Aryan

Aryan
*Airás
Models of indo-european migrations hypothesizing the proto-language to pertain to a range between 7000 to 4000 BC
Pronunciation	[əi̯ˈrəs]
Created by	Veno
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Era	c.10,000–8,000 BC
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin
Map of areas where Aryan is believed to have once been spoken

Aryan (*Ai̯ri̯áh₀, [əi̯ˈri̯əʔ]), also referred to as Pre-Proto-Indo-European, is an ab interiori language depicting the transition from Paleolithic Codes to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of Transitional Dialects.

In most of known History, indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in Eurasia, bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the Roman Empire, the Hellenistic City-States, and the Rigvedic Tribes. Memorable personalities who spoke natively dialects from those areas include the roman general Julius Caesar (speaker of Latin), the macedonian king Alexander the Great (speaker of Ancient Greek), the nazi chancellor Adolf Hitler (speaker of German), the french emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (speaker of Corsican), the british physicist Isaac Newton (speaker of English), the italian renascentist Leoanardo da Vinci (speaker of Tuscan Italian), the indian ascetic Gautama Buddha (speaker of Prakrit), et cetera. Also, due the trajectory of the linguistic stock along the millenia, some of the most culturally influential works of Literature have been yielded, such as the Vulgate, the Iliad, and the Vedas. As of the 21^st Century, half of the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages, with the Americas, Europe, Iran, Pakistan, and India being today the centers of native speakers due the Indo-European Migrations and European Colonialism.

Naturally, the origin of the indo-european family has attracted the curiosity of thousands of researchers in the last centuries, since William Jones' presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786, which famously addressed the similarity between Sanskrit and european languages. Further works that [...]

In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the Armenian Hypothesis, which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers (CHG), who would eventually contribute to the formation of the Yamnaya Culture and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the Kurgan Hypothesis. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of Linguistic Modernity.

Etymology

The word *Ai̯ri̯áh₀ is influenced but not based on the Indo-Iranian ethnonym *Áryas "Aryan", as the root *h₅ir "member/comrade" comes from Pangaean ʕihr "racial person".

History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

The story of Aryan starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation, or from the Pangaean Code to Neolithic dialects (circa 12,000 BP). Noticeable is the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes, which triggered several sound changes:

• Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Weak Voiced Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiced Stop before laryngeal
/kH/→/kh/	/kʼH/→/k/	/gH/→/gɦ/	/ɠH/→/g/
/pH/→/ph/	/pʼH/→/p/	/bH/→/bɦ/	/ɓH/→/b/
/tH/→/th/	/tʼH/→/t/	/dH/→/dɦ/	/ɗH/→/d/

• The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of WEAK and STRONG are rearranged to accomodate Aspiration/Breathy Voice instead of Ejection/Implosion.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop	Weak Voiced Stop	Strong Voiceless Stop	Strong Voiced Stop
/k/→/k/	/g/→/g/	/kʼ/→/kh/	/ɠ/→/gɦ/
/p/→/p/	/b/→/b/	/pʼ/→/ph/	/ɓ/→/bɦ/
/t/→/t/	/d/→/d/	/tʼ/→/th/	/ɗ/→/dɦ/

• Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.
  

Retracted before Laryngeal	Retracted	Advanced before Laryngeal	Advanced
/k̠H/→/khph/	/k̠/→/kp/	/k̟H/→/khth/	/k̟/→/kt/
/p̠H/→/phth/	/p̠/→/pt/	/p̟H/→/phkh/	/p̟/→/pk/
/t̠H/→/thkh/	/t̠/→/tk/	/t̟H/→/thph/	/t̟/→/tp/
/g̠H/→/gɦbɦ/	/g̠/→/gb/	/g̟H/→/gɦdɦ/	/g̟/→/gd/
/b̠H/→/bɦdɦ/	/b̠/→/bd/	/b̟H/→/bɦgɦ/	/b̟/→/bg/
/d̠H/→/dɦgɦ/	/d̠/→/dg/	/d̟H/→/dɦbɦ/	/d̟/→/db/
/k̠ʼH/→/kp/	/k̠ʼ/→/khph/	/k̟ʼH/→/kt/	/k̟ʼ/→/khth/
/p̠ʼH/→/pt/	/p̠ʼ/→/phth/	/p̟ʼH/→/pk/	/p̟ʼ/→/phkh/
/t̠ʼH/→/tk/	/t̠ʼ/→/thkh/	/t̟ʼH/→/tp/	/t̟ʼ/→/thph/
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/	/ɠ̠/→/gɦbɦ/	/ɠ̟H/→/gd/	/ɠ̟/→/gɦdɦ/
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/	/ɓ̠/→/bɦdɦ/	/ɓ̟H/→/bg/	/ɓ̟/→/bɦgɦ/
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/	/ɗ̠/→/dɦgɦ/	/ɗ̟H/→/db/	/ɗ̟/→/dɦbɦ/

• Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.
  

