometre' [mm.-ik]
 
 
Since numeral expressions follow the noun, kilo-, mega - a.s.o. are expressed in the format ''unit of measurement''[partitive] + numeral expression. Examples:
 
 
dammetá [metre, part.] + mil > dammetamíil [mm.] 'kilometre' [coll. metíil]
 
 
daghramá [gram, part.] + mil > daghramamíil [gm.]'kilogram' [coll. gramíil]  




Line 1,951: Line 2,095:




dametá [metre, part.] + dađegá > dametadađegáak [mdđ.] 'centimetre' [coll. međáak]  
dametá [metre, part.] + dađegá > dametadađegáak [mdđ.] 'dekametre' [coll. međáak]
 
 
dametá [metre, part.]+ dađeggetá > dametadeggetáak [mdg.] 'centimetre' [coll. metáak]




dametá [metre, part.] + dammilá > dametadammiláak [mdm.] 'millimetre' [coll. memáak]  
dametá [metre, part.] + dammilá > dametadammiláak [mdm.] 'millimetre' [coll. memáak]  
dametá [metre, part.] + dammilletá > dametadammilletáak [mdmt.] 'micrometre' [coll. meláak]
dametá [metre, part.] + dadummulá > dametadadummuláak [mdtl.] 'nanometre' [coll. medáak]




Line 1,966: Line 2,119:




daghramämá [ton, part.] + millik > daghramämamillíik [gmk.]  'gigawatt' [coll. gramämíik]
daghramämá [ton, part.] + millik > daghramämamillíik [gmk.]  'gigaton' [coll. gramämíik]


==='''Verbs/Dunavȍöds'''===
==='''Verbs/Dunavȍöds'''===
Line 2,157: Line 2,310:
|-
|-
||pri- || <prim- || to start || Prillärngábin Volapük nulikí. 'I start learning Volapȕük nulíik.'
||pri- || <prim- || to start || Prillärngábin Volapük nulikí. 'I start learning Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
||ro- || <rop- || to interrupt || Rozbikodpábem Hyacinthé. 'I interrupt my conversation with Hyacinth [and continue it later].'
|-
|-
||fi- || <fin- || to end || Firreedgébinfò bukakí. 'I have finally reading this book.'  
||fi- || <fin- || to end || Firreedgébinfò bukakí. 'I have finally reading this book.'  
Line 2,165: Line 2,320:
|-
|-
||slu- || <slud- || to decide || Slummerikiglém. 'He has taken the decision to go to America.'
||slu- || <slud- || to decide || Slummerikiglém. 'He has taken the decision to go to America.'
|-
||se- || <sed- || to let, to have done || Sebeneddenbámeb. 'He has the letter written by me.'
|-
||ke- || <koed- || to permit, to refuse to prevent || Keđeadgȁfim. 'She let him die.' [she did nothing to prevent him from dying]
|-
||le- ||<lead- || to permit, to allow || Lenniveriglépsib. 'I was allowed to enter university.' [to enroll in studies]
|}
|}


Line 2,211: Line 2,372:
|-
|-
|| tse- || tsed- || to mean || Tseđitfóbimellà. I think you should leave him.  
|| tse- || tsed- || to mean || Tseđitfóbimellà. I think you should leave him.  
|-
|| ši- || šin- || to appear || Pežiđeedbémep katé. He seems to be killed by the cat.
|}
|}


Line 2,337: Line 2,500:
!valence marker !! suffixes !! case suffix filled in slot VIII !! translation  
!valence marker !! suffixes !! case suffix filled in slot VIII !! translation  
|-
|-
|| accusative || -k- / -g-  || -i- || normally direct object
|| accusative || -k- / -g-  || -i- || normally direct object [also used for negated verbal complexes where it corresponds with genitive.]
|-
|-
|| dative || -p- / -b- || -e- || indirect object, benefective
|| dative || -p- / -b- || -e- || indirect object, benefective, obligative for passive voice
|-
|-
|| accusative-dativ || -f- / -v- || -i- / -e- || direct & indirect object are given
|| accusative-dativ || -f- / -v- || -i- / -e- || direct & indirect object are given
Line 2,345: Line 2,508:


