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{{construction}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;" width="35%"
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;" width="35%"
|-  
|-  
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:2em;" | '''Wistanian'''<br />[[File:Anigalilaun.png|350px]]<br />[əˈniɡəˌlilɑn]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:2em;" | '''Wistanian'''<br />[[File:Aningali.png|350px]]<br />[ən̻iːn̻ɡəl̻i]
|-
|-
| '''Spoken in:''' || Wistania
| '''Spoken in:''' || Wistania
|-
|-
| '''Conworld:''' || Vale
| '''Conworld:''' || Vaal
|-
|-
| '''Total Speakers:''' || ~ 50,000,000
| '''Total Speakers:''' || ~ 50,000,000
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| Taliv<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Taliv-Nati Pidgin<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''''- Wistanian'''''
| Taliv<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- Taliv-Nati Pidgin<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''''- Wistanian'''''
|-
|-
| '''Basic word order:''' || Verb-Subject-Object
| '''Writing System:''' || Taliv Alphabet<br/>Bwolotil Alphabet<br/>Nati Abugida
|-
| '''Morphological Type:''' || Analytical
|-
| '''Morphosyntactic Alignment:''' || Nominative-Accusative
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Created by:'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Created by:'''
|-
|-
| Paul A. Daly || Began: January 2017<br/>Published: January 2018
| Paul A. Daly || Began: 10 August 2016<br/>Status: Mostly Fuctional
|-
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Further Resources'''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background color:#ffffff; font-size:18px;" | '''Further Resources'''
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|}
|}


'''Wistanian''' (IPA: /wɪsˈteɪni.ən/), natively known as '''anigalilaun''' (IPA: /əˈniɡəˌlilɑn/) or 'peace language',  is an ''a priori'' artistic [[w: Constructed_language|constructed language]] created by author, student, and future ESL teacher Paul A. Daly for a series of low fantasy books that he plans to write and publish once he's done with his education. It is spoken as a ''lingua franca'' on the island of Wistania, derived from the Taliv language after their speakers came into contact with speakers of the Nati language. These two people groups allied during the Wistanian War between them and the Bwolotil people. After the war ended with a peace treaty, the language was standardized, recorded, and taught around the island as "the language of peace" and set as the official language of the united government. During the events of the novels, three hundred years after the peace treaty, around 95% of the population speak Wistanian; 60% of whom learn it natively and 20% of whom speak it exclusively.
<big><span style="color:red;">'''This page is currently outdated. Updates to come... eventually.'''</span></big>
 
Wistanian is classified as a mixed language, drawing its roots from Taliv, but borrowing a large amount of words, phrases, and grammar from the Nati, Katapu, Uzin, and Bwolotil languages, spoken by the five people groups that occupy the island. Although there is a standardized dialect, Wistanian has a large amount of dialectal variation and a number of registers.
 
Wistanian is typologically an [[w: Analytic_language|analytic language]] with very small elements of [[w: Agglutinative_language|agglutination]], morphosyntactically a [[w:Nominative–accusative_language|nominative-accusative language]], and syntactically a [[w: Verb–subject–object|VSO language]] with strong [[w: Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] tendencies. Its phonology is fairly small, with an entirely voiced fricative set and no round vowels. Each verb has a stative and durative form, and count nouns are only declined for plural number if their number is more than five. There is a large collection of grammatical particles and honorifics, but no distinctive lexical category for adpositions, adjectives, adverbs, or conjunctions. The langauge is primarily written using the Talivian Alphabet, but some alternate scripts do exist, namely the Diwa Alphabet and Nati [[w: Abugida|Abugida]].
 
==Introduction==
[[File:WistaniaMap.png|thumb|left|The island of Wistania]]
 
===Setting===


Wistanian is spoken on the fictional island nation of Wistania. The language stems from a pidgin created between the Nati and Taliv languages during The Wistanian War. After the peace treaty was signed, the Katapu, who were allied with Nati and Taliv but inactive in the war, documented and refined the Nati-Taliv Pidgin for use in the newly established government. Wistanian features mostly Taliv grammar, Nati vocabulary, Katapu influences, many Bwolotil loan words, and scientific terms, mathematics, and the [[w: Lunar_calendar|lunar calendar]] derived from the work of the Uzin. Wistanian's native name, ''anigalilaun'', is a compound of ''ani'' (language) and ''galilaun'' (peace). It is translated literally as "Peace Language."
<span style="color:red;">'''Update update (27/8/2019): A brand new grammar sketch is currently in the works. Soon after that gets written, I plan for this page to be officially updated. I'm keeping it as is for now, however, because I am still using it as a reference. It's not completely obsolete, just a couple things have changed (e.g., re-labels, more details, plus there are conjunctions now). I hope to update this here very very soon. Thanks for your patience.'''</span>


The five different people groups of Wistania remained isolated from each other for part of the post-war era. However, trade and intermarriage became more commonplace, requiring a competent ''lingua franca''. This is followed by religious evangelism by the Katapu, engineering from the Uzin, and entertainment from the Nati, all of which Wistanian was the primary language for distribution and promotion. Eventually, the language became taught as a mandatory subject in school. After only a couple centuries, Wistanian advanced from a government-only auxiliary language into the national language of the island, natively and fluently spoken by most of its citizens.  
<span style="color:red;">'''Update update update (20/3/2020): Updates to this page have begun, but they are not finished. Do not trust everything you read here.</span>


As a result, Wistanian is mostly regular, with a moderately small phonological inventory and vast dialectal variation. It is the most spoken and embraced by the Taliv and Nati people groups, and the least spoken by the Bwolotil people group, who often protest the language's difficulty. The other five languages are still spoken, especially the Bwolotil language which still has a number of monolingual non-Wistanian speakers. Both the Uzin and Katapu have important texts written in their languages, while Taliv and Nati have shifted into archaism, although they are still taught in school.  
<span style="color:red;">Headers that are currently correct: Intro, Phonology, Consonants, Vowels, Syllable Structure, Prosody, Romanization . . .</span>


===Goals===
'''Wistanian''' (IPA: /wɪˈsteɪniən/), natively known as '''aningali''' (IPA:[ən̻iːn̻ɡəl̻i]) and often nicknamed '''Wisto''', is an ''a priori'' artistic constructed language . Its development began in August 2016 for use in a WIP novel series by prominent characters who are monolingual or bilingual in the language. It is currently on "Version 9.1," having received several edits, updates, and an occasional total rehaul during its development.


Wistanian was created with three goals in mind:
In-universe, Wistanian is spoken by groups of fictional peoples on a large tropical island on a planet called Vaal (IPA: [veːl̻]). It is a descendant of the Taliv language after having merged with the Nati language during the Wistanian War. These two language communities worked together against the Bwolotil people who were seeking complete possession of the land. This war eventually ended with the signing of a peace treaty between four people groups, the Taliv, Nati, Bwolotil, and the Katapu who remained mostly separated from much of the fighting. About half a decade later, a fifth people group, the Uzin, joined the Wistanian union. The creole that arose from the Taliv-Nati alliance grew in popularity and loaned a large number of terms from the other languages. During the time of the novels, Wistanian has become the ''lingua franca'' of the island. It is considered the language of government, economy, and education, and it is mandatorily taught in most schools. There are approximately 50 million speakers, comprising 95% of the island's population. Of that number, 60% are native in the language and 20% speak it monolingually.


# '''To be naturalistic, yet unique.''' It should have its own unique phonology, grammar, and lexicon, not identical to any natural language on earth, but still naturalistic and sensible.
Dialects of Wistanian are broadly split into three categories: the Standard Dialect, spoken in the central mountains, major cities, and among the Taliv and Nati people groups; The Western Dialect, spoken by a majority of Bwolotil and many Uzin speakers; and The Northern Dialect, spoken by the Katapu and some Uzin. Each dialect is mutually intelligible, although some variations have diverged enough to be confusing to the standard listener. These dialects vary in pronunciation, lexicon, and sometimes syntax. Aulwin Wistanian is a mostly unintelligible variety spoken on a small island off Wistania's northwest shore.
# '''To represent the Wistanian culture.''' This language was designed for songs and speeches, bedtime stories and battle cries, gentle wisdom and fierce ambition, hope and struggle. This language is designed for the Wistanians: their personality, their history, and their heart.
# '''To be novel-friendly.''' Crazy letters and long words will confuse and alienate most readers, which is why Wistanian was designed to have short, easily readable words that readers can enjoy, one small sentence at a time.


