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:''This article describes Modern Windermere. See [[Windermere/Classical]] for Classical Windermere and [[Windermere/Middle]] for Middle Windermere.''
:''This article describes Modern Naeng. See [[Naeng/Classical]] for Classical Naeng.''


[[{{PAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Texts]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Sample sentences|218 sample sentences]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Translations]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Sketchbook|Sketchbook]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Fi tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Diachronics]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]


{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|creator = [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|name = Windermere
|name = Naeng
|nativename = fi cduay Dămea
|nativename = fi brits Dămea
|pronunciation=   
|pronunciation=   
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]
|setting = [[Verse:Hmøøh]]
|region = Talma, Pategia, Bjeheond, Quintlopetl
|region = Pategia, Bjeheond, Quintlopetl, ...
|speakers= 270 million
|speakers=220 million
|date=13b0dd
|date=13b0dd
|familycolor=tergetic
|familycolor=tergetic
|fam1=[[Lakovic]]
|fam1=[[Lakovic]]
|fam2=[[Ashanic]]
|fam2=[[Naengic]]
|fam3=[[Windermere/Classical|Classical Windermere]]
|fam3=[[Naeng/Classical|Classical Naeng]]
|script=Windermere script
|script=Naeng script
|iso3=
|iso3=
|official=USB, Tumhan, Pategia, Quintlopetl, Yocneam
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


'''Modern Windermere''' (''fi cduay Dămea'' /fi kduəj dəmeə/; [[Eevo]]: ''a birits Dymée'') arose from the vernacular of Imperial [[Verse:Tricin/Wen Dămea|Windermere]] settlers in Pategia and Bjeheond. It is known as '''Ashanian''' (e.g. ''Ntzog Xäd'' in [[Hlou]], ''Ásharn'' /ˈæʃɑːn/ in [[Shalian]]) or '''Tergetian''' (e.g. ''døludx Terged'' in [[Tseer]], ''tergetosin'' in [[Clofabosin]]) in some other Trician languages. Today Windermere is widespread in [[Verse:Tricin/Bjeheond|Bjeheond]] and [[Verse:Tricin/Talma|Talma]], being spoken in the [[Verse:Tricin/USB|USB]], [[Verse:Tricin/Tumhan|Tumhan]], [[Verse:Tricin/Pategia|Pategia]], [[Verse:Tricin/Wen Dămea|Wen Dămea]], and in former Windermere colonies in [[Verse:Tricin/Txapoalli|Txapoalli]]; with 270 million native speakers, it is the fifth most widely spoken native language and the most widely spoken [[Lakovic]] language.
'''Naeng''' (''fi cduay Dămea'' /vɪi gduəj dəmeə/ or ''fi cduay Neng'' /... naeŋ/; [[Eevo]]: ''a łynǿñ Dymee'' or ''a łynǿñ Neng'') is a [[Lakovic]] language belonging to the Naengic branch. It is also known as '''Ashanian''' (e.g. ''ne Qaśenin'' in [[Netagin]], specifically for Classical Naeng, ''zinAxān'' /sinaʃaːn/ in [[Naquian]]) or '''Tergetian''' (e.g. ''døluder Terged'' in [[Tseer]], ''tergetosin'' in [[Clofabosin]]) in various Hmøøhian languages. It is more distantly related to [[Tseer]], [[Ksieh]] and other Lakovic languages.


In Talma, Modern Windermere forms a dialect continuum with other descendants of Classical Windermere. It is more distantly related to [[Tseer]].
Modern Naeng is a revived koine/lingua franca/creole arising from various Classical Naeng reading and interpretive traditions, and some scholars believe that Modern Naeng grammar doesn't directly continue that of Classical Naeng. An even more unorthodox view proposed by modern linguist Lămanoa Wadangpaş is that Modern Naeng should be thought of as a Lakovic-Netagin-Nurian hybrid language, unlike [[Tergetian vernaculars]] (descendants of Classical Tseer) which are true Lakovic languages; he thinks Modern Naeng is in part a relexification of Netagin and Nurian with Classical Naeng words, and he proposes that it be renamed to ''fi brits Biechănd'' or the Bjeheondian language. This hypothesis is challenged by Prăfin of Bălang and other scholars of creoles and sprachbunds in Hmøøh, who cited various historical intermediate stages of Naeng which appeared in writing (e.g. works by Etsoj Jopah) and in folk songs. For example, the polite pronoun ''Pra'' (from ''pida'' 'sage'), which is post-Classical, is found in ___'s letters.


==External History==
Today, Naeng is the majority language of Pategia and Quintlopetl, and a prominent minority language of the [[Verse:Hmøøh/USB|USB]] and [[Verse:Hmøøh/Tumhan|Tumhan]]. In [[Talma]] Classical Naeng was replaced with vernacular Tseer varieties (called the [[Tergetian vernaculars|Tergetian languages]]) and other languages. It forms the [[Bjeheond]]ian sprachbund with [[Netagin]] vernaculars, [[Trây]], [[Gwnax]], and most other Bjeheondian languages.
Windermere is a conlang based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by English, Romanian and [[Tíogall]], one of my old Talmic sketches.
 
{{Naeng sidebar}}
 
==External history==
Naeng is based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by German, Romanian and [[Tíogall]], one of [[User:IlL]]'s old Talmic sketches.
It was originally created by [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]] for the [[Fifth Linguifex Relay]].
It was originally created by [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]] for the [[Fifth Linguifex Relay]].


==Todo==
==Todo==
Accents in Windermere
Lakovic no longer has gneder; get rid of gendered pronouns?
*Fincreaș
 
*Rural Fincreaș
Should th be dental d~t (and d, t alveolar~retro)?
*Standard Mategian
 
*Standard Wen Dămea
Need Tigol words in Naeng
*Other Wen Dămea accents
 
**Sătmaș
Inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ya rie and șa rie are incorrect) -- but are only used in formal Naeng
**Chăloa
 
**Prucüew
Ien ruay ched Lăbaldimoara - He lives in Baltimore (mi is optional)
 
Făngtsăfie = Philadelphia, via quasi-Arabic "fa3Dafiyya" <- hypothetical PSem *paʕtɬ'ap-
 
Wenmĭryam = Maryland
 
Merge c and g and introduce Ch clusters? or should those become breathy voiced vowels
 
''nean'' - a verb of motion/direction
 
When was glādos 'god' (> gláḋ > glọð > glawð) borrowed?
* If before the Naengic vowel shift, then make it ''Clot'' /klaot/
* If during Tigol stage: ''Clod'' /klaod/
* If post-revival Eevo loan: ''Grath'' /gʀɒð/ or ''Groth'' /gʀaoð/
 
yăhuaș should be a Naeng adjective
 
Măluac yări srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live (lit. follow with me)
 
casual: Măluac drel ngăse srüe ... lit. Follow hither if ...
 
Lăchier e Pra haș mül mĭf brits Anggla, chăbec ngĭ fĭthnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur Pra șän-șän
 
Ădoath chea thosli drel sed. (Dream PST reveal hither this) / literary: Ădoath chea thosli şar sed. lit. A dream revealed this to me


Some accent should have th = Basque z, s = Basque s
More realistic vowel split:
*a e i o u ü → RTR ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → a e ie o ua üe
*à è ì ò ù ǜ → ATR æ e i o u y → ä ea i oa u ü


Drel ya-rie srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live
Directional verbs as in Southeast Asian languages, e.g. ngămlac seaf "to call someone" vs ngămlac drel "to call someone back" -- sometimes casual Naeng uses these rather than pronouns to disambiguate referents like ''Ien chea briets drel sed'' "He told me this"


lăchir e pra haș mül mif brits Angla, chăbec ngie fithnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur pra șän-șän
Pronouns aren't used as often in colloquial Naeng e.g. ''Fi tsum rad?'' for ''What's your name''? Formal Naeng would have ''Fi tsum łe/łen/łes rad?''; ''Seaf ra?'' for "Where are you going?"


or maybe they become other clusters like db dg > dw, gb gd > gw gl, bd bg > bl pg
More directional markers which work like serial verbs besides seaf/drel?


==Diachronics==
==Diachronics==
===Phonological history===
===Phonological history===
*In Talman Windermere, ə > 0 after aspirated consonants and fricatives. This makes the voicing alternation in the Classical Wdm. spirants ''f'' and ''th'' phonemic.
*PLak i e a ā o u in unstressed syllables → CNaeng ĭ ĭ Ø ă ǎ Ø
*l > ʟ in the Wen Dămea dialect
*Classical Naeng /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ become /f θ x/; /f θ/ gain voiced realizations
*Classical Windermere *ts and *tł merged into "ts", while ł shifted to /ɬ/
*Classical Naeng reduced vowels ''ă'' /ɔ/ and ''ĭ'' /ɨ/ merge into ''ă'' /ə/
*Breathy vowels become separate vowel phonemes:
**CNaeng a e i o u ü → MidNaeng ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → ModNaeng /ɒ ae ɪ ao u ø/
**CNaeng à è ì ò ù ǜ → MidNaeng æ e i o u y → ModNaeng /æ e i o ʉ y/
*Classical Naeng ''ts'' and '''' merged into /ts/, while ''ł'' (Basque s in Classical) shifted to /ɬ/ (occasional tł -> ł in a few words)


===Grammatical history===
===Grammatical history===
*Aspect largely becomes a derivational device, cf. the development of PIE aspects
*Tense particles instead of older tense inflections
*Tense particles, from [[Hlou]] influence
*Loss of the Classical Naeng accusative particle ''ü''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants (''mosălis'ir'')===
 
All dialects have the following consonant phonemes, but their realizations and conditions for allophony differ by accent. Below, the Standard Bjeheondian transcriptions will be given:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:700px;text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width:700px;text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
!  |Labial
!  |Labial<br/>''mofăsing''
!  |Alveolar
!  |Dental<br/>''mogloł''
!  |Lateral
!  |Alveolar<br/>''mosăbies''
!  |Palatal
!  |Lateral<br/>''molăngoan''
!  |Velar
!  |Palatal<br/>''moyălech''
!  |Glottal
!  |Velar<br/>''moscong''
!  |Glottal<br/>''motășac''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br/>''mocră'i''
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br/>''mocră'i''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''m''' /m/
|
| '''n''' /n/  
| '''n''' /n/  
|  
|  
Line 88: Line 122:
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br/>''bintăptep''
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br/>''bintăptep''
! |<small>voiced<br/>''yătge''</small>
! |<small>voiced<br/>''yătcer''</small>
| '''b''' /b/
| '''b''' /b/
| '''th''' /d{{den}}/
| '''d''' /d/
| '''d''' /d/
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''g''' /g/
|  
|  
|  
|-
|-
! |<small>voiceless<br/>''chatge''</small>
! |<small>voiceless<br/>''chatcer''</small>
| '''p''' /p/
| '''p''' /p/
|
| '''t''' /t/
| '''t''' /t/
|  
|  
Line 106: Line 142:
! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate<br/>''bintsăda''
! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate<br/>''bintsăda''
|  
|  
| '''ts''' /ts/
|
|
| '''ts, tł''' /ts/
|  
|  
| '''tș''' /tʃ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 114: Line 151:
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br/>''binchlas''
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br/>''binchlas''
! |<small>spirant<br/>''binthăre''</small>
! |<small>spirant<br/>''binthăre''</small>
| '''f''' /f~v/
| '''f''' /v/
| '''th''' /θ~ð/
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''ch''' /x/
| '''ch''' /χ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! |<small>nonspirant <br/>''binsăreaf''</small>
! |<small>nonspirant <br/>''binsăreaf''</small>
|  
|  
| '''s''' /s~z/
|
| '''s''' /z/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''ș''' /ʃ/
| '''ș''' /ʃ/
Line 129: Line 168:
| '''h''' /h/
| '''h''' /h/
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Resonant<br/>''binnădüech''
! colspan="2" |Resonant<br/>''binnădüeng''
| '''w''' /w/
| '''w''' /w/
| '''r''' /r/
|  
| '''l''' /l/
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
| '''y''' /j/
|  
| '''r''' /ʁ/
|  
|  
|}
|}


Voiceless plosives are aspirated in all dialects unless word-final or following a fricative. However the aspiration tends to be weaker in preinitial syllables.
''tș'' /tʃ/ is mainly found in loans from Bjeheondian languages such as [[Netagin]].
 