The object of verbs of transformation / abstraction are rendered in this slot via the tranlative, exlative and essive case.
The object of verbs of transformation / abstraction are rendered in this slot via the tranlative, exlative and essive case.
The origin of these suffixes is rather obscure. -p- / -b- seems to be related to the passive prefix ''p-'' and and therefore at the beginning it may have been used as a reinforcement of the passive voice. Later on the relation nominative - dative might have established and then, later on, it has become a valence marker.
The marker for accusative seems to be related to the deictic suffix -k. Probably this suffix was used as a shortening / ellipse structure: Logéb diní at. > Logéb diní ak. > Logéb dinakí. > Logkéb dinakí > Loggéb [dinakí.] > Loggéb diní. If this theory holds true, the suffix denoted at the beginning a definite object and only gradually changed to become a general valence marker. The structure with the direct object being inserted after the subject marker, which is standard nowadays "Loggébin diní." appears roughly at 1500 for the first time and becomes standard within ca. 200 - 300 years. The definite meaning vanishes and is now expressed via the deictic suffixes -ak / -et.


===''Slot IX / Bóok IX''===
===''Slot IX / Bóok IX''===
Line 2,477: Line 2,644:
|-
|-
||-sä || as if || ? || ?
||-sä || as if || ? || ?
|-
||-fä || if only || ? || ?
|-
|-
||-bo/-so || little, not much || Nollärnȁbdäälbo. || I did not study much yesterday.
||-bo/-so || little, not much || Nollärnȁbdäälbo. || I did not study much yesterday.
Line 2,491: Line 2,660:
|-
|-
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
|-
||-sö || consequently, so || kvisinbábel, mövidádd. || I cook for you, so we both can eat [together].
|-
||-su || immediately || Robledabsugȍd kođogú gufpabemeegȍd! || Stop playing with the dog immediately and help me!
|}
|}


Line 2,496: Line 2,669:




1. completion of action/time information [-ya | -no | -le | -ti | -tää]
1. completion of action/time information [-ya | -no | -le | -ti | -tää | -sö]


2. emphasis [-te | -ve]
2. emphasis [-te | -ve]
Line 2,532: Line 2,705:


This slot includes suffixes that make the whole following phrase a subordinated clauses. The syntax of subordinated and main clauses does not differ, the question if a clause is a main or a subordinated clause is rather marked by the presence or absence of a subordinated clause marker. A subordinated marker may receive a second stress.
This slot includes suffixes that make the whole following phrase a subordinated clauses. The syntax of subordinated and main clauses does not differ, the question if a clause is a main or a subordinated clause is rather marked by the presence or absence of a subordinated clause marker. A subordinated marker may receive a second stress.
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|-
||-bi ||because || Lüvgóbil löfkábilbì. || I leave you because I love you.
|-
||-do ||although || Plödiglábs reenánotdò. || We go outside, although it is raining there.
|-
||-da || that || Saggábin domimakmémda Markus. || I say that Markus has come from his home.
|-
||-ne || without || Lüvém dinonnagémne. || He has left without saying anything.]
|-
||-fi || if || ||
|-
||-ad || in order to || ||
|-
||-(i)bsä || unless || ||
|}