===Inspiration===
Typologically, Wistanian is a verb-initial and heavily isolating language with around 1.2 morphemes per phonological word. Its phonology is fairly small including an entirely voiced fricative set and no round vowels. Verbs conjugate for perfective, imperfective, and stative aspects with an additional irrealis form for each. Count nouns are declined for plural number only if its number is higher than five. Wistanian has a large collection of grammatical particles, honorifics, and conjunctions (which are sensitive to switch-reference), but no distinctive lexical category for adpositions, adjectives, or adverbs. The language is primarily written using the Talivian Alphabet (which has horizontal RtL and vertical UtD variants). Some alternate scripts do exist, namely the Diwa Alphabet and Nati Abugida.
 
Like most first conlangs, Wistanian started as an English [[w: Relexification|relex]] (but without tense and articles). However, after nearly six mass revisions over two years, Wistanian has become its own unique language. It's influenced by several languages, especially [[w: Spanish_language|Spanish]] and [[w: Tamil_language|Tamil]], but their influence is mostly found in the lexicon while contributing only minimally to the grammar.  


==Phonology==
==Phonology==


===Inventory===
Derived from the Taliv language, trimmed down by Nati influence, Wistanian has 16 consonants and 5 vowel phonemes. All vowels are almost completely unrounded in the standard dialect, and there's a heavy trend toward voiced fricatives and plosives. Allophony is rather sparse in standard speech, however, it becomes more common in certain dialects. Syllable structure is CCVC, although onsets are restricted to single consonants or fricative-semivowel clusters and codas do not include /w/, /j/, or /ɦ/. There are three varieties of stress that are defined by vowel quality and volume. Despite clear trends, stress is irregular and lexical.
====Consonants====


[[File:WistanianZoratinFlower gold.png|thumb|right|The Wistanian symbol of peace, modelled after the ''zoraddin'' flower.]]
===Consonants===
 
The consonants are as follows (allophones are in [brackets]):
The consonants are as follows (allophones are in parentheses):


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| style="text-align: center;" | n
| style="text-align: center;" | n
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" | (ŋ)<sup>2</sup>
| style="text-align: center;" | [ŋ]<sup>2</sup>
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| style="text-align: center;" |  
|-
|-
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| style="text-align: center;" | z
| style="text-align: center;" | z
| style="text-align: center;" | ʒ
| style="text-align: center;" | ʒ
| style="text-align: center;" | (ɣ)<sup>3</sup>
| style="text-align: center;" | [ɣ]<sup>3</sup>
| style="text-align: center;" | ɦ
| style="text-align: center;" | ɦ
|-
|-
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# n > ŋ / _[velar]
# n > ŋ / _[velar]
# ɦ > ɣ / #_, [stress]_
# ɦ > ɣ / #_, [stress]_
# [w] is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while [βʷ] is spoken in quick speech. In the Western Dialect, it is always pronounced as [w].
# /w/ is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while /βʷ/ is spoken in quick speech. Whenever immediately following a consonant, this is always pronounced as /w/. In the Western Dialect, it is always pronounced as /w/.
# [r] is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while [ɾ] is spoken in quick speech. In some words, the trilled is preferred even in quick speech; for example, '''ggarauni''' (large) is almost always pronounced [kəˈrɑni].
# /r/ is spoken in emphasized or slow speech, while /ɾ/ is spoken in quick speech. In some words, the trilled is preferred even in quick speech; for example, '''ggarauni''' (large) is almost always pronounced [kərɑni].


====Vowels====
===Vowels===


The vowels are as follows (allophones in parentheses):
The following table features the five distinct monophthongs of Wistanian, /i e a ɑ ɯ/, in each form of phonological stress. With primary stress, they are long and tense; with secondary stress, they are short and tense; with tertiary stress, they are short and lax (/e/ and /ɑ/ never receive tertiary stress). Wistanian's one diphthong /a͡i/ has no lax form, therefore only taking on primary or secondary stress. (Secondary stress is only observed in polysyllabic perfective verbs).


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | PRIMARY
! rowspan="5" style="text-align: center;" |
! colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | SECONDARY
! rowspan="5" style="text-align: center;" |
! colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | TERTIARY (LAX)
|-
! style="text-align: center;" |
! style="text-align: center;" | Front
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Back
! style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Front
! style="text-align: center;" | Front
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Central
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Back
! style="text-align: center;" | Back
! style="text-align: center;" |
! style="text-align: center;" | Front
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Back
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | High
! style="text-align: center;" | High
| style="text-align: center;" | i (ɪ)<sup>1</sup>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | iː
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɯː
| style="text-align: center;" | ɯ (u)<sup>2</sup>
! style="text-align: center;" | High
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | i
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɯ
! style="text-align: center;" | High
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɪ
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ʊ
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Mid
! style="text-align: center;" | Mid
| style="text-align: center;" | e
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | eː
| style="text-align: center;" | (ə)<sup>1</sup>
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɑː
| style="text-align: center;" |  
! style="text-align: center;" | Mid
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | e
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ɑ
! style="text-align: center;" | Mid
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |  
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |  
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;" | Low
! style="text-align: center;" | Low
| style="text-align: center;" |  
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | aː
| style="text-align: center;" | a
! style="text-align: center;" | Low
| style="text-align: center;" | ɑ (ɒ)<sup>2</sup>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | a
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Low
| colspan="4" | '''Diphthong''': ai̯
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ə
|}
|}


* All vowels lengthen when stressed.
* All vowels become breathy after /ɦ/.
* All vowels become breathy after /ɦ/.
# /i/ and /a/ shift to [ɪ] and [ə] whenever unstressed. The only exception is when /i/ follows /j/, /w/, or /l/ or is at the end of a word.
* /ɯ/ and /ɑ/ shift to [u] and [ɒ] after /w~βʷ/.
# /ɯ/ and /ɑ/ shift to [u] and [ɒ] after /w~βʷ/.
 
===Phonotactics===
 
====Syllable Structure====
 
Wistanian has a (C/FA)V(N) syllable structure where C represents any consonant, F represents any fricative, A represents /j/ or /w/, V represents any vowel, and N represents any consonant that is not /j/, /w/, or /ɦ/.
 
Syllable onsets may be any consonant or any fricative followed by /j/ or /w/:
 
* m, n, p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, v, vj, vw, z, zj, zw, ʒ, ʒj, ʒw, ɦ, ɦj, ɦw, w, r, j, l.
 
Syllable nuclei may be any vowel:
 
* i, e, a, ɑ, ɯ, ai̯
 
Syllable coda may be any consonant that is not /j/, /w/, or /ɦ/.
 
* m, n, p, t, k, b, d, ɡ, v, z, ʒ, ɾ, l


====Stress====
===Syllable Structure===


Stress usually falls on the first non-lax vowel (/ai̯/, /i/, /e/, /a/, /ɯ/, or /ɑ/). But there are many exceptions, especially where the vowels /i/ and /a/ come into place since you must know whether or not those sounds are the stressed /i/ or /a/ or the lax [ɪ] or [ə]. A prime example is between the words '''viman''' and '''viman''', which are spelled identically. When stress is on the /i/ as in [ˈvimən], the word means “sugar”, but when stress is on the /a/ as in [vɪˈman], the word means “sky.” /ai̯/ and /e/ are always stressed. /ɯ/ is always stressed unless it's word-initial (in which case it will usually shift to [ʊ]). /ɑ/ is usually stressed unless non-lax /a/ or /i/ are present. Secondary stress is also lexical, but rare. Many particles and common monosyllabic words are not stressed unless the feature the /e/ or /ai̯/ vowels. (E.g.,'''va''' is normally [və], and '''zi''' is normally [zɪ]; but '''aa''' is normally [ˈe].)
Wistanian has a (C<sub>1</sub>/FA)V(C<sub>2</sub>) syllable structure. (C<sub>1</sub>) can be any phoneme that is a consonant, (FA) can be any fricative (/v/, /z/, /ʒ/, or [ɣ]) immediately followed by an approximate (/w/ or /j/), V is any vowel, and (C<sub>2</sub>) is any consonant that is not an approximate (/w/ or /j/) or /ɦ/.