Voiceless Sonorant(I)	Voiced Sonorant(I)	Voiceless Sonorant(II)	Voiced Sonorant(II)
/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/	/j/→/j/	/w̥/→/w̥/~/w/	/w/→/w/
/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/	/n/→/n/	/m̥/→/m̥/~/m/	/m/→/m/
/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/	/l/→/l/	/r̥/→/r̥/~/r/	/r/→/r/

• The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.
  

Retracted Voiceless Sonorant	Retracted Voiced Sonorant	Advanced Voiceless Sonorant	Advanced Voiced Sonorant
/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̠/→/j/	/j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̟/→/j/
/n̠̊/→/kn/	/n̠/→/kn	/n̟̊/→/pn/	/n̊/→/pn/
/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̠/→/l/	/l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̟/→/l/
/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̠/→/w/	/ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̟/→/w/
/m̠̊/→/dm/	/m̠/→/dm/	/m̟̊/→/gm/	/m̟/→/gm/
/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̠/→/r/	/r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̟/→/r/

• Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by plosive equivalents, and uvular laryngeals turn velar.
  

Labiodental Click	Dental Click	Alveolar Click
/ʘ̪/→/dʷ/	/ǀ/→/dʲ/	/ǁ/→/t͡ɬ/

Voiceless Uvular Laryngeal	Voiced Uvular Laryngeal
/χ/→/x/	/ʁ/→/ɣ/

• Complex and long vowels are reduced to their basic and short versions.
  

Front	Central	Back
/i/→/i/	/ɨ/→/i/	/u/→/u/
/y/→/u/	/ʉ/→/u/	/ɯ/→/i/
/e/→/e/	/ɪ/→/e/	/o/→/o/
/ø/→/o/	/ʊ/→/o/	/ɤ/→/e/
/e̞/→/i/	/ə/→/ə/	/o̞/→/u/
/ɛ/→/e/	/ɐ/→/a/	/ɔ/→/o/
/æ/→/e/	/a/→/a/	/ɒ/→/o/

Special cases
HVHC > HVC
CHVHC > CVC
CHVH > CVH
/ʕɨ̀ː/→/əi̯/
/V̰/→/Vː/~/aV/
/V̤/ > /Vː/~/Va/

In Morphology, Aryan introduced a series of innovations by mixing and developing peculiarities from different Paleolithic Codes. The Hyperborean nominative -s for example was probably borrowed via another caucasian substrate, which completely assumed the role of epenthetic root (next to Aryan *-ar) in the construction "ROOT₁ ROOT₂". Primordial [ˈn̠ʕih ˈə] "old" would therefore yield *knīás "old" (=*knih₁ *ás) [PIE *sénos "old"]. Furthermore, this development culminated into the Indo-European Ablaut. That is: when the accent falls into the epenthetic root, the first root suffers a phonetic change influenced by the interaction between laryngeals and vowels, which fuse into diphthongs or long vowels. This effect is considered a reflex of Umlaut in the Pangaean Code, where guttural fricatives can alternate between their vocalic equivalents and even modify the qualities of the nucleus.

Stress in first root	Stress in second root
HV́C-R	VVC-Ŕ
CV́C-R	C∅C-Ŕ
CV́H-R	CVV-Ŕ

Codex	Aryan	PIE
ˈhuhd-ə "water"	*h1úd-ar "water"	*wód-r̥ "water"
ˈhuhd ˈə "water-like"	*wid-rás "aquatic"	*ud-rós "aquatic"
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho-ə "foot"	*díoph-as "foot"	*pód-s "foot"
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho ˈə "foot-like"	*phd-yás "pedestrian"	*ped-yós "on foot"
ˈkhuħ-ə "sound"	*kʰúh2-as "sound"	*ḱléw-os "fame"
ˈkhuħ ˈə "sound-like"	*kʰaw-ás "sound-maker"	*ḱlu-ós "famous"

Development into Indo-European Languages [...]