===''Slot XII / Bóok XII ''===
===''Slot XII / Bóok XII ''===
Line 2,826: Line 3,017:
||-Cok || *sokön < sukön || to look for || Kikabbokábnu. 'I am looking for my key.'
||-Cok || *sokön < sukön || to look for || Kikabbokábnu. 'I am looking for my key.'
|-
|-
||-Cuv || *tuvön || to find sth. || Kikabbuvébnu. 'I have found my key.'
||-Cuv || *tuvön || to find sth. || Kikabbuvébnu. 'I have found just my key.'
|-
|-
||-Civ || *rivön || to reach || Nisulliváb. nisul-LIV-á-b 'I reach the island.'
||-Civ || *rivön || to reach || Nisulliváb. nisul-LIV-á-b 'I reach the island.'
Line 2,840: Line 3,031:
||-Cek || *meekön || to make [non-food] || Tooddekémš. tood-DEK-é-mš. 'The men have made a car.' [coll.]
||-Cek || *meekön || to make [non-food] || Tooddekémš. tood-DEK-é-mš. 'The men have made a car.' [coll.]
|-
|-
||-Ced || *nedön || to need [sth.] || Nünömmedálksüp? 'Why do you need a computer?'
||-Ced || *nedön || to need [sth.] || Nünömmedálksüp? nünüm-MED-á-l-ksüp 'Why do you need a computer?'
|-
|-
||-Cof || *yofön || to enjoy || Pennofpábef motéba. 'I enjoy writing my mother.'
||-Cof || *yofön || to enjoy || Pennofpábef motéba. pen-NOF-p-á-b-e-f 'I enjoy writing my mother.'
|-
|-
||-Cen || *penön || to write || Peneddenáb. 'I write a letter.'
||-Cen || *penön || to write || Peneddenáb. pened-DEN-á-b 'I write a letter.'
|-
|-
||-Cad || *readön || to read || Peneddadáb. 'I read a letter.'
||-Cad || *readön || to read || Peneddadáb. pened-DAD-á-b 'I read a letter.'
|-
|-
||-Cif || *tifön || to steal || Kaparabbifél. kapar-ab-BIF-é-l 'You have stolen my goat.'
|-
||-Cin || *binön || to exist || Dawatakkináan niđärsätó. 'There is water in the dessert.' Niđärsätokkináan dawatá. 'In the desert, there is water.'
|-
||-Cüt || *mütön || to cause to do [by force] || Penedakkennütpépsem. 'They have forced him to write this letter.'
|-
||-Cun || *flunön || to influence s.o. || Penedakkennunbépsem. 'They have influenced him to write this letter.'
|-
||-Cag || *sagön || to say, to tell || Konottagbémeb. 'He has told me a story.
|}  
|}  


-Cüt / -Cun are also used to create causatives in Volap'üük nulíik.


Verbs of motion can also combine with placenames to indicate a motion to or from a certain place. These co-verb suffixes do take either the accusative (-i-) for a movement directed to the place or the dative (-e-) case for movement from this place. The Northern dialect will use the ablative (-ä-) here.  
Verbs of motion can also combine with placenames to indicate a motion to or from a certain place. These co-verb suffixes do take either the accusative (-i-) for a movement directed to the place or the dative (-e-) case for movement from this place. The Northern dialect will use the ablative (-ä-) here.  
Line 2,862: Line 3,064:
|| -rg- || *rig- || to originate || Helsinkikergáaf. 'She is from Helsinki.' [the generic present is used, since it is an unchangeable fact.]
|| -rg- || *rig- || to originate || Helsinkikergáaf. 'She is from Helsinki.' [the generic present is used, since it is an unchangeable fact.]
|-
|-
|| -sl- || *solu- || to die [in a place] || Moskovisléf. 'She has died in Moscow. [the original meaning 'to dissolve' was used as a metaphore of a soul that loses its connection to the material world when a a person dies.]
|| -sl- || *solu- || to die [in a place] || Moskovisléf. 'She has died in Moscow. [the original meaning 'to dissolve' was used as a metaphore of a soul that loses its connection to the material world when a a person dies. Since the original meaning implies a directional movement (dissolve into something), the placename appears in the accusative case.]
|-
|| -bl- || *ble- || to stay || domoblársöd! Stay at home!
|-
|-
|}  
|}  
ArmasUkko
521

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/165795...189461"