Some dialects like the Rural Fincreaș dialect retain the Classical Naeng '''tł''' as a separate phoneme /tʃ~tʂ/.
 
/h/ is [ɦ] between voiced sounds. Many speakers drop /ʔ/ and /h/ in casual speech.
 
Voiceless stops /p t k/ are usually unaspirated [p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]. Voiced stops /b d{{den}} d g/ are fully voiced. Front fricatives /v z/ are by default voiced [v z]; they only devoice to [f s] when followed by an "inherently voiceless" consonant, i.e. one of /p t k ts x h ʔ/. (Thus obstruent voicing assimilation can be said to work like in Slavic languages or Israeli Hebrew.)
 
/əm ən əl ər/ become [m̩ n̩ l̩ ɐ] in closed unstressed syllables.
 
In some rural accents in eastern Bjeheond, around Plüeng Sănach, and in some styles of singing, ''r'' is pronounced as an alveolar trill /r/ in all positions. In the Wieb accent ''r'' triggers a low tone onset on the following vowel, and in contemporary Wieb Naeng this is the only sign of phonemic ''r'', with initial /r/ entirely replaced with [h].


/ʔ/ and /h/ are often dropped in casual speech.
''ff thth ss'' may be used to transcribe /f θ s/ in other languages.


===Vowels===
===Vowels (''motger'')===
In Talman Windermere:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
Line 157: Line 206:
| '''i''' /i/
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ü''' /y/
| '''ü''' /y/
| [ɨ]
| '''u''' /ʉ/
| '''u''' /u/
| '''ua''' /u/
|-
|-
! style="" |Near-close
! style="" |Near-close
| '''ie''' //
| '''ie''' /ɪ/
| '''üe''' //
| '''üe, ö''' /ø/
|
|  
|  
| '''ua''' /uə/
|-
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
! style="" |Diphthong
| '''e; ä''' /e/
| '''e''' /ae/
|
|  
|  
| '''ă''' /ə/
| '''o''' /ao/
| '''o''' /o/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
! style="" |Mid
| '''ea''' //
| '''ea''' /e/
|  
|  
|  
| '''ă''' /ə/
| '''oa''' //
| '''oa''' /o/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! style="" |Open
| '''ä''' /æ~eə/
|  
|  
|  
| '''ăr''' /ɐ/
| '''a''' /ɐ/
| '''a''' /ɒ/
|
|}
|}
*/y ø/ are compressed and /ʉ/ is protruded.
*/ɒ æ e o/ are [ɒ̝ æ̝ ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
*In most accents, '''ir''' = '''ier''', '''ür''' = '''üer''', '''ur''' = '''uar'''.
*Stressed '''ă''' is used mainly in loans from [[Scellan]] (in Crackfic Hmøøh, English).
====R-vocalization====
/ʁ/ vocalizes to [ɐ] when not before a vowel, as follows:
*''ir'' = ''ier'' → [iɐ]
*''ür'' = ''üer'' → [yɐ]
*''ur'' = ''uar'' → [uɐ]
*''ear'' → [eɐ]
*''er'' → [ɛɐ]
*''oar'' → [oɐ]
*''or'' → [ɔɐ]
*''ar'' = ''är'' → [aː]
*Vocalization of R has caused a chain vowel shift in stressed vowels Std. Naeng (these shifts don't occur for e o before w/y):
**''ie üe ua ea oa'' > [ɪ ø u ɛ̝ ɔ̝]
**''u e o'' > [ʉ ae ao]
**''a ä'' > [ɒ̝ æ̝~eə]
==== Vowel reduction ====
Vowels reduce in unstressed syllables: a/ä reduces to ă, e/ie reduces to /I/, o/oa reduces to /o/


'''ä''' is distinct from '''e''' in Bjeheondian accents.
===Intonation ===
Standard Naeng intonation is like Standard Khmer. In certain accents of Naeng, especially in the Wieb region, stressed syllables with a final voiceless consonant are pronounced with a rising tone and other stressed syllables with a falling tone. In contemporary Wieb Naeng final voicing is no longer contrastive, having entirely been replaced with tone -- Wieb Naeng can be analyzed as having four tones.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Line 191: Line 262:


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are prohibited in coda.
Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are phonemically prohibited in coda; in most accents of Naeng final ''c'' surfaces as [ʔ].


Allowed initial clusters in Classical Windermere are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):
Allowed initial clusters in Classical Naeng are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):
*Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl, wl
*Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl
*Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr, wr
*Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr
*Cm: tm, thm, cm, chm, sm, tsm, șm
*Cm: tm, thm, cm, chm, sm, tsm, șm
*Cn: fn, cn, chn, sn, tsn, șn
*Cn: fn, cn, chn, sn, tsn, șn
Line 203: Line 274:


Voiced stops are not allowed to begin minor syllables in roots. This rule does not apply to proper names such as ''Dămea''.
Voiced stops are not allowed to begin minor syllables in roots. This rule does not apply to proper names such as ''Dămea''.
===Intonation===
*Talman Windermere: à la Avraham Shmuelof, likes to stay high until near the end of the sentence.
*Bjeheondian Windermere: halfway between Modern Hebrew and Khmer


===Accents===
===Accents===
:''Main article: [[Windermere/Accents]]''
:''Main article: [[Naeng/Accents]]''


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
===Talman Windermere===
=== Classical script ===
This script is the one used in the Mărotłite sacred texts (the Imθumăytil and other pidaic writings) and other Classical Naeng texts. It descends from Talmic runes and is thus a sister of the Talmic alphabet, which is used for [[Talmic languages]]. Nowadays it is mainly used for religious (Mărotłite announcements/edicts/rulings/etc.), ceremonial, and decorative purposes.
====Consonants====
====Consonants====
Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.
Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.
*Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
*Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
*Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
*Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
*Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ = s ł ts tł ș
*Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ (Պ'ɱ') = s ł ts tł ș (tș)
*Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ
*Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ


Alphabetical order:
The alphabetical order for the consonant letters is:


rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șănat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir
R D F L M G C B S Ł Ș Y NG T N TH P CH H W TS TŁ (rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șnat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir, tsaf, tłaf)


rădaf = alphabet
rădäf = alphabet


====Vowels====
====Vowels====
The vowel signs are placed to the right of the consonant letter.
The vowel signs are placed to the right of the consonant letter.
*· : ; ı › ˫ ⸗ƍ ⸗ = ă u ü i o e ä a; :ƍ ;ƍ ıƍ ›ƍ ˫ƍ = ua üe ie oa ea
*· : ; ı › ˫ ⸗ƍ ⸗ = ă ua üe ie o e ä a; :ƍ ;ƍ ıƍ ›ƍ ˫ƍ = u ü i oa ea


====Punctuation====
====Punctuation====
=== Modern script ===
[[File:Bjeheondian Naeng script.png|thumbnail|The modern Naeng script]]
The modern Naeng script is an abugida related to Idavic scripts. It derives from an old Bjeheondian runic alphabet, which was in turn an adaptation of an even older logographic writing system used by the Dábhiaŋal (Naeng ''Dobingal'') civilization (from ancient Erkwisngwal).
Should look square-ish like both Hebrew and Khmer


==Parts of speech==
==Parts of speech==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
There are two articles: the definite article ''fi'' (from the distal demonstrative ''fi'') and the specific article ''se'' (from the proximal demonstrative ''se''). The English definite article, and some unpreceded nouns such as ''society'', ''man'', and ''life'', correspond closely to the Windermere definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Windermere indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.
There are two articles: the definite article ''fi'', from the distal demonstrative ''fi'', and the specific article ''se'' (m), from the proximal demonstrative ''se''. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article. The English definite article, and some unpreceded English nouns such as ''society'', ''man'' (humanity), and ''life'', correspond closely to the Naeng definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Naeng indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.
*nonspecific: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
*specific: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar se imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies se imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
*definite: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar fi imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies fi imyar!''  = "I want her to give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"


*indefinite: ''Rüe șa rie imyar!'' = "Give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
Nouns can be pluralized with ''im-'', which is usually used for specific or definite plural nouns. Pluralization is optional, however, and the nonspecific-specific distinction can make pluralization unnecessary where English would require it:
*specific: ''Rüe șa rie se imyar!'' = "Give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
:'''''Rie die poar fa binfăndaw.'''''
**This command would probably be met with ''Imyar ra?'' "What flowers?".
:1SG NEG derive_enjoyment from NOM-test
*definite: ''Rüe șa rie fi imyar!'' = "Give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"
:''I don't like exams.''


The articles contract with a preceding preposition such as ''mi'' 'in, at' and ''șa'' 'to, for': for example, ''mis, mif'' and ''șas, șaf''. Before a sibilant (resp. labial), forms such as ''mise'' (resp. ''mifi'') are used.
The articles contract with a preceding preposition such as ''mi'' 'in, at' and ''șa'' 'to, for': for example, ''mis, mif'' and ''șas, șaf''. Before a sibilant (resp. labial), forms such as ''mise'' (resp. ''mifi'') are used.
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are listed in the [[Windermere/Wordlist|Lexicon]].


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
Modern Naeng have pronouns similar to Classical Naeng, but slightly restructured: it lost the feminine plural pronouns and added the impersonal and polite pronouns.
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|-
!|
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!thou (neopronoun)!!you (polite)!!he!!she!! they (neopronoun) !!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!they (an.)!!impersonal
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!thou (formal)!!he!!she!!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!you (pl. formal)!!they (an.)!!impersonal
|-
|-
!|Nominative
|''rie''||''łen''||''łes''||''łe''||''Pra''||''ien''||''ies''||''ie''||''tsa''||''bang''||''łănam''||''(ă)nam''||''tung''
|''rie''||''łen''||''łes''||''Pra''||''in''||''is''||''tsa''||''bang''||''łănam''||''Impra''||''ănam''||''tung''
|}
|}
*The impersonal pronoun ''tung'' (from ''tăchung'' 'some') is used instead of a passive voice.
 
*''Łănam'' (capitalized in the native script) is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.
The impersonal pronoun ''tung'' (from ''tăchung'' 'some') can be used instead of a passive voice. In fact it's more general purpose than the passive voice which can only be used to turn direct objects into subjects. As in English, the impersonal may be used to state general commands, especially prohibitions:
*''rie'' 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun.
:'''''Tung die lieb sä șa ngud mĭ ădoac tsrăboł.'''''
*Inanimates use the demonstrative ''fid'' (plural ''imfid'').
:IMPERS NEG put fire DAT burn LOC room closed
*The gendered demonstratives ''sen/ses'' 'this man/this woman' and ''fin/fis'' 'that man/that woman' are literary.
:''You don't let fire burn in a closed room.''
*Gender-neutral neopronouns in the 2sg informal and 3sg include ''łech/łef/łel'' (2sg informal) and ''ich/if/il'' (3sg) but there is no universally accepted standard yet.
 
In Middle Naeng, ''Pra'' was sometimes a third person pronoun but this is archaic. ''Ĭmpra'' is an obsolete plural form of ''Pra''; nowadays ''Pra'' is used regardless of number.
 
''Łănam'' is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.
 
''rie'' 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun.
 
Inanimates use the demonstrative ''fid'' (plural ''ĭmfid'').
 
The gendered demonstratives ''sen/ses'' 'this man/this woman' and ''fin/fis'' 'that man/that woman' are literary.