Stress is realized through vowel lengthening and sometimes a higher intonation.
(C/FA) refers to the optional syllable onset which can either be any consonant or a fricative/approximate cluster (/vj/, /vw/, /zj/, /zw/, /ʒj/, /ʒw/, [ɣj], [ɣw]). V refers to the required syllable nucleus which must be any vowel. (N) is an optional coda, which can be any consonant except /j/, /w ~ βʷ/, or /ɦ/. For example, legal syllables are /vjan/, /pe/, /ai̯l/, and /ɑ/, but syllables like /bjaw/, /zpe/, /ild/ and /r/ are not legal.


===Prosody===
===Prosody===


In Wistanian culture, speaking loudly is considered rude. Therefore, Wistanian language is typically spoken softly and clearly. It is arguably a stress-timed language that realizes stressed syllables and stressed words by lengthening vowel duration.
Wistanian speakers are usually soft and clear, as politeness and simplicity are important values in many of their cultures. In most Talivian villages, speaking loudly is considered rude and is, therefore, looked down upon. In the Southwest, the volume is typically louder. Speed also varies as the Northeast prefers slow and careful speech while the Northwest prefers fast-paced speech.


===Orthography===
===Orthography===
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====Romanization====
====Romanization====


Wistanian employs its own script, but it is romanized with a system that reflects the script and its spellings. The romanization rules are as follows:
Wistanian employs its own script, but it is romanized for Earthlings with a system that reflects the script and its spellings. The romanization rules are as follows:


* /m/, /n/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /v/, /z/, and /l/ are represented with the corresponding IPA symbol.
* /m/, /n/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /v/, /z/, and /l/ are represented with the corresponding IPA symbol.
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* /ai̯/ is represented by ⟨ai⟩.
* /ai̯/ is represented by ⟨ai⟩.
* /e/ is represented by ⟨aa⟩.
* /e/ is represented by ⟨aa⟩.
* /ɑ/ and [ɒ] is represetned by ⟨au⟩.
* /ɑ/ and [ɒ] is represented by ⟨au⟩.


Wistanian employs a number of peculiar digraphs: ⟨bb⟩ = /p/, ⟨dd⟩ = /t/, ⟨gg⟩ = /k/, ⟨aa⟩ = /e/, and ⟨au⟩ = /ɑ/, .
===Script===


When Wistanian writing was developed, /p t k/ only existed allophonically, and /e, ɑ/ did not exist at all. Therefore, glyphs were not made for those sounds. As the language changed and came into contact with other languages, /p t k/ became distinct sounds. Rather than making new glyphs, spellers decided to double up ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, and ⟨g⟩. /e/ is only present in loan words, and the emergence of /ɑ/ is not yet decided, although it's likely due to some conditional /a/ shifting and substrate influence. Since there are only three vowel glyphs, they combined ⟨a⟩ with ⟨u⟩ to represent /ɑ/ as ⟨au⟩, doubled up ⟨a⟩ to represent /e/ as ⟨aa⟩, and kept ⟨ai⟩ as the digraph for the language's only diphthong, /ai/. ⟨ii, ia, iu, ui, ua, uu⟩ are respelled as ⟨yi, ya, yu, wi, wa, wu⟩.
<big><span style="color:red;">'''ACURATE INFORMATION ENDS HERE.'''</span></big>
 
[[File:Slide1.PNG|thumbnail|left|250px|The Wistanian script.]]


====Script====
====Script====
Wistanian has an alphabet which represents the different sounds in Wistanian. The alphabet was inspired by Latin, IPA, and Greek, but is often described as Armenian-looking. The font, based on [[w: Cambria_(typeface)|Cambria]], was created using [https://sketchbook.com/ Autodesk Sketchbook] for the iPad and converted into a font using [https://www.calligraphr.com/en/ Calligraphr] and [https://www.cr8software.net/typelight.html TypeLight].
Wistanian has an alphabet which represents the different sounds in Wistanian. The alphabet was inspired by Latin, IPA, and Greek, but is often described as Armenian-looking. The font, based on [[w: Cambria_(typeface)|Cambria]], was created using [https://sketchbook.com/ Autodesk Sketchbook] for the iPad and converted into a font using [https://www.calligraphr.com/en/ Calligraphr] and [https://www.cr8software.net/typelight.html TypeLight].


The script, often referred to as '''araman taliv auzanigza''' (lit. "dishes of the Taliv") began its evolution during the Diwa oppression when the Taliv people were secretly plotting escape by setting their dishes outside their homes in certain orders to convey messages. After their escape and resettlement on the Wistanian island, the dishes gave form to the written language.
The script, often referred to as '''araman taliv''' (lit. "Talivian dishes") began its evolution during the Diwa oppression when the Taliv people were secretly plotting escape by setting their dishes outside their homes in certain orders to convey messages. After their escape and resettlement on the Wistanian island, the dishes gave form to the written language.


Another interesting feature of the script is "compound glyphs." They are /k/, /t/, /p/, /e/, and /ɑ/, and they are made by doubling or combining two different glyphs together. This is why the romanization of Wistanian uses ⟨gg⟩ for /k/, ⟨au⟩ for /ɑ/, as well as the other digraphs.
Another interesting feature of the script is "compound glyphs." They are /k/, /t/, /p/, /e/, and /ɑ/, and they are made by doubling or combining two different glyphs together. This is why the romanization of Wistanian uses ⟨gg⟩ for /k/, ⟨au⟩ for /ɑ/, as well as the other digraphs. The letter for ⟨i⟩ is also normally connected to the consonant before it.


Like the lexicon and grammar, Daly redesigned the Wistanian script multiple times - three, to be exact. The original script was an alphabet, but it did not capture the "spirit" of Wistanian, so it was scrapped for an abugida. The abugida, which was beautiful, was also difficult to learn and write, prompting yet another redesign. The original design is now considered as the old Diwa alphabet, while the abugida is an alternative script used by the Nati.
Like the lexicon and grammar, the Wistanian script has been redesigned multiple times - three, to be exact. The original script was an alphabet, but it did not capture the "spirit" of Wistanian, so it was scrapped for an abugida. The abugida, which was beautiful, was also difficult to learn and write, prompting yet another redesign. The original design is now considered as the old Diwa alphabet, while the abugida is an alternative script used by the Nati.


===Dialectal Variation===
===Dialectal Variation===
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The Northern Dialect, spoken by many Katapu, is primarily distinguished through extensive devoicing in both fricatives and plosives so that words such as '''vigaz''' /viɡaz/ are pronounced [fikas]. Standard /p t k/ are ejectivized as /p' t' k'/. This dialect also tends to put nasals and voiced plosives as interchangeable so that '''ani''' could be pronounced as [ani] or [adi]. Vowels also undergo a number of shifts, such as <code>ɯ, ɑ > ʊ, o</code>. Like the Western Dialect, the Northern dialect features different kinship terms, specialized vocabulary, unique figures of speech, and a formal register. In contrast, the Katapu has a large collection of honorifics which are based on age, sex, and occupation.
The Northern Dialect, spoken by many Katapu, is primarily distinguished through extensive devoicing in both fricatives and plosives so that words such as '''vigaz''' /viɡaz/ are pronounced [fikas]. Standard /p t k/ are ejectivized as /p' t' k'/. This dialect also tends to put nasals and voiced plosives as interchangeable so that '''ani''' could be pronounced as [ani] or [adi]. Vowels also undergo a number of shifts, such as <code>ɯ, ɑ > ʊ, o</code>. Like the Western Dialect, the Northern dialect features different kinship terms, specialized vocabulary, unique figures of speech, and a formal register. In contrast, the Katapu has a large collection of honorifics which are based on age, sex, and occupation.
One sound change that varies among the dialects is the qualities of the /a/ and /ɑ/ vowels. In the standard accent, they are supposed to be distinctly [a] and [ɑ], however some speakers broaden the distinction by realizing /a/ as [æ]. Speakers of the Northern Dialect shift /ɑ/ to [o], and speakers of the Western Dialect recognize /ɑ/ as its rounded variant [ɒ]. In the Northeast and scattered regions of the central mountains, /a/ and /ɑ/ tend to merge into [a], making some minimal pairs such as '''bani''' (to make) and '''bauni''' (game) homonyms.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==


Wistanian follows a fairly rigid syntax and tight grammar for a number of historical reasons. Firstly, due to its pidginization with the Nati language, Taliv lost most of its irregularities and exceptions. Secondly, as the Katapu began to teach Wistanian, they had spread false information to "make more sense" of the language, which resulted in further simplification that was later adopted as standard. In Wistanian's infancy, it was almost engineered to be as efficient as possible. However, learners were still able to incorporate features from their native language into Wistanian, providing it with several of its current syntactical quirks (e.g., imperative word order was introduced by the Taliv learners).  
Wistanian follows a fairly rigid syntax due to its recent creolization and standardization at its in-universe conception. In almost all cases, Wistanian is verb-initial, followed by the nominative, accusative, instrumental, then purposive noun phrases.