Some tendences include the aspirated velars of Aryan becoming the PIE palatal series (*Kʰ ⇒ *Ḱ); ....

https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Indo-European_roots&from=A

• bʰeyh₂-

Codex	Aryan	PIE	Samples
k̠-	*kʰpʰ-	*ǵʰ/d	*ǵʰewd- "pour", *ǵʰed- "to defecate", *ḱh₂d- "fall"
-k̠	*-kp	*-kw	*leykʷ- "leave"
k-	*kʰ-	*ḱ	ḱe "this"
-k
k̟-	*kʰtʰ-	*ḱ/s ~ *k/s ~ *k/d ~ *gʰ/s ~ *g/∅	*(s)ker-, *(s)kelH-, *sek-, *ḱes-, *kh2eyd- "to cut"; *gʰays- ~ *gleyH- "to stick"
-k̟	-kt	*p-ḱ	*peh₂ḱ- "to join", *peh₂ǵ- "to attach", *leyp- "to stick", *leyǵ- "to bind/tie"
g̠-	*gʰbʰ-	*gʰ/bʰ	*(s)pregʰ- "sprinkle", *glewbʰ- "split", *bʰeh₂g- "divide"/; contra: *bʰeyd- "split"
-g̠	-gb		*h₁éǵʰ "out"
g-
-g
g̟-	*gʰdʰ-	*gʰ/dʰ	*gʰedʰ- "join", *bʰendʰ- "bind"
-g̟	*-gd	*ǵ/∅	ʕihg̟ ⇒ *h5igd- ⇒ *leǵ- "to gather"
k̠ʼ-	*kp-	*bʰ-g, *k-p	*bʰeg- "break", *bʰreg- "break", *bʰrew- "break", *bʰrews- "break", *kelh₂- "break", *(s)kep- "break", *Hrewp- "break" [may be from *Hrew- "tear out"]
-k̠ʼ	*-kʰpʰ	*w-ǵ	*lewǵ- ~ *weh₂ǵ- ~ *wreh₁ǵ- "to break"
kʼ-
-kʼ
k̟ʼ-	kt-
-k̟ʼ	-kʰtʰ	*ǵʰ/dʰ ~ *∅/dʰ	ʕihk̟ʼ ⇒ *h5ikʰtʰ- ⇒ *dʰerǵʰ- "to be firm" ~ *dʰer- "to support"
ɠ̠-	*gb-	*kʷ ~ *(s)k	ɠ̠ʕih ⇒ *gbih1- ⇒ *kʷelh1- "to turn around"; ɠ̠ʕihr ⇒ *gbair- > *(s)ker- "to bend" [semantic transition from "shrink/wither" to "bend/turn around"]
-ɠ̠
ɠ-
-ɠ
ɠ̟-	*gd-	*gʰ/∅ ~ *ḱ/∅	ɠ̟ʕih ⇒ *gdih1- ⇒ *gʰreh1- "to grow (plants)"; ɠ̟ʕihr ⇒ *gdair- ⇒ *ḱer- "to grow"
-ɠ̟	*-gʰdʰ	*gʰ/dʰ	hohɠ̟ "growing fire" ⇒ *hogʰdʰ- ⇒ *dʰegʷʰ- "to burn"
p̠-	*pʰtʰ-	*bʰ/gʷ	*bʰegʷ- "flee", *bʰewg- "flee"
-p̠
p-	*pʰ-	*bʰ-	*bʰer- "bear"
-p
p̟-	*pʰkʰ-	*bʰ/gʰ ~ *p/ḱ ~ *p/k	p̟ʕih ⇒ *pʰkʰih1- ⇒ *gʰabʰ- ~ *gʰeh₁bʰ- ~ *kap- "to seize", *peḱ- "to pluck"
-p̟
b̠-
-b̠
b-
-b
b̟-
-b̟
p̠ʼ-	*pt-
-p̠ʼ	*-pʰtʰ	*bʰ-dʰ	*bʰedʰ- "dig"
pʼ-	*p-	*p	*per- "go through", *pel- "drive", *pent- "pass", *pes- "penis"
-pʼ	*-pʰ	*bʰ	*bʰerH- "pierce"
p̟ʼ-
-p̟ʼ
ɓ̠-
-ɓ̠
ɓ-
-ɓ
ɓ̟-
-ɓ̟
t̠-
-t̠
t-
-t
t̟-
-t̟
d̠-
-d̠
d-
-d
d̟-
-d̟
t̠ʼ-
-t̠ʼ
tʼ-
-tʼ
t̟ʼ-
-t̟ʼ
ɗ̠-
-ɗ̠
ɗ-
-ɗ
ɗ̟-
-ɗ̟
ʘ̠-
-ʘ̠
ʘ-	*dʷ-	*bʰ-	*bʰed- "improve", *bʰil- "lovely"
-ʘ
ʘ̟-
-ʘ̟