===Demonstratives===
===Demonstratives===
TODO: Correlatives table
*this: __ se (adnominal); sed (pronominal), pl. imsed
*this: __ se (adnominal); sed (pronominal), pl. imsed
*that: __ fi (adnominal); fid (pronominal), pl. imfid
*that: __ fi (adnominal); fid (pronominal), pl. imfid
Line 268: Line 352:
*there: rădun fi, dumfi
*there: rădun fi, dumfi
*who: ășac ra, șara
*who: ășac ra, șara
*what: ra (in the sense of which), mül ra (in the sense of which thing)
*what: ra (determiner), rad (pronoun)
*where: rădun ra, dura
*where: rădun ra, dura
*when: ngith ra, ngithra
*when: ngith ra, ngithra
Line 285: Line 369:
Imperatives:
Imperatives:


*Familiar (both sg and pl): ''Tsrin!'' (Eat!)
*Familiar (both sg and pl): ''Tsrin!'' 'Eat!'
**A little rude: ''tsrin e łen/łes/łănam''
**A little softened or insistent: ''tsrin e łen/łes/łănam!'' 'Please eat!/Can you please eat?!'
*Polite sg: ''Tsrin e Pra!''
*Polite: ''Tsrin e Pra!''
*Polite pl: ''Tsrin e Impra!''
*Very polite: ''Tsrin e Łănam!'' or ''Hay tsrin e Łănam!''
*Very polite: ''Tsrin e Łănam!''
*Cohortative: (formal) ''Tsrin e bang!'' (Let's eat!), (colloquial) ''Măluac tsrin!'' (lit. follow eat)
*Cohortative: ''Tsrin e bang!'' (Let's eat!)
Archaic style may use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'': ''Hay tsrin...''.


Negative imperatives are formed with ''taș'':
Negative imperatives are formed with ''taș'':
*''Taș hămoch fi thcür mi ăcnas hălut!'' = Don't climb too high on the ladder!
*''Taș hămoch thcür ăcnas hălut!'' = Don't climb too high on the ladder!
*''Taș ămpaw e łen fi ădoac!'' = Don't you leave the room!
*''Taș ămpaw e łen ădoac!'' = Don't you leave the room!
==== Verbs of motion ====
Modern Naeng does not have exact equivalents for the English verbs "go", "carry", or "bring". Naeng motion verbs vary along two dimensions: one dimension is the method or direction of transport and one dimension is the telicity of the verb. Unidirectional, or telic, motion verbs express one-time motion towards a destination. Multidirectional, or atelic, verbs express undirected motion, repeated directed motion, or back-and-forth motion. The directionality is usually expressed by an infix or prefix, but is sometimes expressed through suppletion.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Meaning !! Unidirectional verb !! Multidirectional verb
|-
| to go by foot, to walk
| ''tmuay'' (< ''tăm'uay'' 'to travel') || ''nămchül''
|-
| to go with a land vehicle<small>
| ''tseng'' || ''tsăntseng''
|-
| to ride, to mount <small>(trans.)</small>
| ''csüm'' || ''sămcsüm''
|-
| to go in
| ''hădean'' || ''hămtean''
|-
| to go out; to originate; to rise (of heavenly bodies and other inanimate beings)
| ''hăgep'' || ''hifcep''
|-
| to set (of heavenly bodies)<br/>to fall (of precipitation)
| ''chănuy'' || ''cichnuy''
|-
| to run
| ''chi'' || ''cămhi''
|-
| to swim
| ''łămay'' || ''măłmay''
|-
| to fly
| ''thlut'' || ''tăthlut''
|-
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row
| ''tchos'' || ''chădchos''
|-
| to flow (of a fluid or current)
| ''smin'' || ''măsmin''
|-
| to roll
| ''ftär'' || ''tăftär''
|-
| to climb
| ''hămoch'' || ''hithmoch''
|-
| to jump
| ''ștüp'' || ''thuștüp''
|-
| to crawl
| ''tgär'' || ''trăgär''
|-
| to fall (of animates)<br/>to go down (of inanimates)
| ''łăpaw'' || ''tăłpaw''
|-
| to dive, go into water
| ''tscur'' || ''tscărcur''
|-
| to carry, bring (on foot)
| ''fngün'' || ''fămngün''
|-
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small>
| ''saf'' || ''sămhaf''
|-
| to pull, drag <small>(trans.)</small>
| ''năfor'' || ''nărfor''
|-
| to drive (an animal or a vehicle), lead
| ''hoth'' || ''hithoth''
|}


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Copulas are ''not'' used with adjectives. For example, 'The man is strong' = ''Fi noaf ngăwes''.
The copula ''mot'' is not used with adjectives. For example, 'The man is strong' = ''noaf ngăwes''.


The comparative is formed with ''rech'' + adjective and the superlative is formed with ''hă'et'' + adjective.
The comparative is formed with ''rech'' + adjective and the superlative is formed with ''hă'et'' + adjective.
Line 304: Line 457:
*''hă'et to'' = best
*''hă'et to'' = best


The word for 'than' is ''ăngi'' 'surpassing', and ''rech'' is not necessary when ''ăngi'' is used.
The word for 'than' is ''ăngi'' 'surpass', and ''rech'' is not necessary when ''ăngi'' is used. Colloquially the similar-sounding ''ngĭ'' 'like' may be used instead.
 
For comparing two verbs or clauses, you need to use
''ăngi fid moang'' or ''ăngi foang'', lit. 'than that which':
 
:'''''Bloy Etingof chea chmi ben rech tăfiet ăngi foang rie chea fnga thărĭșür măluac.'''''
:'''''(*ăngi rie chea fnga thișür măluac)'''''
:Soon E. PST run COMP PROG fast surpass that_which 1SG PST can keep_up follow
:''Soon Etingof was running faster than I could keep up with.''


There are no imperatives for adjectives; one uses ''ieng'' 'do', ''căfol'' 'become', or ''ămtüs'' 'remain' with the adjective depending on the situation. For example:
There are no imperatives for adjectives; one uses ''ieng'' 'do', ''căfol'' 'become', or ''ămtüs'' 'remain' with the adjective depending on the situation. For example:
Line 312: Line 473:
*''Ămtüs cdeal!'' should be obvious: "stay bold".
*''Ămtüs cdeal!'' should be obvious: "stay bold".


===Pre-verbal particles===
===TAM particles===
*''chmi'' (or VERB VERB) = progressive
*''chmi'' (or VERB VERB) = progressive
*''chea'' = preterite
*''chea'' = preterite
*''chea ftoal'' = 'used to'
*''chea ftoal'' = 'used to'
*''chea chmi'' = past progressive
*''fa'' = perfect
*''chea fa'' = past perfect
*''per'' = future
*''per'' = future
*''tso'' = past progressive
*''fa'' = perfect
*''chea fa'' = past perfect etc.
*''per chmi'' = future progressive  
*''per chmi'' = future progressive  
*''hos'' = conditional
*''hos'' = conditional
* tsămfe = 'situationally can'
*fnga = can, to know how to
*poar = like to
*thăgem = want to
*pdar = must
*fteal = should


Not a tense, but...
===Determiners===
*''șa'' = infinitive marker
*swoch fi X = the very X
 
===Other particles===
*eth = it does, doesn't it?


===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
*te = and
*te = and
*uy = xor
*uy = xor
*soas = or (either one of two)
*soał = or (either one of two)
*seam = but
*seam = but (however)
*chăbec = but
*chăbec = (higher register) however
*łuch șa = in order to
*ăyut = but (rather)
*yang = although
*łüch șa = in order to
*șang = so that
*hăbra = therefore
*pĭlang = because
**łong = (high register) because; ław = (high register) because of
*ătuach nga = although
**ya(ng) = (high register) although
*șang, łüch șa(ng) = so that
*moang = relativizer
*moang = relativizer
*nga = complementizer
*nga = complementizer
*tăngap (nga) = before
*łăgie (nga) = after
*swe/sweng = when, while
*șăfongtas nga = as long as
*mĭ tstoal nga = as soon as
*roan = until
*tă'iep = on the other hand
*sach = also


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
*mi-: locative
Classical Naeng inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ''*ya rie'' for 'with me' is incorrect as in CNaeng) but are only used in formal or written Naeng. Spoken Naeng uses directionals and verbs of motion instead of inflected prepositions.
*ya-: comitative
 
*șa-: allative
The regular pronominal affixes:
*ngie: "like"
*1sg: ''-ir''
*fa-: ablative
*2sg: ''-eł'' (m), ''-łes'' (f)
*tsip : without
*3sg: ''-n'' (m), ''-s'' (f)
*1pl.ex: ''-tsa''
*1pl.in: ''-ang''
*2pl: ''-łam''
*3pl: ''-nam''
 
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
! !!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!thou (neopronoun)!!you (polite)!!he!!she!! they (neopronoun) !!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!they (an.)
|-
!|''mi'' 'in, at'
||''mir''||''mił''||''miłes''||''miłe''||''mi Pra''||''min''||''mis''||''mie''||''mitsa''||''ming''||''miłam''||''minam''
|-
!|''șa'' 'to, for'
|| ''șar''||''șał''||''șăłes''||''șăłe''||''șa Pra''||''șan''||''șas''||''șăngie''||''șătsa''||''șbang''||''șăłam''||''șănam''
|-
!|''fa'' 'from'
|| ''ăchir''||''ăcheł''||''ăchłes''||''ăchłe''||''fa Pra''||''ăchin''||''ăchis''||''ăchie''||''ăchtsa''||''ăchbang''||''ăchłam''||''ăchnam''
|-
!| ''ya'' 'with'
|| ''yăngir''||''yăngeł''||''yăngłes''||''yăngłe''||''ya Pra''||''yăngin''||''yăngis''||''yăngie''||''yăngtsa''||''yăbang''||''yăłam''||''yănam''
|-
!| ''ław'' 'on'
|| ''łăwir'' || ''łăweł'' || ''łăwłes''|| ''łăwłe''||''ław Pra'' ||''łăwin''||''łăwis'' ||''łăwie''||''łăwtsa''||''łăbang''||''łăwłam''||''łăwnam''
|-
!| ''cde'' 'around, about'
|| ''cder'' || ''cdeł'' || ''ctiłes''|| ''ctiłe''||''cde Pra'' ||''cdin''||''cdis'' ||''cdie''||''ctitsa''||''ctibang''||''ctiłam''||''ctinam''
|}
 
Sometimes variant forms with -ng- show up: e.g. ''șăngłam'' or ''șăngir''
*moang: of (optional)
*mĭ: locative; in, at
*ya: with
*șa: to, for
*ngĭ: like, as
*fa: ablative
*tsăbi: without
*fe: by (passive)
*fe: by (passive)
*ło-: on
*ław: on
*cde: around, about, concerning
*tăngap: before
*tăngap: before
*woach: behind
*woach: behind
*łăgie: after
*łăgie: after
*ba: through
*bath: through
*moang: of
*ștal: along
*șawim: along
*ngĭ prăwim: according to
*năhüng = until
* roan ('to wait'): (temporary) until
* nüng = (literary) until, up to
** häb = (high register synonym of ''nüng'')
**fa... nüng... = from... to/through...
*măceaf = towards (a person)
*măceaf = towards (a person)
*mĭ hoath = by means of
*mĭ rădun = instead of
*lĭștew = over, instead of
*năguł = above
*fă'üet = under
*șăbad = below


===Auxiliaries===
===Auxiliaries===
*fnga = can
*hac = passive
*thăgem = want to
*dur = come to
*pdar = must
*cișloch = need only
*ithris = to go up
*psuy = to go down
*thușnoa = be sure to
*thușnoa = be sure to
*ruay hălșab = be permitted to
*seaf te VERB = continues to VERB


===Adverbs===
===Adverbs of location===
*ăris, ris = up
*liștew = over
*năguł = above
*fă'üet = under
*șăbad = below
*ithris = up
*psuy = down
*psuy = down
*mif ey = on the side
*lăgoan = besides
*săfea te wăgie (from *s{{angbr|oX}}pe de w{{angbr|oX}}gi) = back and forth, to and fro
===Adverbs of time===
*hăsüs = yet, still
**die ... hăsüs = not anymore (NOT "not yet")
*lișnap = not yet
*smaw X = every X/by the X where X = time
**smaw tsoa/fnüd/tsănga/len = every morning/day/evening/night
**smaw roac = from time to time, every now and then
*ngieș = already
*bloy = soon
*łăduy = again
===Adverbs of emphasis===
*torech = rather
*torech = rather
*hăsüs = yet, still
**die hăsüs = not anymore (NOT "not yet")
*yic = only
*yic = only
*ămic = (this) very
*ămic fi X, swoch fi X = (this) very X
*ătuach = even  
*ătuach = even  
**comes before negative: ''Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi.'' 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
**comes before negative: ''Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi.'' 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
*tsmä = now
*tămo = very, very much, greatly
*ătba = later
**''Ies chea dur thușrăber fa ien tămo.'' = She came to be very resentful of him.
*'ef = very, a lot
*tsor łăngü = at all, anyway
*tămo = (''literary'') very, greatly
*eth = it does, doesn't it?
 