===Lexical Categories===
===Lexical Categories===


Wistanian has five traditional lexical categories (parts of speech): the noun ('''davagg'''), the verb ('''anai'''), the modifier ('''yigbizaun'''), the particle ('''mauvaldul'''), and the honorofics ('''garajil''').  
Wistanian has six lexical categories, the noun, verb, particle, coordinator, honorific, and interjection.  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | Nouns
! style="text-align: center;" | Nouns
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | davagg
| Any word that can act as a subject or object the verb and is able to be either the head or attributive in a compound.
| Any word that takes on nominal morphology and can act as a subject or object the verb.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Verbs
! style="text-align: center;" | Verbs
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | anai
| Any word that takes on verbal morphology and describes a state or action.
| Any word that takes on verbal morphology.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Modifiers
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yigbizaun
| Any word that describes or specifies another word.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Particles
! style="text-align: center;" | Particles
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | mauvaldul
| Any word that has a grammatical role and cannot take on any additional morphemes.
| Any word that has a grammatical role and cannot take on any additional morphemes.
|-
! Coordinator
| Any word that connects two or more words of a similar lexical category or two or more clauses.
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Honorifics
! style="text-align: center;" | Honorifics
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | garajil
| A polite title used with many proper nouns.
| A polite title used with many proper nouns.
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | Interjection
| Any word that can stand alone and expresses a feeling or platitude.
|}
|}


Some scholars argue that there are more parts of speech. For example,'''wi''' and '''igza''' are arguably more semantically fit to be postpositions. However, they are treated like modifiers morphologically, and therefore labeled as such. Relativizers '''va''', '''na''', '''ggaun''', and '''ddal''' could possibly constitute their own part of speech since they do act slightly differently than most particles and carry both a semantic and grammatical meaning.  
===Word Order===
 
Wistanian is predominately head-initial and verb-initial. This is manifested in that particles are always expressed first in a particle phrase (PartP), head verbs are expressed first in a verb phrase (VP), and head nouns are expressed first in a noun phrase (NP).  


Nouns include colors, numbers, and possessive pronouns, therefore they are never treated as modifiers. In order to use them to modify a noun, one must use the relativizer particle '''va'''.  
'''viga dari aa garauda bi.'''
vig-a    dari aa  garauda+bi.
eat-IPV  boy  ACC food+good
"The boy is eating good food."


'''alalyi dari va din.'''
This sentence is made up of the following phrases, the heads in '''bold''':
alali-i  dari '''va      din'''.
run  -PFV boy  '''COP.REL three'''.
"The three boys ran."


===Word Order===
* VP: '''viga'''... garauda
* NP: '''dari'''; '''garauda''' bi
* PartP: '''aa''' garauda


Wistanian has predominant [[w: Verb–subject–object|Verb-Subject-Object]] word order, modifiers that follow their head, post-positional suffixes, and particles that come before their head. Modifier phrases will usually come at the beginning or end of the sentence.
Most of time, declarative and interrogative sentences will be expressed as verb-subject-object (VSO). However, imperative sentences use verb-object-subject (VOS). In the formal register of the Western Dialect, the word order changes dramatically into subject-object-verb (SOV), due to the SOV word order of the Bwolotil language spoken in those areas.  


  '''azavyi ravu miram wi daz ilam aa naulam ggarauni va din ggaun maumu va zi.'''
  '''auv bimaj daridd, auzunwaj aa ujadi va jin, lu.'''
  azavi-i   ravu miram wi  daz ilam aa  naulam ggarauni va  din   ggaun maumu  va  zi.
  auv  bima-a  -j   daridd, auzunu-a -j  aa  ujadi va  jin,   lu.
  carry-PFV fast store ADE man young ACC melon  large    COP three BEN  mother COP 3Sa.POSS.
  TEMP fall-DUR-IRR rain,  arrive-DUR-IRR ACC house COP green, 2S.NOM.  
  "The young man quickly carried three large melons to the store for his mother."
  "When the rain falls, come into the house that is green."
*carried fast store to man young melons which.is three large for mother who.is his.


===Questions===
===Questions===
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  '''yigai auzi aa a?'''
  '''yigai auzi aa a?'''
  yiga -i  auzi    '''aa  a'''?
  yiga -i  auzi    '''aa  a'''?
  speak-PFV 3Sa.NOM '''ACC Q'''.
  speak-PRF 3Sa.NOM '''ACC Q'''.
  "What did he say?" (Lit. "He said...?")
  "What did he say?" (Lit. "He said...?")


Line 407: Line 395:
  walk.to-DUR 1S.NOM ACC boat DSTV.
  walk.to-DUR 1S.NOM ACC boat DSTV.
  "I am walking away from the boat."
  "I am walking away from the boat."
===Modification and Description===
Wistanian does not have a separate lexical category for determiners, adjectives, or adverbs. Rather these roles are replaced entirely by stative verbs, subordinate nouns, and other processes such as productive reduplication.
Since stative verbs describe a state, identity, or condition of a verb, many of them can be used instransitively as 'to be X. For example, '''bimiya''' (<code>fall-STA</code>) means 'to be fallen'; '''haayiya''' (<code>live-STA</code>) means 'to be alive'; '''iyiniya''' (<code>finish-STA</code>) means 'to be done.' This takes care of many phrases that English would use a predicate adjective for.
'''dajiya yau.'''
'''daji-iya''' yau.
'''hide-STA''' 1S.NOM.
"I am hidden"
'''zahuniya yau.'''
'''zahuna-iya''' yau
'''hunger-STA''' 1S.nom
"I am hungry."
In the cases when the stative verb is not the main VP within a sentence, it is attached to its head with the active relativizer particle '''gaun'''.
'''ihilya lima gaun dajiya.'''
ihili-a  lima '''gaun''' daji-iya
laugh-DUR girl '''ACT'''  hide-STA.
"The hidden girl is laughing."
/"laughing girl who hides."
'''viga dari gaun zahuniya aa garauda.'''
viga-a  dari '''gaun''' zahuna-iya aa  garauda.
eat -DUR boy  '''ACT'''  hunger-STA ACC food.
"The hungry boy is eating food"
/"eating boy who hungers (ACC) food."
Wistanian nouns compound often and productively. Compounds are always head initial, followed by the subordinate noun. For example:
'''ariyau garauvi'''
basket water
"water basket"
'''ariz  mauddan'''
brush hair
"hairbrush"
(SIDENOTE: Some of the most common compounds are represented orthographically as one word, however this is of little consequence in spoken Wistanian.)
Colors, possessives, numbers, and determiners act as nouns, and therefore can be featured after a noun to be its subordinate.
'''jiyag bayaari''' '''jiyag yi'''
leaf  brown leaf  mine
"brown leaf "my leaf"
'''jiyag din'''         '''jiyag id'''
leaf  three leaf  this
"three leaves" "this leaf"
Because colors, possessives, numbers, and determiners are nouns, they can effectively act as agents and patients within a sentence, fulfilling any and every role as a normal noun can.
'''duliya yau aa bayaari.'''
dula  -iya yau    aa  '''bayaari.'''
put.on-STA 1S.NOM ACC '''brown.'''
"I am wearing the brown thing."
'''umaadai yi.'''
umaad-ai  '''yi'''
sink -PRF '''mine'''
"Mine sank."
'''alalya din aa ujadi.'''
alali -a  '''din'''  aa  ujadi
run.to-DUR '''three''' ACC house.
"The three are running to the house."
'''dajiya id.'''
daji-iya '''id'''.
hide-STA '''this'''.
"This is hidden."
A final option is to use a relativizer particle. This method is favorable is formal contexts. In most cases, the possessive '''na''' is used, but colors, numbers, and possessives can also use the copulative particle '''va'''. This is slightly different than using a subordinate noun, since subordinate nouns help identify the head, whereas ''na'' and ''va'' phrases add new information to the head.
'''magin na lizai.'''
magin '''na  lizai'''.
table '''POSS great'''.
"The table is great."
/"The table has greatness."
'''magin va bayaari.'''
magin '''va  bayaari'''.
table '''COP brown'''.
"The table is brown"
'''magin na bayaari.'''
magin '''na bayaari'''.
table '''POSS brown'''.
"The table is brown."
/"The table has brown."
'''jwai yau aa garauda ddal magin na bayaari.'''
ju -ai  yau    aa  garauda ddal magin '''na bayaari'''.
set-PRF 1S.NOM ACC food    LOC  table '''POSS brown'''.
"I put the food on the table, which is brown."
In some instances, nouns refer to a quality such as "loveliness", "peacefulness", "quietness", or "loudness".
'''yigai dari urabaa.'''
yiga -ai  dari '''urabaa'''
speak-PRF boy  '''loudness'''
"The loud boy spoke."
/"The loudness boy spoke."
'''yigai urabba.'''
yiga -ai  '''urabaa'''.
speak-PRF '''loudness'''.
"The loud one spoke."
/"The loudness spoke."
'''yigai dari aa urabaa.'''
yiga -ai  dari aa  '''urabaa'''.
speak-PRF boy  ACC '''loudness'''.
"The boy spoke something loud."
/"The boy spoke loudness."
There are also no adverbs, such as the word "loudly" in "the boy spoke loudly." Since this is a description of how or with what the verb was accomplished, the Wistanian speaker will use the instrumental particle '''il'''.
'''yigai dari il urabaa.'''
yiga -ai  dari '''il  urabaa'''.
speak-PRF boy  '''INST loudness'''.
"The boy spoke loudly."
/"The boy spoke with loudness."
Reduplication is another form of intensifying a verb or indicating a repeated action. To intensify a verb, simply reduplicate the entire verb (favored in formal contexts) or just the final syllable (favored in informal contexts).
'''hadiya hadiya yau.'''
'''hadu-iya hadu-iya''' yau.
'''know-STA know-STA''' 1S.NOM.
"I know very well." (Formal)
'''hadiyaya yau.'''
'''hadu-iya~ya'''  yau
'''know-STA~AUG''' 1S.NOM
"I know very well." (Informal)
To indicate a repeated action, reduplicate the verb including the coordinating particles '''ya'''. The reduplicated verbs are often marked the same.
'''ya yiga ya yiga auzi.'''
'''ya yiga-a  ya yiga-a'''  auzi.
'''CO talk-DUR CO talk-DUR''' 3Sa.NOM.
"He keeps talking."
/"He is talking and is talking."
'''ya yigai ya yigai auzi.'''
'''ya yiga-ai  ya yiga-ai'''  auzi.
'''CO talk-PRF CO talk-PRF''' 3Sa.NOM
"He kept talking."
/"He talked and talked."