*bʰerǵʰ- "ascend"

*bʰegʷ- "to flee" < *-pʰtʰ "to escape" < …

*bʰerǵʰ- "to rise up " < *pk- "to eject" (?)

*bʰil "good" < *dʷih₁

*ǵʰes- "hand", *ǵʰey- "winter" (earlier lexical transition from "autumn", with similar use of English "fall"),

*gʷʰer- "warm" [from *gʰbʰōr- "glow"], *bʰeh₃g- "bake/roast" [from *gʰbʰor- "kindle"]

• temh₁

kpih1 > bʰeg-; h5ikʰpʰ > weh2ǵ- ∅

r is added when the laryngeal is modified (h2 > h1)

l is added when the laryngeal is erased (h1 > ∅)

∅ (H) > r (H̥) > l (∅)

*bʰewdʰ “to be awake”

*bʰeyd ~ *delh₁ “to split”

*deh₂y- ~ *bʰeh₂g- "to divide"

*deh₃ "to give"

‘’’D lemmas’’’

dewh1 (*deh3)

>

daim "to build" (*dem)

daik "to take" (*deḱ)

daipʰkʰ "to lead" (*dewk)

when two voiced consonants in a root, they becomes aspirated

In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except:

-a laryngeal, the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda.

*gʰedʰ- (PIE) < ((*gʰed-)) < *gʰdʰih₁- (Aryan) < g̟ʕih (Codex)

-a liquid, the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda.

*(s)pregʰ- ~ *sper- (PIE) < ((*bregʰ-)) < * gʰbʰair (Aryan) < g̠ʕihr (Codex)

exception: roots with longs vowels [dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)]

h1egóM < aikṓm < aku ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE) uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h₂úrkʰtʰa > *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes

• i and *u disappear before sonorants

mur, mrás > mer as PIE only accepts thorn clusters...

The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

mobile roots: -*r "quality" -*m "result" -*dʰ "fixation"

NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns

origin of PIE declensions:

(_)-as Hysterokinetic:

• kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
• kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos

(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:

• pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
• pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
• (á)-as Acrostatic:
• pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos) > *ǵʰéyos
• pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
• (a)-ás Acrostatic:
• pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
• pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo

ptár > ph2tḗr ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés

What marks a Transitional Dialect:

• the presence of mobile roots

p̠hṵh "fume" > *pʰtʰawimás (*pʰtʰūh₁-*más) "smoke" > *dʰuh₂mós (*dʰewh₂-*mós)

• Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we

Inheritances: huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd

• ud > *úd

p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew pʼhuh > *puh > *plew Borrowings:

• h2ekʷ

-

• Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew

Inheritances: p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2 krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2 Borrowings: -phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3 -

• Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew

Inheritances: kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor) hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed ... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH) pʰol > bʰel "shine"

• h1oh1 > *h1ews

Borrowings: pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)

• h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti

-

• Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e

Inheritances: phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2 Borrowings: -

• ā > ...

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• a > *e/o

Inheritances: ə > *(á)as > *(é)os Borrowings: -

• He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e

Inheritances: heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed Borrowings: -

• Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey

Inheritances: ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey Borrowings: +

• ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
• aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]

+ h4- > s-

heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.

*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]

dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di

• h₂oh₂dʲ-, *h₂óh₂dʲam "hatred"

? > *ak "sharp" borrowing

• dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"

sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)

h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL) h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti

• /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
• /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
• /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
• /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
• kʰpʰ-
• kp- > *kʷʰ-
• kn- > *sn-
• h₂i (TD) > *h₁e (PIE)

an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent

When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old" compare

• sādú > *swādús "sweet"
• sādú méh2dʷ
• swādús médʰu~mélid

Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.

• pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

• mai > *meh1

?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one? ?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?

h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej - h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej - h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew

	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lithuanian	Albanian	Armenian	Hittite	Tocharian	Greek	Latin	Goidelic	Gothic
>*p	p; pʰ	p; f	p	p	p	h; w	p; pp	p	p / pt	p	∅	f; β
>*t				x x
>*k		x x
>*ḱ		x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]		normal	-C-
*p	p; ph [pʰ]	p; f	p			h; w	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β]	f; v, f
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ]	t; θ	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts]	t; c [c]	t	s; tt/ss	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð];	th; d;
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ]	h; ∅; y
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; kh [kʰ]	k; c [tʃ]; x	k; č [tʃ]; c [ts]	k	k; q [c]	kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ					k; s; q [c]		ku, kku		p; t; k		qu [kʷ]; c [k]			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w	wh; w
*b	b; bh	b; β	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh	d; δ	d		d; dh [ð]	t		ts; ś [ɕ]	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; gh; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	k
*gʷ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		b; d; g		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ]	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β	b			b; w	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f; b			b [b]; b [β]; f	b; v / f
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ	d				t	t; c [c]	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f; d; b	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð]; þ	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d	j [dz]; z	k	k; ś [ɕ]	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ]; g [x]	g; y / w
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ]
*gʷʰ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; kh [kʰ]		f; g / u [w]; gu [ɡʷ]			g; b; w; gw	g; b; w
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ]; h	h; ∅	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h; s;/ ∅; [¯]	i	s; r	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z	s; r
	ṣ [ʂ]	š [ʃ]	x [x]	š [ʃ]
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜]	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅	?i	i [j]; ∅	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv					(e)rk	tu, du				b		tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv												q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp	sp		f	sp / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp	?	sp	f	sp
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ	st	st		sht [ʃt]	st	normal dev.		st	s; tt/ss	st		st
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`	normal dev.		sk; kh [kʰ]; skh [skʰ]		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}	sk, sč	normal dev.		?	sk	normal dev.
*skʷ									norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth	st; sθ?	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht	ght [t]
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt
*kʷt									pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ	xš						(ks)
*kʷs							kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	Old English
														normal	umlauted
*e	*e, *h₁e	a		e			je, ie, e, i; ja	ä	e, ʔe, i	e			i; aí [ɛ]	e; eo	i; ie
*a	(*a), *h₂e			o	a	a	ha, a	ā	ha, a	a			a	æ; a; ea	e; ie
*o	*h₃e					o, a	a	a, e	a	o
	*o	a; ā
*ə	*h₁	i	i, ∅	∅		a, ∅		ā	∅	e	a		a, ∅
	*h₂								ḫ	a
	*h₃								∅	o
*-	*h₁-	∅				e (a?)	∅		a, ∅	e (o)	∅
	*h₂-					a			ḫa	a
	*h₃-								a, ha	o
*ē	*ē, *eh₁	ā		ě	ė	i	o, ua	a/e?; ā?	ē, e, i	ē		ī	ē	ǣ
*ā	(*ā), *eh₂			a	o [oː]	a		a/o?	a, ah	ā > ē	ā	ā	ō		ē
*ō	*ō, *eh₃				uo	u	e	a/ā?; ū?	a, ā	ō		ā; ū
*i	*i	i		ь	i	i	i; e	ä	i, ī	i			i; aí [ɛ]	i
*ī	*ih₁	ī		i	y [iː]		i	i		ī	ī		ei [iː]	ī
	*ih₂					i or (j)a?		yā		ī or (j)ā?
	*ih₃									ī or (j)ō?
*ei	*ei, *h₁ei	ai > ē	ai > ōi, āi > aē		ei; ie	i		e	ē	ei	ī	ē
*oi	*oi, *h₃ei			ě	ai; ie	e	e, ai		ē, ai	oi	ū	oi	ái	ā	ǣ
*ai	(*ai), *h₂ei									ai	ae	ai
*ēi	*ēi	āi > ai; ā	āi; ā(i)	i			i		ē	ēi	ī?		ei [iː]	ī
*ōi	*ōi (*oei)			y; u	ai; ui		e, ai		ai	ōi	ō	u	ái	ā	ǣ
*āi	*eh₂ei			ě					ai	āi > ēi	ae
*u	*u	u		ъ	u	u	u; y	ä	u	u	u	u; o	u; aú [ɔ]	u; o	y
*ū	*uh₁	ū		y	ū		y; i	u		ū	ū				ȳ
	*uh₂					u or (w)a?		wā		ū or (w)ā?
	*uh₃									ū or (w)ō?
*eu	*eu, *h₁eu	au > ō	ə̄u; ao	ju	iau	oy	e	u		eu	ū	ou	iu	ēo	īe
*ou	*ou,*h₃eu			u	au		a	o, au		ou			áu	ēa
*au	(*au), *h₂eu					aw				au	au
*ēu	*ēu	āu > au	āu	u	iau		e				ū?		iu	ēo
*ōu	*ōu						a		au	ō			áu	ēa
*m̥	*m̥	a		ę	im̃; um̃	am	a	äm	a, un	a	em	em, am	um	um	ym
*m̥̅	*mh₁	ā			ìm; ùm	ama		mā		mē	mā
	*mh₂									mā > mē
	*mh₃									mō
*m̥m	*m̥m	am		ьm/ъm	im; um	am				am	em	am
*n̥	*n̥	a		ę	iñ; uñ	an		än	an	a	en	en, an	un	un	yn
*n̥̄	*nh₁	ā			ìn; ùn	ana		nā		nē	nā
	*nh₂									nā > nē
	*nh₃									nō
*n̥n	*n̥n	an		ьn/ъn	iñ; uñ	an				an	en	an
*l̥	*l̥	r̥	ərə	lь/lъ	il̃; ul̃	al	il, li; ul, lu	äl	al	la	ol	li; al	ul	ul; ol	yl
*l̥̄	*lh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìl; ùl	ala	al	lā		lē	lā
	*lh₂									lā > lē
	*lh₃									lō
*l̥l	*l̥l	ir; ur	ar	ьl/ъl	il; ul	al, la				al	el	al
*r̥	*r̥	r̥	ərə	rь/rъ	ir̃; ur̃	ar	ir, ri; ur, ru	är	ar, ur	ra	or	ri; ar	aúr [ɔr]	ur; or	yr
*r̥̄	*rh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìr; ùr	ara	ra	rā		rē	rā
	*rh₂									rā > rē
	*rh₃									rō
*r̥r	*r̥r	ir; ur	ar	ьr/ъr	ir; ur	ar				ar	ar	ar
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	normal	umlauted
														Old English