===Adverbs of quantity===
*șămea = a lot of, much (number or quantity)
**''In lăchir șămea ło hălwier-prăcăbäs.'' = He writes about sociology a lot.
*łüp = a little
**yic łüp = little, only a little
*ngĭ tlieb = about, approximately
*rech șămea = more
**rech tăfad = less
*ămac = enough
*mi thuyut = especially
*răngi = (verb) too much, too (adj, adv)
**răngi mea = too much


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
SVO; VSO in subordinate clauses with the subject marked with ''e''; but subordinate clauses are SVO when marked with the complementizer ''nga''
SVO, VSO in subordinate clauses with the subject marked with ''e''; but subordinate clauses are SVO when marked with the complementizer ''nga''
 
NAdj, NGen, NRel, prepositions


:'''''Rie chmi brits cdes că'üs tes tsăctsoc.'''''
:'''''Rie chmi briets cdes că'üs tes tsăctsoc.'''''
:1SG PROG speak about-SPEC love and-SPEC hate
:1SG PROG speak about-SPEC love and-SPEC hate
:''I speak of love and hate.''
:''I speak of love and hate.''
Line 390: Line 650:
:DEF bird PROG eat SPEC seed
:DEF bird PROG eat SPEC seed
:''The bird is eating a seed.''
:''The bird is eating a seed.''
===Existence===
Existence is indicated using ''ruay'' 'to have'; indeed, this is the more archaic meaning of ''ruay''.
:'''''Chea ruay rath hăngüs fa yeap.'''''
:''There were two people outside.''
===Questions===
Modern Naeng is wh-in-situ, unlike Classical Naeng.
===Time clauses===
===Time clauses===
*swe = "while" but it takes VSO: ''swe căwdul ef imfnüd'' ("as the days go by")
*swe = "while" but it takes VSO: ''swe căwdul ef imfnüd'' ("as the days go by")
*for SVO use ''sweng'': ''sweng fi imfnüd căwdul''
*for SVO use ''sweng'': ''sweng fi imfnüd căwdul''
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
Verb phrases are of the form:
Verb phrases are usually of the form:


TENSE MARKER + NEGATION + AUXILIARY + '''VERB''' + object (order of objects? pronominal objects + nominal direct objects + nominal oblique objects)
TENSE MARKER + NEGATION + AUXILIARY + '''VERB''' + pronominal oblique object + direct objects + nominal oblique object


:'''''Hăyad chea rüe tsăngtsung șa Inthar, seam in chea die făntsüc chămpüe fid.'''''
:'''''Hăyad chea rüe tsăstsus șa Inthar, seam ien chea die făntsüc chămpüe fid.'''''
:H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun''
:H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun''
:''Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.''
:''Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.''
=== Serial verbs ===
Serial verbs are common as in Southeast Asian langs. Negated as follows:
: ''Rie sișpeal die tsäl''
: 'I don't understand [what was said]' (lit. I hear not understand)
: ''fi inthar ngi'üt chwäp hămtean fi tar imhareach''
: DEF raven bring.ATEL light enter.ATEL DEF house PL-story
: 'Raven brings light into the house of stories'


===Inversion===
===Inversion===
Line 407: Line 684:
Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:  
Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:  


:'''''Plachtom e chwep!'''''
:'''''Plachtom e chwäp!'''''
:appear NOM light
:appear NOM light
:''Let there be light!''
:''Let there be light!''
===The more... the more...===
===The more... the more...===
:'''''Rie die clăduang tsäl fa fi moang chmi nătsap. Hoth-hoth rie, căfol-căfol rie blaw.'''''
:'''''Rie die clăduang tsäl fa foang chmi nătsap. Ămben-ămben e rie, căfol-căfol e rie blaw.'''''
:1SG not receive understanding from DEF REL PROG happen. run-run 1SG, become-become 1SG fat.
:1SG not receive hint from that_which PROG happen. run-run SBJ 1SG, become-become SBJ 1SG fat.
:''I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.''
:''I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.''


===Relative clauses===
===Relative clauses===
*''moang'' is the relativizer
''moang'' is the relativizer. It is often dropped when the relative clause is short (most often with adjectives).
*When the head becomes an oblique object, a resumptive pronoun is used.
 
*English what-clauses are translated with ''fi moang...''.
When the head becomes an oblique object, using a resumptive pronoun is a formal Naeng strategy. Resumptive pronouns are not common in the colloquial language:
 
:Colloquial: ''fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay'' ('the market I went to', lit. "the market that I walked_telic")
:Formal: ''fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay şa dunfi'' (lit. "the market that I walked_telic to there")
 
English what-clauses are translated with ''fid moang...'' or ''foang...''. ''foang'' is also used to translate ''the [adjective] one'' in English:
:'''''Łes tsădwer ăyied ra, foang sim uy foang pday?'''''
:2SG.F choose box INTERR, that_which red xor that_which blue
:''Which box do you choose, the red one or the blue one?''
 
===Exclamations===
As in most Talman languages, exclamations of the form 'how...!' usually use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'', in the construction ''ha(y) fi "ADJ-ness"'' (= 'how ADJ/ADV...') or ''ha(y) foang [clause]'' (= 'how [clause]/how much...').
:'''''Ha fĭ hălfngărnach fĭ moșiew! Ha foang ies fnga sătsiet bang!'''''
:VOC DEF NMLZ-awful DEF nature! VOC that_which she can teach we.INC!
:''How terrible nature is! How much she can teach us!'' (lit. O the terribleness of nature! O that which she can teach us!)
 
:'''''Hay fĭ hălwier moang ien lăleș mĭ yăgom!'''''
:VOC DEF beauty REL he play_an_instrument LOC zither
:''How beautifully he plays the zither!''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Modern Windermere contains more Talmic and Hlou-Shum loanwords than Classical Windermere; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many Eevo loans are entering the language.
Modern Naeng contains more Netagin and Talmic loanwords than Classical Naeng; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many [[Eevo]] loans are entering the language, to the dismay of purists.


===Layers===
===Layers===
* inherited Windermere (including Talmic loans)
* inherited Naeng (including older Talmic loans)
* Tseezh loans
* Tseer and Talmic loans, esp. during the Middle Naeng period. These words often sound high register, like Aramaic loans do in Modern Hebrew
* Hlou-Shum loans
* Netagin loans
* other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
* other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
* Classical Windermere reborrowings
* Recent native coinages; reborrowings from older Naeng stages
*recent Eevo loans
*recent Eevo loans
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Part-of-speech changing affixes====
*TODO: another nominalizer?
*TODO: another nominalizer?
*{{angbr|''i''}} = nominalizer for verbs
*{{angbr|''ĭ''}} = nominalizer for verbs
*''bin-'' = nominalizer for verbs
*''bĭn-'' = nominalizer for verbs
*''hăl-'' = nominalizer for adjectives
*''hăl-'' = nominalizer for adjectives
*''să-'' = nominalizer
*''să-'' = nominalizer
*{{angbr|''ng''}} = infix forming place nouns
*{{angbr|''ng''}} = infix forming place nouns
*sngeaf 'world, Tricin' < seaf 'walk, go'
*sngeaf 'world, Hmøøh, age (used in the idiom ''sloc imsngeaf'' "forever" (lit. until the judgement of the world) ' < seaf 'walk, go'
*{{angbr|''c''}} = infix forming instruments from verbs
*{{angbr|''c''}} = infix forming instruments from verbs
*''di-'' = negation
*''-'' = negation
*''cha-'' = -less
*''cha-'' = -less
*''ing-'' = verbalizer
*''ĭng-'' = verbalizer
*''mo-'' (+ voicing of plosives) = adjectivizer
*''mo-'' (+ voicing of plosives) = adjectivizer
*''lă'' = verbalizer (how productive?)
*''lă'' = verbalizer (how productive?)
*''yă-'' = adjectivizer
*''yă-'' = adjectivizer
*''nu-'' = agentive (Classical Windermere; and productive to an extent in Modern Windermere)
*''neach-'' = agentive
*''pa-'' = patientive (from Old Windermere *p + *ha)
*''nu-'' = agentive (Classical Naeng; and productive to an extent in Modern Naeng)
*{{angbr|''năr''}}, {{angbr|''măr''}} = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
*''pa-'' = patientive (from Old Naeng *p + *ha)
*{{angbr|''ngăr''}}, {{angbr|''măr''}} = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
*Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
*Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
**''yar'' = flower > ''yăryar'' 'little flower'
**''yar'' 'flower' > ''yăryar'' 'little flower'
**''inthar'' 'raven' > ''inthărthar'' 'crow'
*''‹ră›'' = patient noun
*''‹ră›'' = patient noun
*''pră-'' = patient noun, -ee
*''pră-'' = patient noun, -ee
*''ha-'' = -able, able to [intransitive verb]
*''ha-'' = -able, able to [intransitive verb]
*''-om'' = augmentative
*''-ith'' = diminutive
===="Trigger" verb affixes====
===="Trigger" verb affixes====
These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Windermere times.
The "trigger" infixes usually derive verbs from other verbs. These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Naeng times.  


*''‹ăn/ăng›'' = Applicative trigger
*''‹ăn/ăng›'' = Applicative trigger
*''‹ith›'' = Locative trigger
*''‹ĭth›'' = Locative trigger
*''‹ăw›'' = Instrumental trigger
*''‹ăw›'' = Instrumental trigger
*''‹ăfong›'' = Destination trigger
*''‹ăfong›'' = Destination trigger
**''răfongüe'' 'to endow' < ''rüe'' 'to give'
**''răfongüe'' 'to endow' < ''rüe'' 'to give'
*''‹ălis›'' = Comitative trigger
*''‹ălĭs›'' = Comitative trigger
*''‹ăm›'' = Source/cause trigger
*''‹ăm›'' = Source/cause trigger
*''‹ăchem›'' = Benefactive/purpose trigger
*''‹ăchem›'' = Benefactive/purpose trigger
*''‹ărea›'' = Malefactive trigger
*''‹ărea›'' = Malefactive trigger


====Lexical aspect affixes====
==== Aspect? ====
Classical Windermere aspects became derivational, analogous to how PIE aspects became lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Windermere has been the most heavily affected.
Many Proto-Lakovic aspects had become derivational by Classical Naeng, analogous to how PIE aspects became inflectional or lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Naeng has been the most heavily affected.


Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (''F'') or last consonant (''L'')
Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (''F'') or last consonant (''L'')
*imperfective/stative = unmarked; marked with ''li-'' for others
*perfective = ''em-''
*perfective = unmarked for some verbs but marked with ''em-'' for others
*prospective = ''hef-''
*momentane = ''pla-''
*momentane = ''pla-''
*progressive = ''ăL-''
*intensive/excessive = incopyfixation of L
*intensive/excessive = ''FăL-''
*distributive ("X widely, affecting many objects") = ''eNFă-''
*frequentative = ''eNFă-''
*inchoative/inceptive = ''os-, osăL-''
*inchoative/inceptive = ''osăL-''
*graduative = ''tă-, tăFa-''
*graduative = ''tăFa-''


Should inflectional tam be more complex?
====Concatenation====
====Concatenation====
Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English. In transliteration common concatenated expressions are hyphenated, e.g. ''hălwier-chne'' 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').
Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English: e.g. ''hălwier-chne'' 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').


The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable.
The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable:
*''tar-siet'' (lit. 'house of letter (character)') means 'school'.
*''șän-finaw'' (lit. 'word of truth') means 'major warning sign, wake-up call' in formal language.


Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, ''sămeath-păchnay'', meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where ''sămeath'' means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Windermere.
Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, ''sămeath-păchnay'', meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where ''sămeath'' means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Naeng.


Common concatenated morphemes are:
Common concatenated morphemes are:
*''tar'' = places (lit. 'house of')
*''tar'' = places (lit. 'house of')
*''hălwier'' = '-logy' (lit. 'beauty of')
*''hălwier'' = '-logy' (lit. 'beauty of')
**This is a calque from the same usage of ''tadaakh'' 'beauty' in [[Tseer]].
*''wang'' = 'matter, affairs'
*''wang'' = 'matter, affairs'
*''ngoth'' = 'manner, way'
*''ngoth'' = 'manner, way'
Line 519: Line 821:
===You are not obligated to complete the work, but...===
===You are not obligated to complete the work, but...===
<!--
<!--
Pgäw hănărcos fa chahatsbot moang fi săşngoam mif sngeaf.  
Pgäw hăngărcos fa chahatsbot moang fi săşngoam mif sngeaf.  