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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====Pronouns====
====Pronouns====


Pronouns come in five persons: first, second, third animate, third inanimate, and third person spiritual.
''currently being rehauled''
 
* '''1st person''' singular (<code>1S</code>) pronouns are used to refer to the speaker. First person plural (<code>1P</code>) is used to refer to the speaker and an indeterminate number of others.
* '''2nd person''' singular (<code>2S</code>) pronouns are used to refer to the listener/reader. 2nd person plural (<code>2P</code>) is used to refer to two or more listeners/readers.
* '''3rd person animate''' pronouns are used to refer to people and some animals, especially pets and birds. They come as both singular (<code>3Sa</code>) and plural (<code>3Pa</code>).
* '''3rd person inanimate''' pronouns are used to refer to wild animals, objects, events, noun clauses, and even entire sentences. They come as both singular (<code>3Si</code>) and plural (<code>3Pi</code>).
* '''3rd person spiritual''' pronouns are used to refer to spirits, sacred objects and places, and the dead. They come as both singular (<code>3Ss</code>) and plural (<code>3Ps</code>).
 
These five persons are split into three grammatical categories:
 
* '''Nominative''' (<code>NOM</code>) Used as the subject of the sentence.
* '''Accusative''' (<code>ACC</code>) Used as the object of the sentence.
* '''Possessive''' (<code>POSS</code>) Used for possession. Often omitted if context is clear.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |
! style="text-align: center;" | Possessive
! style="text-align: center;" | Nominative
! style="text-align: center;" | Accusative
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 1st Person
! style="text-align: center;" | SG
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | dau
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | PL
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | yaun
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | daun
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 2nd Person
! style="text-align: center;" | SG
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | luhi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lun
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | PL
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | luhin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | liv
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | livan
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 3rd Person Animate
! style="text-align: center;" | SG
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zi
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | auzi
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | PL
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | zin
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | auzin
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 3rd Person Inanimate
! style="text-align: center;" | SG
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vai
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | PL
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | vain
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 3rd Person Spiritual
! style="text-align: center;" | SG
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | ji
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | ja
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | PL
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jin
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jan
|}


====Compounding====
====Compounding====
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===Verbs===
===Verbs===


'''THIS SECTION IS INCOMPLETE'''
''needs expansion''


Verbs, which tend to be expressed at the beginning of a sentence, are defined as any state or action applied to or applied by the subject. Wistanian verbs conjugate between the stative aspect, durative aspect, durative/perfective aspect, and irrealis mood. There are also a number of verbal particles (featured at the beginning of a VP) that denote conditional, telic, gnomic, permissive, obligative, and potential moods. There are a number of suffixes that can derive nouns from verbs. Tense is not marked but rather implied through context.
Verbs, which tend to be expressed at the beginning of a sentence, are defined as any state or action applied to or applied by the subject. Wistanian verbs conjugate between the stative aspect, durative aspect, durative/perfect aspect, and irrealis mood. There are also a number of verbal particles (featured at the beginning of a VP) that denote conditional, telic, gnomic, permissive, obligative, and potential moods. There are a number of suffixes that can derive nouns from verbs. Tense is not marked but rather implied through context.


All verbs possess either an ⟨-a⟩, ⟨-i⟩, or ⟨-u⟩ stem. Nouns or loan words that are added to the Wistanian lexicon are typically given the ⟨-a⟩ stem. Therefore ⟨-i⟩ and ⟨-u⟩ stems are usually attributed to verbs from Taliv unless a non-Talivian verb already ended with ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨-u⟩ (or a similar sound). These stems influence the conjugation paradigms of a verb, mainly by shifting to ⟨y⟩ if the stem is ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨w⟩ if the stem is ⟨-u⟩. Unconjugated, the verb acts as a gerund.
All verbs possess either an ⟨-a⟩, ⟨-i⟩, or ⟨-u⟩ stem. Nouns or loan words that are added to the Wistanian lexicon are typically given the ⟨-a⟩ stem. Therefore ⟨-i⟩ and ⟨-u⟩ stems are usually attributed to verbs from Taliv unless a non-Talivian verb already ended with ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨-u⟩ (or a similar sound). These stems influence the conjugation paradigms of a verb, mainly by shifting to ⟨y⟩ if the stem is ⟨-i⟩ or ⟨w⟩ if the stem is ⟨-u⟩. Unconjugated, the verb acts as a gerund.
Line 534: Line 606:
Aspect is chiefly lexical in Wistanian, conjugating verbs as either stative, which indicated a state of the subject noun, or durative, which indicates the action of a subject. For example, the verb '''hadu''' means "know" in the stative and "learn" in the durative. The verb '''dula''' means "wear" in the stative and "put on" in the durative. The verb '''vaiza''' means "need" in the stative and "run out of" in the durative.
Aspect is chiefly lexical in Wistanian, conjugating verbs as either stative, which indicated a state of the subject noun, or durative, which indicates the action of a subject. For example, the verb '''hadu''' means "know" in the stative and "learn" in the durative. The verb '''dula''' means "wear" in the stative and "put on" in the durative. The verb '''vaiza''' means "need" in the stative and "run out of" in the durative.


The durative verb can also take on an additional suffix, the perfective ⟨-i⟩, which reacts to the durative ⟨-a⟩, becoming ⟨-ai⟩.  
The durative verb can also take on an additional suffix, the perfect ⟨-i⟩, which reacts to the durative ⟨-a⟩, becoming ⟨-ai⟩.
 