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Since Lazaridis et al's paper, absence of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) ancestry in the Anatolian component of the Indo-European speaking populations has suggested a caucasian homeleand for earlier stages of PIE rather than a pre-Yamnaya pontic continuance. Recent studies, furthermore, point to a total farming economy by the Zagros around 6,000 BC, which tempts an older dating for a Transitional Dialect such as Aryan.

Phonology

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the basic inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form. In comparison, PIE is often reconstructed as having 24 consonants.

		Labial	Alveolar			Palatal	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	Voiceless	m̥	n̥
	Voiced	m	n
Plosive	Voiceless	p	t				k		ʔ
	Voiced	b	d	dʲ	dʷ		g
	Aspirated	ph	th				kh
	Murmured	bɦ	dɦ				gɦ
Fricative	Voiceless		s				x	ħ	h
	Voiced		z				ɣ	ʕ	ɦ
Vibrant	Voiceless		r̥
	Voiced		r
Lateral	Voiceless		l̥	t͡ɬ
	Voiced		l
Approximant	Voiceless					j̊	ẘ
	Voiced					j	w

• The most promiment feature of the Aryan inventory is the presence of laryngeals [...] it possessess 7 in total: <*h>₀ /ʔ/, <*h>₁ /h/, <*h>₂ /ħ/, <*h>₃ /x/, <*h>₄ /ɦ/, <*h>₅ /ʕ/, <*h>₆ /ɣ/

Vowels

While the simplicity of the vocalic inventory of PIE (constituted exclusively of *e, *o, *ē, and *ō, ignoring allophones of syllabic consonants and diphthongs with sonorants) has inspired some researchers to draw connections with language families of similar conditions near the Pontic–Caspian Steppe, such as the Pontic Hypothesis witht the Northwest Caucasian Languages, Aryan is reconstructed instead with a rich system of monophthongs, diphthongs, and even triphthongs.