PROH be_paralyzed from NEG-PASS-stack of DEF NOMZ-suffer in-DEF world
PROH be_paralyzed from NEG-PASS-stack of DEF NOMZ-suffer in-DEF world
Line 530: Line 832:
-->
-->


:'''''Łen die nămărłof şa cithloch se thibur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pircey Abot 2’21”)'''''
:'''''Łen die nămărłof şa cĭthloch se thĭbur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pirceay Afoat 2’21”)'''''
:2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
:2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
:You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)
:You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)


===Inge===
===Inge===
Bang fa bin'ătsoal fi lăhoal fi sngeaf imtriem, te fa băfonglis fi imșășul bang ya tsăngua te gow mi thusăyieng chngăfi, häb nga tsip crirath, päd fnga frel e 'nam im'ăngi'ong, ănam hos ristey fi chlăpsur mi wă'ua croth.
''Bang fa bin'ătsoal lăhoal sngeaf ĭmtriem, te fa păfonglis fĭ ĭmșășur bang ya tsăngua te gow mĭ thusăyüer chngăfi, häb nga tsip crĭrath, päd fnga frel e nam săwim, ănam hos rĭstey fĭ chlăpsür mĭ wă'ua croth.''


1PL.IN PERF enslave DEF rest DEF world PL-animal, and PERF treat DEF PL-cousins  1PL.IN with fur and feather ADV evil so_much, until COMP without doubt, if_counterfactual POT transmit NOM 3PL.AN story, 3PL.AN COND imagine DEF villain in form human_being.
1PL.IN PERF enslave DEF rest DEF world PL-animal, and PERF treat DEF PL-cousins  1PL.IN with fur and feather ADV evil so_much, until COMP without doubt, if_counterfactual POT transmit NOM 3PL.AN story, 3PL.AN COND imagine DEF villain in form human_being.
==="Ne-Zim"===
==="Ne-Zim"===
Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te di ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămirüe łithad tsip neab te dămiseath e fid swoch, lea mot bintănse yășithbech? Tieth, fid mot mitse paw yătithun moang binłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngie nuthbur papluas mi-thäș, șang fid plang łos imsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. Wăhang, fi mocănłin pra lea chithud srüe ngil e rie "Seth" mi łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim
''Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te die ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămĭrüe łĭthad tsip neab te tămĭseath e fid swoch, lea mot bĭntănse hașĭthbech? Tieth, fid mot mĭtse paw yătĭthun moang bĭnłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngĭ nuthbur papluas -thäș, șang fid plang łos ĭmsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. To, mocănłin Pra lea chĭthud srüe ngil e rie "Grath" łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim''


===From Hamlet===
===From Hamlet===
:'''''Șa ftsüen uy șa răchta, sed mot eth fi binbiets.'''''
:'''''Șa ftsüen uy șa răchta, sed fĭ bĭnbiets fănaw.'''''
:To live or to die, this.PRON COP exactly DEF question
:To live or to die, this.PRON DEF question real
:''To be or not to be, that is the question.''
:''To be or not to be, that is the question.''


(This line is in the Windermere alexandrine)
(This line is in the Naeng alexandrine)


===From the Internationale===
===From the Internationale===
Line 554: Line 857:


===UDHR===
===UDHR===
'''''Binhithma lăchpaș moang fi imłin croth'''''
'''''Binhithma lăchpaș cdef imłin croth'''''


'''''Nicüf tăche'''''
'''''Nicüf tăche'''''


'''''Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe ănam yas hălpăthin tes hălslith'a, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șăgor hălchăsräf.'''''
'''''Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe nam yas hălpăthin tes bintochur, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șă'or hălchăsräf.'''''


all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow
all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow


(''Mategian; Bjeheondian'') [ts̠or̥ kʰr̥oð vä ʔɘˈʂeəl pʰluəm tʰe ðyr mis hlˈtsəbäs tʰes ʔimˈɬin ‖ ʔɘnäm häk rɘvoˈŋyə jäs̠ hlpɘˈðin tʰes̠ hls̠liθˈʔa, tʰe pʰɘdar ðuʃˈnoə ʔe näm tʰnze viˈdoən mɘˈkʰeəv nɘˈðä mis̠ ʂəˈɣor̥ hlxɘzˈræf]
(''Standard Bjeheondian'') [tsɔɐ kʁaoð və ʔəʃɛl plum te ðyɐ mɪs hltsəbɒs təs ʔɪmɬin. tʉŋ ʁəvoŋø nɒm jəs hlpəðin təz bɪntoxuɐ, tə pda: ðʉʃnɔ e nɒm tənzae vɪdɔn məkɛv nəðɒ mɪs ʃəgɔɐ hlxəzʁæv]


(''Wen Dămea'') [tso̞:r kʰr̥o̞:ð fä əˈʃeːɤˁ pʰχˁuəm tʰe̞ θy:r mis hɤˁˈtsɑ:z tʰe̞s imˈɬi:n ‖ ənä:m häk rəvo̞ˈŋyə jäs hɤˁpəˈðin tʰe̞s hɤˁsʁˁiθˈʔa, tʰe̞ pʰta:r θuʃˈnoə ʔe̞ nä:m tʰənse̞: fiˈdoən məˈkʰeəv nəˈðä: mis ʃko̞:r  hɤˁxəzˈre:v]
===The Round Table===
 
This passage is from the ''Imthumitil Păchlac'', a retranslation of the [[Verse:Hmøøh/Imθumitil|Imθumitil]] into Modern Naeng by Pida Yăchef Samarasang.
===From the Imthumitil===
This passage is from the ''Imthumitil Păchlac'', a retranslation of the Imθumăytil into Modern Windermere by Yăchef Clay.


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
Modern Wdm.
Modern Naeng
 
''Mĭ ngith doan chea chmi dur es tach ĭmchäth mĭs mogor litheath. Fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea sray bĭntăbiets: "Łănam mot mea ra hăngüs?"''


''Mi ngith doan tso dur e tach imchäth mis mogor litheath. Pida Brăwied chea sray bintăbiets: "Mea ra łănam dunse?"''
''Swe chea chmi chnung e müets ĭmchäth hăsüs, se doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay mĭ tsum ĭmmognas tach dunse, ĭmmălin thaf müets, ĭmchustiw liew, ĭmchusmech thaf müets, ĭmchumüets tach, te doan ĭmchutach."''


''Swe mot chmi nung ef imchäth nătha, doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay immognas tach dunse, te immălin thaf müets, te imchustiw liew..."''
''Prăyon nga fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, hos ruay mea ra hăngüs, srüe placäp e do croth hĭboath șaf tĭ'uar?"''


''Łop Pida Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, mea ra chmi, srüe hădean e do croth hiboath?"''
''Chea că'aw e fied: "Lea sed die placămărnga, fĭ Pĭda? Bang ruay tsor tĭ'uar palüc, sach se făbeang ĭmtĭ'uar nătha yaf croth mălem!"''


''Ăfifay chea că'aw e fid: "Lea sed die placănărnga, Pida? Bang ruay tsor tăy'ua palüc, sach se făbeang imtăy'ua nătha yaf croth mălem!"''
''Fĭ Pida chea sngiem șaf chäth mĭ ngil, "Fĭ chäth se eth ruay hăltsrüeng mi finaw."''
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
Original (Classical Wdm.)
Original (Classical Naeng)
 
''Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.''


''Ngiθ dur id taχ χaaθ mi mogor lăyθeeθ. Emtăbiits Pida Brăwiid: "Măra łinam dunse?''
''Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts sălmeχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''


''Mi-ăngnung căχθaaθ năθa emritsal doon: "Șrüχ te-stiw: mi tsum taχ mognas, thaf te-müüts θraaφ, liiw stăliw..."''  
''"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.''


''Łop emtăbiits Pida Brăwiid: "Ǎna mee ra mooχ, srüü hădeen do croθ năθa?"''
''"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ.''


''Emcă'aw id χaaθ ipăyφay, "Op cănga, Pida: sey tsor pădiiχ φnărtaang, sach φăbeeng păχwădiiχ năθa ya-croθ năθa φi!"''
''"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid.''
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
English
English


Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwied asked them a question: "How many of you are here?"
Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwied asked them a question: "How many people are you?"
 
While five children were still counting, one child called out: "Sixty-three! Specifically, 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."


While the others were still counting, one child called out: "Sixty-three! 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, ..."
Then Master Brăwied asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person joins the group?"


Then Master Brăwied asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person enters?"
The child replied: "Isn't that obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"


The child nonchalantly responded: "Isn't it obvious, Master? Here we have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"
The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom indeed."
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


Line 606: Line 913:
[...]
[...]
''Tuach ya snar nga łen per răchta mi neab''
''Tuach ya snar nga łen per răchta mi neab''
''Rie pănea mis hălsieth łen,''
''Rie pănea mi ses hălsieth łen,''
''Tsin cămșuth ef s­ădoan hălsieth se hălngărătiew – ''
''Tsin cămșuth es s­ădoan hălsieth se hălngărătiew ''
''Fi imcnul hălsnar;''
''Fi imcnul hălsnar;''
''Fi tslües, sem fa tănet e łen mif căngtseth se''
''Fin tslües, sem fa tănet e łen mif căngtseth se''
''Te per ăloth ris șa tăgoa.''
''Te per ăloth ris șa tăgoa.''


Line 622: Line 929:


==Poetry==
==Poetry==
===Rhyme===
Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).
Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).
 
===Meter===
Meter is determined by
A literary Naeng meter is determined by
*The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
*The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
*A sequence of accentual feet in each line (usually iambs and anapaests, with the occasional trochee);
*A sequence of accentual feet making up each line (usually anapaests and iambs, with the occasional trochee);
*Zero or more caesuras in each line.
*Zero or more caesurae in each line.
 
The most common meter in literary poetry by far is ''chinung tălach'' ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter halves separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.


Gibberish:
The most common meter in literary verse by far is the anapestic tetrameter: (u)uSuuSuuSuuS. It is also used in the [[Verse:Hmøøh/King Sămtsay Song|King Sămtsay Song]], the Bjeheondian national anthem.
 
<poem>
''Tsăcnoa mis ingthunean! Tsăley pdoch șaf łăpuang!''
''Riftüts es hălthăcäw łos dlong fa tăliscuang!''
''Trăngar tăngap fi mluas, f imtar säl-pthües fid bruang''
''Ya seaf łă'och łă'och — f imdoats dihachămtuang.''
</poem>
 
The alexandrine was established as standard by the poet Andosil Łăbä, since he considered it more suitable for Modern Windermere, an alternative to the syllabic meters of Classical Windermere poetry.
 
Varioua poets experimented with altering the alexandrine: they would change the grouping of the 12 syllables in the line, or they would not necessarily use six iambs.


Some other meters are:
Some other meters are:
*Anapaestic tetrameter: (uSuuSuuSuuS, S = stressed, u = unstressed) It is a somewhat uncommon meter but is used in the [[Verse:Tricin/King Sămtsay Song|King Sămtsay Song]], the Windermere anthem.
*Free verse
*Free verse
*Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
*Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
===Sample===
*Quantitative meters from Netagin poetry
<poem>
'''''Mi seaf imfnüd se doach te stoac păłoa mosrel,'''''
'''''Tes tsor hălpduth șăm'it — lăta, chnet fa mi yem!'''''
'''''Rinoat ef loc Dămath, șicleap yaf imhăcwel;'''''
'''''Doar bang, yăsnar, tămnüth, mi sngom se chwep păhem.'''''
'''''— [[Verse:Tricin/Srăga Tsayfuan|Srăga Tsayfuan]]'''''


Gloss:
Iambic meters and meters that use a combination of iambs and anapests are also used. An iambic meter that goes back to Classical Naeng verse is the ''chinung tălach'' ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter hemistichs separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.
LOC walk PL-day SP summer and meet wind winter,
and all hope vanish — look ray from afar
turn_intransitive NOM-DEF wheel fortune, oblivious with-DEF PL-sweat;
yet 1PL.IN, wise, work_hard, in seek SP light early_morning
 
Paraphrase:
''As summer days trudge on, and meet the winter soil,''
''And all hope comes to naught — light shines from far away.''
''Let Fortune turn her wheel, oblivious to our toil;''
''we skillful ones work hard, and seek the light of day.''
''— Srăga Tsayfuan, fantasy author''
</poem>


[[Category:Windermere]]
[[Category:Naeng]]
[[Category:Lakovic languages]]
[[Category:Lakovic languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tricin]]
[[Category:Hmøøh]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Latest revision as of 19:01, 18 March 2024

This article describes Modern Naeng. See Naeng/Classical for Classical Naeng.