The conjugation paradigm of Wistanian is mostly regular due to pidginization, although some irregularities exist. Typically, the ⟨-a⟩ stem with be replaced with durative ⟨-a⟩, perfect ⟨-ai⟩, and stative ⟨-iya⟩. The ⟨-i⟩ and ⟨-u⟩ stems will shift in ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ respective before taking on the aspect markers. However, monosyllabic verbs that begin with a non-fricative consonant undergo epenthesis (the addition of a sound). When with the ⟨-a⟩ stem, it will be replaced with durative ⟨-aha⟩, perfect ⟨-ai⟩, and stative ⟨-ahiya⟩. When with the ⟨-i⟩ stem, it is replaced with durative ⟨-aya⟩, perfect ⟨-ayai⟩, and stative ⟨-iya⟩. When with the ⟨-u⟩ stem, it is replaced with durative ⟨-awa⟩, perfect ⟨-awai⟩, and stative ⟨-awiya⟩. Verbs ending in ⟨-iya⟩ also take on an irregular conjugation in which ⟨-iya⟩ is replaced with durative ⟨-a⟩, perfect ⟨-ai⟩, stative ⟨-iya⟩ rather that just the ⟨-a⟩ stem.
 
The only single vowel verb is '''u''' (to drink) and is conjugated as durative '''wa''', perfect '''wai''', and stative '''wiya'''.  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 540: Line 616:
! style="text-align: center;" | Stative
! style="text-align: center;" | Stative
! style="text-align: center;" | Durative
! style="text-align: center;" | Durative
! style="text-align: center;" | Perfective
! style="text-align: center;" | Perfect
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | dula
! style="text-align: center;" | dula
Line 583: Line 659:
Durative verbs specifically describe the process of going from one state to the other, usually opposite, state. For example, '''yiga''' in the durative describe the process from the beginning of a statement to the end of a statement. The word '''ja''', which means "want" in the stative but "falling in love" in the durative, describes the process from a state of apathy to a state of obsession. This is especially notable with '''hadu'''. In the stative, it means "to know", but in the durative, it describes the process from being ignorant to being informed: "learning."
Durative verbs specifically describe the process of going from one state to the other, usually opposite, state. For example, '''yiga''' in the durative describe the process from the beginning of a statement to the end of a statement. The word '''ja''', which means "want" in the stative but "falling in love" in the durative, describes the process from a state of apathy to a state of obsession. This is especially notable with '''hadu'''. In the stative, it means "to know", but in the durative, it describes the process from being ignorant to being informed: "learning."


=====Perfective=====
=====Perfect=====


The Perfective Aspect (<code>PFV</code>) is applied to a dynamic verb that views the action as a completed whole, strongly implying the past tense in the reallis and future tense in the irrealis. Although the perfective is formed by adding ⟨-i⟩ to the durative ⟨-a⟩, becoming ⟨-ai⟩, it is glossed only as <code>PFV</code> rather than <code>DUR-PFV</code> for the sake of saving space.
The Perfect Aspect (<code>PRF</code>) is applied to a dynamic verb that views the action as a completed whole, strongly implying the past tense in the realis and future tense in the irrealis. Although the perfect is formed by adding ⟨-i⟩ to the durative ⟨-a⟩, becoming ⟨-ai⟩, it is glossed only as <code>PRF</code> rather than <code>DUR-PRF</code> for the sake of saving space.


   '''yigai yau anigalilaun.'''
   '''yigai yau anigalilaun.'''
   yiga '''-ai'''  yau    ani    -galilaun.
   yiga '''-ai'''  yau    ani    -galilaun.
   speak'''-PFV''' 1S.NOM language-peace.
   speak'''-PRF''' 1S.NOM language-peace.
   "I spoke (in) Wistanian."
   "I spoke (in) Wistanian."


As perfective, the verb '''yiga''' suggests a specific event that is a completed whole. It is important to understand the difference between the perfective and stative aspects since many stative verbs can be roughly translated as "has been X". Stative verbs are states, while perfective verbs are actions. Stative verbs are also usually still applicable in the moment of utterance while perfective verbs are usually not.
As perfect, the verb '''yiga''' suggests a specific event that is a completed whole. It is important to understand the difference between the perfect and stative aspects since many stative verbs can be roughly translated as "has been X". Stative verbs are states, while perfect verbs are actions. Stative verbs are also usually still applicable in the moment of utterance while perfect verbs are usually not.


====Mood and Additional Aspects====
====Mood and Additional Aspects====
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Irrealis verbs describe an action that has not occurred. This mood is applied to verbs that refer to a future state or action, interrogative and polite imperative sentences, and conditional, obligative, and potential moods. Irrealis verbs are conjugated with the suffix ⟨-j⟩, which follows after the aspect marking. It is not applied to negated verbs.
Irrealis verbs describe an action that has not occurred. This mood is applied to verbs that refer to a future state or action, interrogative and polite imperative sentences, and conditional, obligative, and potential moods. Irrealis verbs are conjugated with the suffix ⟨-j⟩, which follows after the aspect marking. It is not applied to negated verbs.


Whenever the irrealis is used on a verb without an aspect marker, it is assumed to be indicative of a future action (in most cases). The verb "walk" has not literally happened yet, which is why it is in the irrealis. However, the speaker is sure that the action will occur at some time in the future, which is why it is in the unmarked indicative.
Whenever the irrealis is used on a verb without an aspect marker, it is assumed to be indicative of a future action (in most cases). In the following example, the verb "walk" has not literally happened yet, which is why it is in the irrealis. However, the speaker is sure that the action will occur at some time in the future, which is why it is in the unmarked indicative.


   '''budaij yau miram.'''
   '''nadaij yau miram.'''
   buda   -ai '''-j'''  yau    miram.
   nada   -ai '''-j'''  yau    miram.
   walk.to-PFV'''-IRR''' 1S.NOM store.
   walk.to-PRF'''-IRR''' 1S.NOM store.
   "I will walk to the store."
   "I will walk to the store."


Line 625: Line 701:
   "The man usually puts on shirts."
   "The man usually puts on shirts."


When applied to a perfective verb, the sentence is translated that the subject has done the action before.
When applied to a perfect verb, the sentence is translated that the subject has done the action before.


   '''gaun dulai daz aa nibaz.'''  
   '''gaun dulai daz aa nibaz.'''  
   '''gaun''' dula  '''-ai'''  daz aa  nibaz.
   '''gaun''' dula  '''-ai'''  daz aa  nibaz.
   '''GNO'''  put.on'''-PFV''' man ACC shirt.
   '''GNO'''  put.on'''-PRF''' man ACC shirt.
   "The man has put on a shirt before."
   "The man has put on a shirt before."


Line 638: Line 714:
   '''a murwij ya, junaij lu ddal dim dau.'''
   '''a murwij ya, junaij lu ddal dim dau.'''
   '''a'''    muru-i  '''-j'''  yau,    juna-i  -j  lu    ddal dim  dau.
   '''a'''    muru-i  '''-j'''  yau,    juna-i  -j  lu    ddal dim  dau.
   '''COND''' die -PFV '''-IRR''' 1S.NOM, bury-PFV-IRR 2S.NOM LOC  hill 1S.ACC.  
   '''COND''' die -PRF '''-IRR''' 1S.NOM, bury-PRF-IRR 2S.NOM LOC  hill 1S.ACC.  
   "If I die, you will bury me on the hill."
   "If I die, you will bury me on the hill."


Line 670: Line 746:
   '''zaggu umaadaij yi luj, a hiyaj yaadd vaddal.'''
   '''zaggu umaadaij yi luj, a hiyaj yaadd vaddal.'''
   '''zaggu''' umaada-i  '''-j'''  yi      luj,  a    hi  -iya-j  yaadd ddal.
   '''zaggu''' umaada-i  '''-j'''  yi      luj,  a    hi  -iya-j  yaadd ddal.
   '''HYP'''  sink  -PFV'''-IRR''' 1S.POSS boat,  COND exist-STA-IRR hole  LOC.
   '''HYP'''  sink  -PRF'''-IRR''' 1S.POSS boat,  COND exist-STA-IRR hole  LOC.
   "My boat could sink if there is a hole in it."  
   "My boat could sink if there is a hole in it."
 
The potential can also be translated as "would" or "would like to" in contexts without a conditional VP.
 
zaggu jigani-a  -j  yau    aa  liv    il    zauv.
POT  order -DUR-IRR 1S.NOM ACC 2S.ACC INSTR soup.
"I would like to order the soup from you."
(Lit. "I could order you with soup.")