Naeng/Wordlist
Naeng/Texts
Naeng/Translations
Fi tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea
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דף זה בעברית

Naeng
fi brits Dămea
Created byPraimhín
SettingVerse:Hmøøh
Native speakers220 million (13b0dd)
Official status
Official language in
USB, Tumhan, Pategia, Quintlopetl, Yocneam
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Naeng (fi cduay Dămea /vɪi gduəj dəmeə/ or fi cduay Neng /... naeŋ/; Eevo: a łynǿñ Dymee or a łynǿñ Neng) is a Lakovic language belonging to the Naengic branch. It is also known as Ashanian (e.g. ne Qaśenin in Netagin, specifically for Classical Naeng, zinAxān /sinaʃaːn/ in Naquian) or Tergetian (e.g. døluder Terged in Tseer, tergetosin in Clofabosin) in various Hmøøhian languages. It is more distantly related to Tseer, Ksieh and other Lakovic languages.

Modern Naeng is a revived koine/lingua franca/creole arising from various Classical Naeng reading and interpretive traditions, and some scholars believe that Modern Naeng grammar doesn't directly continue that of Classical Naeng. An even more unorthodox view proposed by modern linguist Lămanoa Wadangpaş is that Modern Naeng should be thought of as a Lakovic-Netagin-Nurian hybrid language, unlike Tergetian vernaculars (descendants of Classical Tseer) which are true Lakovic languages; he thinks Modern Naeng is in part a relexification of Netagin and Nurian with Classical Naeng words, and he proposes that it be renamed to fi brits Biechănd or the Bjeheondian language. This hypothesis is challenged by Prăfin of Bălang and other scholars of creoles and sprachbunds in Hmøøh, who cited various historical intermediate stages of Naeng which appeared in writing (e.g. works by Etsoj Jopah) and in folk songs. For example, the polite pronoun Pra (from pida 'sage'), which is post-Classical, is found in ___'s letters.

Today, Naeng is the majority language of Pategia and Quintlopetl, and a prominent minority language of the USB and Tumhan. In Talma Classical Naeng was replaced with vernacular Tseer varieties (called the Tergetian languages) and other languages. It forms the Bjeheondian sprachbund with Netagin vernaculars, Trây, Gwnax, and most other Bjeheondian languages.


External history

Naeng is based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by German, Romanian and Tíogall, one of User:IlL's old Talmic sketches. It was originally created by Praimhín for the Fifth Linguifex Relay.

Todo

Lakovic no longer has gneder; get rid of gendered pronouns?

Should th be dental d~t (and d, t alveolar~retro)?

Need Tigol words in Naeng

Inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ya rie and șa rie are incorrect) -- but are only used in formal Naeng

Ien ruay ched Lăbaldimoara - He lives in Baltimore (mi is optional)

Făngtsăfie = Philadelphia, via quasi-Arabic "fa3Dafiyya" <- hypothetical PSem *paʕtɬ'ap-

Wenmĭryam = Maryland

Merge c and g and introduce Ch clusters? or should those become breathy voiced vowels

nean - a verb of motion/direction

When was glādos 'god' (> gláḋ > glọð > glawð) borrowed?

  • If before the Naengic vowel shift, then make it Clot /klaot/
  • If during Tigol stage: Clod /klaod/
  • If post-revival Eevo loan: Grath /gʀɒð/ or Groth /gʀaoð/

yăhuaș should be a Naeng adjective

Măluac yări srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live (lit. follow with me)

casual: Măluac drel ngăse srüe ... lit. Follow hither if ...

Lăchier e Pra haș mül mĭf brits Anggla, chăbec ngĭ fĭthnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur Pra șän-șän

Ădoath chea thosli drel sed. (Dream PST reveal hither this) / literary: Ădoath chea thosli şar sed. lit. A dream revealed this to me

More realistic vowel split:

  • a e i o u ü → RTR ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → a e ie o ua üe
  • à è ì ò ù ǜ → ATR æ e i o u y → ä ea i oa u ü

Directional verbs as in Southeast Asian languages, e.g. ngămlac seaf "to call someone" vs ngămlac drel "to call someone back" -- sometimes casual Naeng uses these rather than pronouns to disambiguate referents like Ien chea briets drel sed "He told me this"

Pronouns aren't used as often in colloquial Naeng e.g. Fi tsum rad? for What's your name? Formal Naeng would have Fi tsum łe/łen/łes rad?; Seaf ra? for "Where are you going?"

More directional markers which work like serial verbs besides seaf/drel?

Diachronics

Phonological history

  • PLak i e a ā o u in unstressed syllables → CNaeng ĭ ĭ Ø ă ǎ Ø
  • Classical Naeng /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ become /f θ x/; /f θ/ gain voiced realizations
  • Classical Naeng reduced vowels ă /ɔ/ and ĭ /ɨ/ merge into ă /ə/
  • Breathy vowels become separate vowel phonemes:
    • CNaeng a e i o u ü → MidNaeng ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → ModNaeng /ɒ ae ɪ ao u ø/
    • CNaeng à è ì ò ù ǜ → MidNaeng æ e i o u y → ModNaeng /æ e i o ʉ y/
  • Classical Naeng ts and merged into /ts/, while ł (Basque s in Classical) shifted to /ɬ/ (occasional tł -> ł in a few words)

Grammatical history

  • Tense particles instead of older tense inflections
  • Loss of the Classical Naeng accusative particle ü

Phonology

Consonants (mosălis'ir)

All dialects have the following consonant phonemes, but their realizations and conditions for allophony differ by accent. Below, the Standard Bjeheondian transcriptions will be given:

Labial
mofăsing
Dental
mogloł
Alveolar
mosăbies
Lateral
molăngoan
Palatal
moyălech
Velar
moscong
Glottal
motășac
Nasal
mocră'i
m /m/ n /n/ ng /ŋ/
Plosive
bintăptep
voiced
yătcer
b /b/ th /d̪/ d /d/
voiceless
chatcer
p /p/ t /t/ c /k/ ' /ʔ/
Affricate
bintsăda
ts, tł /ts/ /tʃ/
Fricative
binchlas
spirant
binthăre
f /v/ ch /χ/
nonspirant
binsăreaf
s /z/ ł /ɬ/ ș /ʃ/ h /h/
Resonant
binnădüeng
w /w/ l /l/ y /j/ r /ʁ/

/tʃ/ is mainly found in loans from Bjeheondian languages such as Netagin.

Some dialects like the Rural Fincreaș dialect retain the Classical Naeng as a separate phoneme /tʃ~tʂ/.

/h/ is [ɦ] between voiced sounds. Many speakers drop /ʔ/ and /h/ in casual speech.

Voiceless stops /p t k/ are usually unaspirated [p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]. Voiced stops /b d̪ d g/ are fully voiced. Front fricatives /v z/ are by default voiced [v z]; they only devoice to [f s] when followed by an "inherently voiceless" consonant, i.e. one of /p t k ts x h ʔ/. (Thus obstruent voicing assimilation can be said to work like in Slavic languages or Israeli Hebrew.)

/əm ən əl ər/ become [m̩ n̩ l̩ ɐ] in closed unstressed syllables.

In some rural accents in eastern Bjeheond, around Plüeng Sănach, and in some styles of singing, r is pronounced as an alveolar trill /r/ in all positions. In the Wieb accent r triggers a low tone onset on the following vowel, and in contemporary Wieb Naeng this is the only sign of phonemic r, with initial /r/ entirely replaced with [h].

ff thth ss may be used to transcribe /f θ s/ in other languages.

Vowels (motger)

Front Central Back
unrounded rounded
Close i /i/ ü /y/ u /ʉ/ ua /u/
Near-close ie /ɪ/ üe, ö /ø/
Diphthong e /ae/ o /ao/
Mid ea /e/ ă /ə/ oa /o/
Open ä /æ~eə/ ăr /ɐ/ a /ɒ/
  • /y ø/ are compressed and /ʉ/ is protruded.
  • /ɒ æ e o/ are [ɒ̝ æ̝ ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
  • In most accents, ir = ier, ür = üer, ur = uar.
  • Stressed ă is used mainly in loans from Scellan (in Crackfic Hmøøh, English).

R-vocalization

/ʁ/ vocalizes to [ɐ] when not before a vowel, as follows:

  • ir = ier → [iɐ]
  • ür = üer → [yɐ]
  • ur = uar → [uɐ]
  • ear → [eɐ]
  • er → [ɛɐ]
  • oar → [oɐ]
  • or → [ɔɐ]
  • ar = är → [aː]
  • Vocalization of R has caused a chain vowel shift in stressed vowels Std. Naeng (these shifts don't occur for e o before w/y):
    • ie üe ua ea oa > [ɪ ø u ɛ̝ ɔ̝]
    • u e o > [ʉ ae ao]
    • a ä > [ɒ̝ æ̝~eə]

Vowel reduction

Vowels reduce in unstressed syllables: a/ä reduces to ă, e/ie reduces to /I/, o/oa reduces to /o/

Intonation

Standard Naeng intonation is like Standard Khmer. In certain accents of Naeng, especially in the Wieb region, stressed syllables with a final voiceless consonant are pronounced with a rising tone and other stressed syllables with a falling tone. In contemporary Wieb Naeng final voicing is no longer contrastive, having entirely been replaced with tone -- Wieb Naeng can be analyzed as having four tones.

Stress

Stress is almost always final, but can be non-final in function words.

Phonotactics

Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are phonemically prohibited in coda; in most accents of Naeng final c surfaces as [ʔ].

Allowed initial clusters in Classical Naeng are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):

  • Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl
  • Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr
  • Cm: tm, thm, cm, chm, sm, tsm, șm
  • Cn: fn, cn, chn, sn, tsn, șn
  • Cng: fng, tng, thng, chng, sng, tsng, șng
  • Cw: tw, thw, dw, cw, chw, gw, tsw, sw, łw, tsw, șw
  • XX (two obstruents): pd, pg, ps, pș, ft, fts, fc, tb, tg, thp, thc, cb, cd, cs, cș, chp, cht, chts, tsp, tsc, sp, st, sts, sc, șp, șt, șc

Voiced stops are not allowed to begin minor syllables in roots. This rule does not apply to proper names such as Dămea.

Accents

Main article: Naeng/Accents

Orthography

Classical script

This script is the one used in the Mărotłite sacred texts (the Imθumăytil and other pidaic writings) and other Classical Naeng texts. It descends from Talmic runes and is thus a sister of the Talmic alphabet, which is used for Talmic languages. Nowadays it is mainly used for religious (Mărotłite announcements/edicts/rulings/etc.), ceremonial, and decorative purposes.

Consonants

Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.

  • Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
  • Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
  • Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ (Պ'ɱ') = s ł ts tł ș (tș)
  • Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ

The alphabetical order for the consonant letters is:

R D F L M G C B S Ł Ș Y NG T N TH P CH H W TS TŁ (rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șnat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir, tsaf, tłaf)

rădäf = alphabet

Vowels

The vowel signs are placed to the right of the consonant letter.

  • · : ; ı › ˫ ⸗ƍ ⸗ = ă ua üe ie o e ä a; :ƍ ;ƍ ıƍ ›ƍ ˫ƍ = u ü i oa ea

Punctuation

Modern script

The modern Naeng script

The modern Naeng script is an abugida related to Idavic scripts. It derives from an old Bjeheondian runic alphabet, which was in turn an adaptation of an even older logographic writing system used by the Dábhiaŋal (Naeng Dobingal) civilization (from ancient Erkwisngwal).