=====Atelic=====
=====Atelic=====


The atelic aspect (<code>ATEL</code>) refers to a verb that does not have an intended endpoint, whether because the action failed or was directionless. The atelic is denoted with the particle '''in''' and can only be applied to durative or perfective verbs.
The atelic aspect (<code>ATEL</code>) refers to a verb that does not have an intended endpoint, whether because the action failed or was directionless. The atelic is denoted with the particle '''in''' and can only be applied to durative or perfect verbs.


   '''in budai yau miram, auv nu va din.'''
   '''in budai yau miram, auv nu va din.'''
   '''in'''  buda  -ai  yau    miram, auv  nu    va  din.
   '''in'''  buda  -ai  yau    miram, auv  nu    va  din.
   '''ATEL''' walk.to-PFV 1S.NOM store, TEMP minute COP three.
   '''ATEL''' walk.to-PRF 1S.NOM store, TEMP minute COP three.
   "I walked toward the store for three minutes."
   "I walked toward the store for three minutes."


Line 685: Line 768:


====Gerunds====
====Gerunds====
''under construction''


====Derivational Suffixes====
====Derivational Suffixes====
Line 702: Line 787:
  viga > vigaun
  viga > vigaun
  eat  > the act of eating
  eat  > the act of eating
===Modifiers===
''needs expansion (desperately)''
Modifiers immediately follow their head. Morphologically, there is no difference between an adjective and an adverb, since they rely on word order. Modifier phrases can be expressed either at the beginning or end of a sentence or after the verb, if it modifies it. Temporal phrases prefer the beginning of the sentence.
====Modifier Position====
Modifiers are always positioned immediately after the word that it modifies, whether a noun or a verb.
'''yigai dari urabaa.'''
yiga -i  dari '''urabaa'''.
speak-PFV boy  '''loud'''.
"The loud boy spoke."
'''yigai urabaa dari.'''
yiga -i  '''urabaa''' dari.
speak-PFV '''loud'''  boy.
"The boy spoke loudly."
Modifier phrases, such as those that begin with the particles '''va''', '''na''', '''ddal''', and '''gaun''', are also featured immediately after its head - specifically nouns.
'''yigai dari na urabaa.'''
yiga -i  dari '''na urabaa'''.
speak-PFV boy  '''POSS loud.'''.
"The boy, who is loud, spoke."
====Negation====
Nouns, verbs, and modifiers can be [[w: Affirmation_and_negation|negated]] using the prefix '''bau(n)-'''.
'''baudaiziya yau.'''
'''bau-'''daizi-iya yau.
'''NEG-'''sing -STA 1S.NOM.
"I do not sing."
'''haaggiya bauzaun aa audi va zi.'''
haaggi-iya '''bau-'''zaun  aa  audi        va  zi.
insult-STA '''NEG-'''person ACC grandfather COP 3Sa.POSS.
"No one insults their grandfather."
'''luj id na baubi.'''
luj  id  na  '''bau-'''bi.
boat PROX POSS '''NEG-'''good.
"This boat is not good."


===Particles===
===Particles===
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   '''maniyai ami aa umbu va zi.'''
   '''maniyai ami aa umbu va zi.'''
   mayiya-i  ami    '''aa'''  umbu va  zi.
   mayiya-i  ami    '''aa'''  umbu va  zi.
   break -PFV friend '''ACC''' bone COP 3S.POSS
   break -PRF friend '''ACC''' bone COP 3S.POSS
   "The friend broke their bone."
   "The friend broke their bone."


Line 800: Line 840:
   '''vigai dari vai.'''
   '''vigai dari vai.'''
   viga-i  dari '''vai'''.
   viga-i  dari '''vai'''.
   eat -PFV boy  '''3Si.ACC'''.
   eat -PRF boy  '''3Si.ACC'''.
   "The boy ate it."
   "The boy ate it."


Line 812: Line 852:
   '''dduwi auzi auzi'''
   '''dduwi auzi auzi'''
   ddu-(w)i auzi    '''auzi'''.
   ddu-(w)i auzi    '''auzi'''.
   hit-PFV 3Sa.NOM '''3Sa.ACC'''
   hit-PRF 3Sa.NOM '''3Sa.ACC'''
   "He hit himself."
   "He hit himself."


   '''dduwi auzi aa auzi.'''
   '''dduwi auzi aa auzi.'''
   ddu-(w)i auzi    '''aa auzi'''.
   ddu-(w)i auzi    '''aa auzi'''.
   hit-PFV 3Sa.NOM '''ACC 3Sa.ACC'''.
   hit-PRF 3Sa.NOM '''ACC 3Sa.ACC'''.
   "He hit him."
   "He hit him."


Line 840: Line 880:
  "I work with a hammer."
  "I work with a hammer."


The instrumental particle is also used to mark the theme of a ditransitive verb, doubling as a sort of dative marker.  
The instrumental particle is also used to mark the theme of the verbs '''dazji''' (to give), '''viru''' (to send), and '''azavi''' (to carry), that is the item that is being given, sent, or carried. The goal is marked as accusative (i.e., what or who the theme is being given, sent, or carried to). Wistanian does not employ a dative marker.


  '''dazjyi yau liv il jauni.'''
  '''dazjyi yau liv il jauni.'''
  dazji-i  yau    liv    '''il'''    jauni.
  dazji-i  yau    liv    '''il'''    jauni.
  give-PFV 1S.NOM 2S.ACC '''INSTR''' flower.
  give-PRF 1S.NOM 2S.ACC '''INSTR''' flower.
  "I gave you a flower." (Lit. "I give you with a flower.")
  "I gave you a flower." (Lit. "I give you with a flower.")
'''azavyi yau aa miram il naulam id.'''
azavi-i  yau    aa  miram '''il'''    maulam id.
carry-DUR 1S.NOM ACC store '''INSTR''' melon  PROX.
"I am carrying this melon to the store." (Lit. "I carry (to) the store with this melon.")


The instrumental particle is used for emphatic reflexives by complimenting the accusative form of the subject pronoun.
The instrumental particle is used for emphatic reflexives by complimenting the accusative form of the subject pronoun.
Line 860: Line 905:
   '''murwi auzi ggaun liv.'''
   '''murwi auzi ggaun liv.'''
   muru-i  auzi  '''ggaun''' liv.
   muru-i  auzi  '''ggaun''' liv.
   die -PFV 3S.NOM '''BEN'''  2S.ACC.
   die -PRF 3S.NOM '''BEN'''  2S.ACC.
   "He died for you." / "He died for your benefit."
   "He died for you." / "He died for your benefit."


   '''murwi auzi diri liv.'''
   '''murwi auzi diri liv.'''
   muru-i  auzi  '''diri''' liv.
   muru-i  auzi  '''diri''' liv.
   die -PFV 3S.NOM '''CAU'''  2S.ACC.
   die -PRF 3S.NOM '''CAU'''  2S.ACC.
   "He died because of you." / "It was your fault he died."
   "He died because of you." / "It was your fault he died."


Line 873: Line 918:


====Modal Particles====
====Modal Particles====
''See {{section link||Mood and Additional Aspects}} for now.''
''See [[Wistanian#Mood_and_Additional_Aspects|Mood and Additional Aspects]] for now.''


====Relativizer Particles====
====Relativizer Particles====
Line 939: Line 984:
  '''dajyi ya dari ya lari.'''
  '''dajyi ya dari ya lari.'''
  daji-i  '''ya''' dari '''ya''' lari.
  daji-i  '''ya''' dari '''ya''' lari.
  hide-PFV '''CO''' boy  '''CO''' girl.
  hide-PRF '''CO''' boy  '''CO''' girl.
  "The boy and the girl hid."
  "The boy and the girl hid."


Weak coordination (<code>WCO</code>) refers to a co-actor in the sentence while keeping the focus on a specific item of the list, which is usually featured at the beginning of the list and without a particle. It is denoted with the word '''vil''' (from the word '''viluba''': "to touch").
Weak coordination (<code>WCO</code>) refers to a co-actor in the sentence while keeping the focus on a specific item of the list, which is usually featured at the beginning of the list and without a particle. It is denoted with the word '''vil''' (from the word '''viluba''': "to touch").


  '''dajyi dari nuz lari.'''
  '''dajyi dari vil lari.'''
  daji-i  dari '''vil''' lari.
  daji-i  dari '''vil''' lari.
  hide-PFV boy  '''WCO''' girl.
  hide-PRF boy  '''WCO''' girl.
  "The boy hid with the girl."
  "The boy hid with the girl."


Line 999: Line 1,044:
==Semantics==
==Semantics==


The [[Wistanian/Lexicon|Wistanian Lexicon]] currently stands at 600 words as of October 2018, with a goal of accomplishing 2,500 words by the end of the year. A minimum of 10 words are actively added to the lexicon almost every day.  
The [[Wistanian/Lexicon|Wistanian Lexicon]] currently stands at 600 words as of October 2018.  


[[File:WistanianFamily.png|thumb|right|A typical Wistanian family]]
[[File:WistanianFamily.png|thumb|right|A typical Wistanian family from the Taliv group]]
===Kinship===
===Kinship===


Wistanian kinship is a modified version of the [[w: Hawaiian_kinship|Hawaiian system]] common in most Malayo-Polynesian languages. In this system, siblings and first cousins share terms with only a gender and age distinction. Mothers are usually given a term of endearment by their children (usually '''mu'''), but a child's aunts will also be called "mother" and the father and uncles will share terms as well. Most of Wistanian culture is [[w: Ambilineality|ambilineal]] and [[w: Matrifocal_family|matrifocal]], so that children live and associate closest to their mother and her side of the family. For this reason, a child's mother's brother will often be just as much of a father figure as the child's biological father, who may or may not be involved in the family.  
Wistanian kinship is a modified version of the [[w: Hawaiian_kinship|Hawaiian system]] common in most Malayo-Polynesian languages. In this system, siblings and first cousins share terms with only a gender and age distinction. Mothers are usually given a term of endearment by their children (usually '''mu'''), but a child's aunts will also be called "mother" and the father and uncles will share terms as well. Most of Wistanian culture is [[w: Ambilineality|ambilineal]] and [[w: Matrifocal_family|matrifocal]], so that children live and associate closest to their mother and her side of the family. For this reason, a child's mother's brother will often be just as much of a father figure as the child's biological father, who may or may not be involved in the family. Some parts of Wistania has abandoned the concept of marriage, and rather focus on cohabitation and parenthood. The terms for "husband" and "wife" are semantically light and can refer to a close friendship or a sexual partner. Literally, they mean "my man" and "my woman".  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 1,059: Line 1,104:
|}
|}


The Bwolotil people are more [[w: Nuclear_family|nuclear]], consisting of only a mother, father, and one or two children. They have their own kinship terms from their language. Some Katapu people share the typical family structure and kinship terms. However, most family structures are [[W: Extended_family|extended]] so that families live amongst the mother's extended family, and fathers are usually present in the home. Most of their kinship terms also come from the Katapu language, but some Wistanian terms are borrowed as well.
The Bwolotil people are more [[w: Nuclear_family|nuclear]], consisting of only a mother, father, and one or two children. They have their own kinship terms from their language. Some Katapu people share the typical family structure and kinship terms. However, most family structures in that people group are [[W: Extended_family|extended]] so that families live amongst the mother's extended family, and fathers are usually present in the home. Most of their kinship terms also come from the Katapu language, but some Wistanian terms are borrowed as well.


===Colors===
===Colors===
Line 1,093: Line 1,138:
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#333333; color:#ffffff;" | auzna
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#333333; color:#ffffff;" | auzna
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#cb0000; color:#ffffff;" | iraa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#cb0000; color:#ffffff;" | iraa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#993300; color:#ffffff;" | zuvil<br> jaaru
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#993300; color:#ffffff;" | zuvil<br /> jaaru
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#990000; color:#ffffff;" | bayaari
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#990000; color:#ffffff;" | bayaari
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#999900; color:#ffffff;" | zuwi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#999900; color:#ffffff;" | zuwi
Line 1,103: Line 1,148:
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#990066; color:#ffffff;" | aana
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#990066; color:#ffffff;" | aana
|-
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9b9b9b;" | au<br> garaji
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9b9b9b;" | au<br /> garaji
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#fe0000;" | raul<br> nidda <br> hagg
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#fe0000;" | raul<br /> nidda <br /> hagg
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff6600;" | aurin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff6600;" | aurin
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff9900;" | auwu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff9900;" | auwu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffff00;" | luz<br> aubra
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ffff00;" | luz<br /> aubra
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ccff00;" | luamiz
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ccff00;" | luamiz
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#33ff33;" | jan<br> bazu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#33ff33;" | jan<br /> bazu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#00ffcc;" | ddi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#00ffcc;" | ddi
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#0033ff;" | zaz<br> iyad
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#0033ff;" | zaz<br /> iyad
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9900ff;" | ivau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#9900ff;" | ivau
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff0099;" | liwa
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic; background-color:#ff0099;" | liwa
Line 1,126: Line 1,171:


===Numbers===
===Numbers===
''needs expansion''


Classically, the Taliv only counted up to five, including a single word that meant "more than five" (this term is now obsolete, however, it has fossilized as the plural marker '''-(a)n''') They also had names for sets of five: five was a hand (5), five hands were an arm (25), five arms were a body (125), five bodies were a family (625), five families were a village (3,125), three villages were a city (15,625), and five cities were a nation (78,125). So, for example, the number 20,708 would be explained as "one city, one village, three families, three arms, one hand, and three." Counting that high, however, was not very common in Talivian culture, since resources were normally plentiful and the economy was a basic bartering system of trading goods. The highest a regular person would need to count would be "two hands and four" when reporting to their friends how many fish they caught that day.  
Classically, the Taliv only counted up to five, including a single word that meant "more than five" (this term is now obsolete, however, it has fossilized as the plural marker '''-(a)n''') They also had names for sets of five: five was a hand (5), five hands were an arm (25), five arms were a body (125), five bodies were a family (625), five families were a village (3,125), three villages were a city (15,625), and five cities were a nation (78,125). So, for example, the number 20,708 would be explained as "one city, one village, three families, three arms, one hand, and three." Counting that high, however, was not very common in Talivian culture, since resources were normally plentiful and the economy was a basic bartering system of trading goods. The highest a regular person would need to count would be "two hands and four" when reporting to their friends how many fish they caught that day.  
Line 1,340: Line 1,386:
! style="text-align: center;" | 92
! style="text-align: center;" | 92
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nuvaayaa vil vai
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with two
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 2
|-
|-
! style="text-align: center;" | 13
! style="text-align: center;" | 13
Line 1,454: Line 1,500:
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 9
| style="text-align: center;" | 9, 0* with 9
|}
|}
''to be continued...''


===Seat of Emotion===
===Seat of Emotion===
Line 1,469: Line 1,513:
===Vulgarity and Taboos===
===Vulgarity and Taboos===


Every culture possesses a strong taboo against slurs, which is partly due to the rocky history of racism during the post-war era of the country. Some slurs include '''baubau''', a diminutive of the word Bwolotil, often used to describe things that are dark and ugly. Holding the '''u''' sound can also get a young Wistanian in trouble for its history as a chant against the Uzin. Terms referring to religion are also taboo when used out of context, especially in the Katapu tribes; for example, calling something '''ggauduvahi''' ("great" or "grand") is considered offensive since that term should only be applied to a place of worship. Terms referring to sex or bodily functions are only taboo in the Katapu and, to a smaller extent, the Bwolotil and Uzin cultures while the Taliv and Nati are reather comfortable with those topics.
Every culture possesses a strong taboo against slurs, which is partly due to the rocky history of racism during the post-war era of the country. Some slurs include '''baubau''', a diminutive of the word Bwolotil, often used to describe things that are dark and ugly. Holding the '''u''' sound can also get a young Wistanian in trouble for its history as a chant against the Uzin. Terms referring to religion are also taboo when used out of context, especially in the Katapu tribes; for example, calling something '''ggauduvahi''' ("great" or "grand") is considered offensive since that term should only be applied to a place of worship. Terms referring to sex or bodily functions are only taboo in the Katapu and, to a smaller extent, the Bwolotil and Uzin cultures while the Taliv and Nati are rather comfortable with those topics.


It is considered vulgar over the entire nation to use the name of a family member in vain, especially if that family member is deceased.
It is considered vulgar over the entire nation to use the name of a family member in vain, especially if that family member is deceased.
Upalldayallen
185

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