Should look square-ish like both Hebrew and Khmer

Parts of speech

Nouns

There are two articles: the definite article fi, from the distal demonstrative fi, and the specific article se (m), from the proximal demonstrative se. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article. The English definite article, and some unpreceded English nouns such as society, man (humanity), and life, correspond closely to the Naeng definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Naeng indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.

  • nonspecific: Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar imyar! / Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies imyar! = "I want her to give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
  • specific: Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar se imyar! / Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies se imyar! = "I want her to give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
  • definite: Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar fi imyar! / Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies fi imyar! = "I want her to give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"

Nouns can be pluralized with im-, which is usually used for specific or definite plural nouns. Pluralization is optional, however, and the nonspecific-specific distinction can make pluralization unnecessary where English would require it:

Rie die poar fa binfăndaw.
1SG NEG derive_enjoyment from NOM-test
I don't like exams.

The articles contract with a preceding preposition such as mi 'in, at' and șa 'to, for': for example, mis, mif and șas, șaf. Before a sibilant (resp. labial), forms such as mise (resp. mifi) are used.

Pronouns

Modern Naeng have pronouns similar to Classical Naeng, but slightly restructured: it lost the feminine plural pronouns and added the impersonal and polite pronouns.

I thou (m.) thou (f.) thou (neopronoun) you (polite) he she they (neopronoun) we (exc.) we (inc.) you (pl.) they (an.) impersonal
rie łen łes łe Pra ien ies ie tsa bang łănam (ă)nam tung

The impersonal pronoun tung (from tăchung 'some') can be used instead of a passive voice. In fact it's more general purpose than the passive voice which can only be used to turn direct objects into subjects. As in English, the impersonal may be used to state general commands, especially prohibitions:

Tung die lieb sä șa ngud mĭ ădoac tsrăboł.
IMPERS NEG put fire DAT burn LOC room closed
You don't let fire burn in a closed room.

In Middle Naeng, Pra was sometimes a third person pronoun but this is archaic. Ĭmpra is an obsolete plural form of Pra; nowadays Pra is used regardless of number.

Łănam is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.

rie 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun.

Inanimates use the demonstrative fid (plural ĭmfid).

The gendered demonstratives sen/ses 'this man/this woman' and fin/fis 'that man/that woman' are literary.

Demonstratives

TODO: Correlatives table

  • this: __ se (adnominal); sed (pronominal), pl. imsed
  • that: __ fi (adnominal); fid (pronominal), pl. imfid
  • here: rădun se, dunse
  • there: rădun fi, dumfi
  • who: ășac ra, șara
  • what: ra (determiner), rad (pronoun)
  • where: rădun ra, dura
  • when: ngith ra, ngithra
  • how: tănsü ra; tăra
  • why: fănäl ra, fnăra
  • all: tsor (preposed)
  • many: mea (preposed)
  • some: tăchung (preposed)
  • few: łüp (preposed)
  • any: prang (preposed)
  • other: nătha

Verbs

Verbs are not conjugated, but are used with tense particles.

Imperatives:

  • Familiar (both sg and pl): Tsrin! 'Eat!'
    • A little softened or insistent: tsrin e łen/łes/łănam! 'Please eat!/Can you please eat?!'
  • Polite: Tsrin e Pra!
  • Very polite: Tsrin e Łănam! or Hay tsrin e Łănam!
  • Cohortative: (formal) Tsrin e bang! (Let's eat!), (colloquial) Măluac tsrin! (lit. follow eat)

Archaic style may use the vocative particle ha or hay: Hay tsrin....

Negative imperatives are formed with taș:

  • Taș hămoch fĭ thcür mĭ ăcnas hălut! = Don't climb too high on the ladder!
  • Taș ămpaw e łen fĭ ădoac! = Don't you leave the room!

Verbs of motion

Modern Naeng does not have exact equivalents for the English verbs "go", "carry", or "bring". Naeng motion verbs vary along two dimensions: one dimension is the method or direction of transport and one dimension is the telicity of the verb. Unidirectional, or telic, motion verbs express one-time motion towards a destination. Multidirectional, or atelic, verbs express undirected motion, repeated directed motion, or back-and-forth motion. The directionality is usually expressed by an infix or prefix, but is sometimes expressed through suppletion.

Meaning Unidirectional verb Multidirectional verb
to go by foot, to walk tmuay (< tăm'uay 'to travel') nămchül
to go with a land vehicle tseng tsăntseng
to ride, to mount (trans.) csüm sămcsüm
to go in hădean hămtean
to go out; to originate; to rise (of heavenly bodies and other inanimate beings) hăgep hifcep
to set (of heavenly bodies)
to fall (of precipitation)
chănuy cichnuy
to run chi cămhi
to swim łămay măłmay
to fly thlut tăthlut
to float on water
to go with a small boat, to row
tchos chădchos
to flow (of a fluid or current) smin măsmin
to roll ftär tăftär
to climb hămoch hithmoch
to jump ștüp thuștüp
to crawl tgär trăgär
to fall (of animates)
to go down (of inanimates)
łăpaw tăłpaw
to dive, go into water tscur tscărcur
to carry, bring (on foot) fngün fămngün
to carry, bring (using a vehicle) (trans.) saf sămhaf
to pull, drag (trans.) năfor nărfor
to drive (an animal or a vehicle), lead hoth hithoth

Adjectives

The copula mot is not used with adjectives. For example, 'The man is strong' = Fĭ noaf ngăwes.

The comparative is formed with rech + adjective and the superlative is formed with hă'et + adjective.

  • to = good
  • rech to = better
  • hă'et to = best

The word for 'than' is ăngi 'surpass', and rech is not necessary when ăngi is used. Colloquially the similar-sounding ngĭ 'like' may be used instead.

For comparing two verbs or clauses, you need to use ăngi fid moang or ăngi foang, lit. 'than that which':

Bloy Etingof chea chmi ben rech tăfiet ăngi foang rie chea fnga thărĭșür măluac.
(*ăngi rie chea fnga thișür măluac)
Soon E. PST run COMP PROG fast surpass that_which 1SG PST can keep_up follow
Soon Etingof was running faster than I could keep up with.

There are no imperatives for adjectives; one uses ieng 'do', căfol 'become', or ămtüs 'remain' with the adjective depending on the situation. For example:

  • Ieng cdeal! (familiar) or Ieng e Pra cdeal! (polite) = Be bold! (lit. do boldly) to make a wish that the addressee should act boldly. This is the most neutral imperative.
  • Căfol cdeal! implies that the listener is not bold now and should be.
  • Ămtüs cdeal! should be obvious: "stay bold".

TAM particles

  • chmi (or VERB VERB) = progressive
  • chea = preterite
  • chea ftoal = 'used to'
  • chea chmi = past progressive
  • fa = perfect
  • chea fa = past perfect
  • per = future
  • per chmi = future progressive
  • hos = conditional
  • tsămfe = 'situationally can'
  • fnga = can, to know how to
  • poar = like to
  • thăgem = want to
  • pdar = must
  • fteal = should

Determiners

  • swoch fi X = the very X

Conjunctions

  • te = and
  • uy = xor
  • soał = or (either one of two)
  • seam = but (however)
  • chăbec = (higher register) however
  • ăyut = but (rather)
  • łüch șa = in order to
  • hăbra = therefore
  • pĭlang = because
    • łong = (high register) because; ław = (high register) because of
  • ătuach nga = although
    • ya(ng) = (high register) although
  • șang, łüch șa(ng) = so that
  • moang = relativizer
  • nga = complementizer
  • tăngap (nga) = before
  • łăgie (nga) = after
  • swe/sweng = when, while
  • șăfongtas nga = as long as
  • mĭ tstoal nga = as soon as
  • roan = until
  • tă'iep = on the other hand
  • sach = also

Prepositions

Classical Naeng inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact *ya rie for 'with me' is incorrect as in CNaeng) but are only used in formal or written Naeng. Spoken Naeng uses directionals and verbs of motion instead of inflected prepositions.

The regular pronominal affixes:

  • 1sg: -ir
  • 2sg: -eł (m), -łes (f)
  • 3sg: -n (m), -s (f)
  • 1pl.ex: -tsa
  • 1pl.in: -ang
  • 2pl: -łam
  • 3pl: -nam
I thou (m.) thou (f.) thou (neopronoun) you (polite) he she they (neopronoun) we (exc.) we (inc.) you (pl.) they (an.)
mi 'in, at' mir mił miłes miłe mi Pra min mis mie mitsa ming miłam minam
șa 'to, for' șar șał șăłes șăłe șa Pra șan șas șăngie șătsa șbang șăłam șănam
fa 'from' ăchir ăcheł ăchłes ăchłe fa Pra ăchin ăchis ăchie ăchtsa ăchbang ăchłam ăchnam
ya 'with' yăngir yăngeł yăngłes yăngłe ya Pra yăngin yăngis yăngie yăngtsa yăbang yăłam yănam
ław 'on' łăwir łăweł łăwłes łăwłe ław Pra łăwin łăwis łăwie łăwtsa łăbang łăwłam łăwnam
cde 'around, about' cder cdeł ctiłes ctiłe cde Pra cdin cdis cdie ctitsa ctibang ctiłam ctinam

Sometimes variant forms with -ng- show up: e.g. șăngłam or șăngir

  • moang: of (optional)
  • mĭ: locative; in, at
  • ya: with
  • șa: to, for
  • ngĭ: like, as
  • fa: ablative
  • tsăbi: without
  • fe: by (passive)
  • ław: on
  • cde: around, about, concerning
  • tăngap: before
  • woach: behind
  • łăgie: after
  • bath: through
  • ștal: along
  • ngĭ prăwim: according to
  • roan ('to wait'): (temporary) until
  • nüng = (literary) until, up to
    • häb = (high register synonym of nüng)
    • fa... nüng... = from... to/through...
  • măceaf = towards (a person)
  • mĭ hoath = by means of
  • mĭ rădun = instead of
  • lĭștew = over, instead of
  • năguł = above
  • fă'üet = under
  • șăbad = below

Auxiliaries

  • hac = passive
  • dur = come to
  • cișloch = need only
  • ithris = to go up
  • psuy = to go down
  • thușnoa = be sure to
  • ruay hălșab = be permitted to
  • seaf te VERB = continues to VERB

Adverbs of location

  • liștew = over
  • năguł = above
  • fă'üet = under
  • șăbad = below
  • ithris = up
  • psuy = down
  • mif ey = on the side
  • lăgoan = besides
  • săfea te wăgie (from *soXpe de woXgi) = back and forth, to and fro

Adverbs of time

  • hăsüs = yet, still
    • die ... hăsüs = not anymore (NOT "not yet")
  • lișnap = not yet
  • smaw X = every X/by the X where X = time
    • smaw tsoa/fnüd/tsănga/len = every morning/day/evening/night
    • smaw roac = from time to time, every now and then
  • ngieș = already
  • bloy = soon
  • łăduy = again

Adverbs of emphasis

  • torech = rather
  • yic = only
  • ămic fi X, swoch fi X = (this) very X
  • ătuach = even
    • comes before negative: Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi. 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
  • tămo = very, very much, greatly
    • Ies chea dur thușrăber fa ien tămo. = She came to be very resentful of him.
  • tsor łăngü = at all, anyway
  • eth = it does, doesn't it?

Adverbs of quantity

  • șămea = a lot of, much (number or quantity)
    • In lăchir șămea ło hălwier-prăcăbäs. = He writes about sociology a lot.
  • łüp = a little
    • yic łüp = little, only a little
  • ngĭ tlieb = about, approximately
  • rech șămea = more
    • rech tăfad = less
  • ămac = enough
  • mi thuyut = especially
  • răngi = (verb) too much, too (adj, adv)
    • răngi mea = too much

Syntax

SVO, VSO in subordinate clauses with the subject marked with e; but subordinate clauses are SVO when marked with the complementizer nga

NAdj, NGen, NRel, prepositions

Rie chmi briets cdes că'üs tes tsăctsoc.
1SG PROG speak about-SPEC love and-SPEC hate
I speak of love and hate.
Fi rüech chmi tsrin se troas.
DEF bird PROG eat SPEC seed
The bird is eating a seed.

Existence

Existence is indicated using ruay 'to have'; indeed, this is the more archaic meaning of ruay.

Chea ruay rath hăngüs fa yeap.
There were two people outside.

Questions

Modern Naeng is wh-in-situ, unlike Classical Naeng.

Time clauses

  • swe = "while" but it takes VSO: swe căwdul ef imfnüd ("as the days go by")
  • for SVO use sweng: sweng fi imfnüd căwdul

Verb phrase

Verb phrases are usually of the form:

TENSE MARKER + NEGATION + AUXILIARY + VERB + pronominal oblique object + direct objects + nominal oblique object

Hăyad chea rüe tsăstsus șa Inthar, seam ien chea die făntsüc chămpüe fid.
H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun
Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.

Serial verbs

Serial verbs are common as in Southeast Asian langs. Negated as follows:

Rie sișpeal die tsäl
'I don't understand [what was said]' (lit. I hear not understand)
fi inthar ngi'üt chwäp hămtean fi tar imhareach
DEF raven bring.ATEL light enter.ATEL DEF house PL-story
'Raven brings light into the house of stories'

Inversion

SVO clauses are inverted to VSO clauses after certain conjunctions. In a VSO clause the particle e must precede the subject.

Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:

Plachtom e chwäp!
appear NOM light
Let there be light!

The more... the more...

Rie die clăduang tsäl fa foang chmi nătsap. Ămben-ămben e rie, căfol-căfol e rie blaw.
1SG not receive hint from that_which PROG happen. run-run SBJ 1SG, become-become SBJ 1SG fat.
I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.

Relative clauses

moang is the relativizer. It is often dropped when the relative clause is short (most often with adjectives).

When the head becomes an oblique object, using a resumptive pronoun is a formal Naeng strategy. Resumptive pronouns are not common in the colloquial language:

Colloquial: fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay ('the market I went to', lit. "the market that I walked_telic")
Formal: fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay şa dunfi (lit. "the market that I walked_telic to there")

English what-clauses are translated with fid moang... or foang.... foang is also used to translate the [adjective] one in English:

Łes tsădwer ăyied ra, foang sim uy foang pday?
2SG.F choose box INTERR, that_which red xor that_which blue
Which box do you choose, the red one or the blue one?

Exclamations

As in most Talman languages, exclamations of the form 'how...!' usually use the vocative particle ha or hay, in the construction ha(y) fi "ADJ-ness" (= 'how ADJ/ADV...') or ha(y) foang [clause] (= 'how [clause]/how much...').

Ha fĭ hălfngărnach fĭ moșiew! Ha foang ies fnga sătsiet bang!
VOC DEF NMLZ-awful DEF nature! VOC that_which she can teach we.INC!
How terrible nature is! How much she can teach us! (lit. O the terribleness of nature! O that which she can teach us!)
Hay fĭ hălwier moang ien lăleș mĭ yăgom!
VOC DEF beauty REL he play_an_instrument LOC zither
How beautifully he plays the zither!

Vocabulary

Modern Naeng contains more Netagin and Talmic loanwords than Classical Naeng; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many Eevo loans are entering the language, to the dismay of purists.

Layers

  • inherited Naeng (including older Talmic loans)
  • Tseer and Talmic loans, esp. during the Middle Naeng period. These words often sound high register, like Aramaic loans do in Modern Hebrew
  • Netagin loans
  • other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
  • Recent native coinages; reborrowings from older Naeng stages
  • recent Eevo loans

Derivation

Part-of-speech changing affixes

  • TODO: another nominalizer?
  • ĭ = nominalizer for verbs
  • bĭn- = nominalizer for verbs
  • hăl- = nominalizer for adjectives
  • să- = nominalizer
  • ng = infix forming place nouns
  • sngeaf 'world, Hmøøh, age (used in the idiom sloc imsngeaf "forever" (lit. until the judgement of the world) ' < seaf 'walk, go'
  • c = infix forming instruments from verbs
  • dĭ- = negation
  • cha- = -less
  • ĭng- = verbalizer
  • mo- (+ voicing of plosives) = adjectivizer
  • = verbalizer (how productive?)
  • yă- = adjectivizer
  • neach- = agentive
  • nu- = agentive (Classical Naeng; and productive to an extent in Modern Naeng)
  • pa- = patientive (from Old Naeng *p + *ha)
  • ngăr, măr = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
  • Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
    • yar 'flower' > yăryar 'little flower'
    • inthar 'raven' > inthărthar 'crow'
  • ‹ră› = patient noun
  • pră- = patient noun, -ee
  • ha- = -able, able to [intransitive verb]
  • -om = augmentative
  • -ith = diminutive

"Trigger" verb affixes

The "trigger" infixes usually derive verbs from other verbs. These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Naeng times.

  • ‹ăn/ăng› = Applicative trigger
  • ‹ĭth› = Locative trigger
  • ‹ăw› = Instrumental trigger
  • ‹ăfong› = Destination trigger
    • răfongüe 'to endow' < rüe 'to give'
  • ‹ălĭs› = Comitative trigger
  • ‹ăm› = Source/cause trigger
  • ‹ăchem› = Benefactive/purpose trigger
  • ‹ărea› = Malefactive trigger

Aspect?

Many Proto-Lakovic aspects had become derivational by Classical Naeng, analogous to how PIE aspects became inflectional or lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Naeng has been the most heavily affected.

Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (F) or last consonant (L)

  • perfective = em-
  • momentane = pla-
  • intensive/excessive = incopyfixation of L
  • distributive ("X widely, affecting many objects") = eNFă-
  • inchoative/inceptive = os-, osăL-
  • graduative = tă-, tăFa-

Should inflectional tam be more complex?

Concatenation

Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English: e.g. hălwier-chne 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').

The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable:

  • tar-siet (lit. 'house of letter (character)') means 'school'.
  • șän-finaw (lit. 'word of truth') means 'major warning sign, wake-up call' in formal language.

Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, sămeath-păchnay, meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where sămeath means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Naeng.

Common concatenated morphemes are:

  • tar = places (lit. 'house of')
  • hălwier = '-logy' (lit. 'beauty of')
    • This is a calque from the same usage of tadaakh 'beauty' in Tseer.
  • wang = 'matter, affairs'
  • ngoth = 'manner, way'
  • sces = 'style of, à la'
  • ăma = 'proto, ur-' (lit. 'mother of')
  • tam = 'full of, -ive, -ful'

Sample texts

Newton's Laws

I: Tsi'eth ămtüs mi hăllithăhuł soas mi hăltsăliet rădoan, srüe die tłith'ach e sănguac ło fid.

object remain LOC NOMZ-stationary or LOC NOMZ-speed constant, if not act NOM force on that_PRON

I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.

II: Fi ălcifol ło fi hălpășad moang fteach fid sibaganangch mif sănguac moang tung șithcats șafi fteach; te fi ălcifol ișrom șawim fi șădong glan moang tung șithcats fi sănguac yătăngap ło fid.

DEF <VN>change on DEF STAT-ACT-move of body that_PRON proportional LOC-DEF force REL IMPERS apply DAT-DEF body; and the <VN>change occur along DEF line straight REL IMPERS apply DEF force aforementioned on that_PRON

II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.

III: Tsor binșithcats ruay se binșithcats-căräng thür.

all action have SPEC action-against equal

III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

You are not obligated to complete the work, but...

Łen die nămărłof şa cĭthloch se thĭbur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pirceay Afoat 2’21”)
2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)

Inge

Bang fa bin'ătsoal fĭ lăhoal fĭ sngeaf ĭmtriem, te fa păfonglis fĭ ĭmșășur bang ya tsăngua te gow mĭ thusăyüer chngăfi, häb nga tsip crĭrath, päd fnga frel e nam săwim, ănam hos rĭstey fĭ chlăpsür mĭ wă'ua croth.

1PL.IN PERF enslave DEF rest DEF world PL-animal, and PERF treat DEF PL-cousins 1PL.IN with fur and feather ADV evil so_much, until COMP without doubt, if_counterfactual POT transmit NOM 3PL.AN story, 3PL.AN COND imagine DEF villain in form human_being.

"Ne-Zim"

Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te die ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămĭrüe łĭthad tsip neab te tămĭseath e fid swoch, lea mot bĭntănse hașĭthbech? Tieth, fid mot mĭtse paw yătĭthun moang bĭnłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngĭ nuthbur papluas mĭ-thäș, șang fid plang łos ĭmsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. To, fĭ mocănłin Pra lea chĭthud srüe ngil e rie "Grath" mĭ łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim

From Hamlet

Șa ftsüen uy șa răchta, sed fĭ bĭnbiets fănaw.
To live or to die, this.PRON DEF question real
To be or not to be, that is the question.

(This line is in the Naeng alexandrine)

From the Internationale

Ămflü, hay tsor pachărea'i fi sngeaf!
arise, VOC all PAT-scorn DEF world
Arise, all ye scorned ones of the world!

UDHR

Binhithma lăchpaș cdef imłin croth

Nicüf tăche

Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe nam yas hălpăthin tes bintochur, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șă'or hălchăsräf.

all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow

(Standard Bjeheondian) [tsɔɐ kʁaoð və ʔəʃɛl plum te ðyɐ mɪs hltsəbɒs təs ʔɪmɬin. tʉŋ ʁəvoŋø nɒm jəs hlpəðin təz bɪntoxuɐ, tə pda: ðʉʃnɔ e nɒm tənzae vɪdɔn məkɛv nəðɒ mɪs ʃəgɔɐ hlxəzʁæv]

The Round Table

This passage is from the Imthumitil Păchlac, a retranslation of the Imθumitil into Modern Naeng by Pida Yăchef Samarasang.

Modern Naeng

Mĭ ngith doan chea chmi dur es tach ĭmchäth mĭs mogor litheath. Fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea sray bĭntăbiets: "Łănam mot mea ra hăngüs?"

Swe chea chmi chnung e müets ĭmchäth hăsüs, se doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay mĭ tsum ĭmmognas tach dunse, ĭmmălin thaf müets, ĭmchustiw liew, ĭmchusmech thaf müets, ĭmchumüets tach, te doan ĭmchutach."

Prăyon nga fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, hos ruay mea ra hăngüs, srüe placäp e do croth hĭboath șaf tĭ'uar?"

Chea că'aw e fied: "Lea sed die placămărnga, fĭ Pĭda? Bang ruay tsor tĭ'uar palüc, sach se făbeang ĭmtĭ'uar nătha yaf croth mălem!"

Fĭ Pida chea sngiem șaf chäth mĭ ngil, "Fĭ chäth se eth ruay hăltsrüeng mi finaw."

Original (Classical Naeng)

Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.

Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts sălmeχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."

"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.

"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ.

"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid.

English

Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwied asked them a question: "How many people are you?"

While five children were still counting, one child called out: "Sixty-three! Specifically, 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."

Then Master Brăwied asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person joins the group?"

The child replied: "Isn't that obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"

The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom indeed."


Warming Up to You

[...]
Tuach ya snar nga łen per răchta mi neab
Rie pănea mi ses hălsieth łen,
Tsin cămșuth es s­ădoan hălsieth se hălngărătiew –
Fi imcnul hălsnar;
Fin tslües, sem fa tănet e łen mif căngtseth se
Te per ăloth ris șa tăgoa.

Gloss:
even with know COMP 2SG.M FUT die LOC end
1SG dwell LOC-SP warmth 2SG.M
because nurture NOM-DEF same warmth SP curiosity
DEF PL-leaf knowledge
DEF garden REL PERF plant NOM 2SG.M LOC-DEF plot_of_land this
and FUT keep up DAT eternity

Poetry

Rhyme

Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).

Meter

A literary Naeng meter is determined by

  • The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
  • A sequence of accentual feet making up each line (usually anapaests and iambs, with the occasional trochee);
  • Zero or more caesurae in each line.

The most common meter in literary verse by far is the anapestic tetrameter: (u)uSuuSuuSuuS. It is also used in the King Sămtsay Song, the Bjeheondian national anthem.

Some other meters are:

  • Free verse
  • Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
  • Quantitative meters from Netagin poetry

Iambic meters and meters that use a combination of iambs and anapests are also used. An iambic meter that goes back to Classical Naeng verse is the chinung tălach ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter hemistichs separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.