Monophthongs Front Central Back Close i iː u uː Mid e eː ə əː o oː Open a aː

Diphthongs Front Central Back Close u̯i i̯u Mid ei̯ eu̯ əi̯ əu̯ oi̯ ou̯ Open i̯a u̯a ai̯ au̯

Triphthongs Front Central Back Close u̯iᵊ i̯uᵊ Mid ei̯ᵊ eu̯ᵊ əi̯ᵊ əu̯ᵊ oi̯ᵊ ou̯ᵊ Open i̯aᵊ u̯aᵊ ai̯ᵊ au̯ᵊ

Pitch Accent

==Morphology== [...]

[...]

DILUVIAN PARTICLES ... -n (gen), -pʰa (dat) When inflected, lemmas become obliques (weakened). masc/fem | neut in adjectives fem masc/neut in verbs

words for colors are easily derivatives due their expressivity roots not allowed: **deb, **tebʰ

• h2 was not originally a collective particle ...
• su (generic third-person) > *swé (generic reflexive

-em/-ens adjectives ... mostly animate/inanimate distinction with masculine/feminine inflection relegated to pronouns comparative *yes, superlative *isto

Affix

• gʷaináh0
• gʷaināsyas
• gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Aryan morphology deals with full-grade (_) and null-grade (∅).

Aryan *(á)-s [PIE *(ó)-s] forms nouns, as in *p^hárs "thief" [PIE *b^hṓr "thief"] from *p^hair "bearing".

Aryan *(_)-as [PIE *(é)-os] forms active animate nouns, as in kʰúh₂as "living sound" [PIE *ḱlewos "fame"]. If the meaning intended is "racial", furthermore, the affix becomes *(_)-(a)ras [PIE *(∅)-(u)ros], as in h₅ímsaras "engenderer" [PIE *h₂ḿ̥suros "deity"].

Aryan *(∅)-ás [PIE *(e)-ós] forms active animate adjectives, as in ...

Aryan *(á)-as [PIE *(ó)-os] forms passive animate nouns, as in *p^háras "what is born" [PIE *b^hóros "what is brought"]

Aryan *(a)-ás [PIE *(o)-ós] forms passive animate adjectives, as in ... became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear"

Aryan *(_)-ar [PIE *([é/ó)-r̥] forms active inanimate nouns, as in *húdar "water" [PIE *wódr̥ "water"]

Aryan *(∅)-ár forms active inanimate adjectives.

Aryan *(á)-ar forms passive inanimate nouns.

Aryan *(a)-ár forms passive inanimate adjectives.

-

Aryan *(_)-tár forms agent nouns.

Aryan *(_)-tram forms instrument nouns. It is a fusion of *(_)-tár [agent particle] and *-am [neuter particle]

Aryan *(∅)-C-ás [PIE *(∅)-mós] [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: *pʰtʰūymás PIE =

Root

In Aryan, roots are either static or mobile. In the first case, they serve as a prototypical source of meaning, impossible to be further decomposed. Otherwise, further analysis is possible through pure consonantal and vocalic segments, treated as "fundamental atoms".

A consonantal root is intrinsically modified by vocalic roots.

• pʰair < action root *p "bearing" + class root *h5ih1 "person" + epenthetic *r

Clitic

In Aryan, clitics, similarly to tones, became fossilized as affixes.

Case

Aryan possesses 5 primary cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, locative, and dative), with X secondary cases seen as borrowed affixes. [...] In PIE, the secondary forms of the genitive and dative became canonic in some pronouns and noun declensions, as the development of "mine" and "to you" show:

*aiǵṓn, *nn (Aryan) ⇒ *h₁eǵóm, *méne (PIE) ⇒ अहम्, मम (Sanskrit)

*tū́, *tu̯pʰa (Aryan) ⇒ *tuH, *tébʰi (PIE) ⇒ tu, tibi (Latin)

[...]

The Indo-european accusative *-m ... as an earlier allative

While

*h₁i-m 3.SG-ACC (PIE) ⇒ μίν 3.SG.MASC.ACC (Greek)

*h₁i-s 3.SG-NOM (PIE) ⇒ is 3.SG.MASC.NOM (Latin)

Noun

[...]

Fossilization of object affix into the anaphoric pronoun *i

(1)

dieser Mensch

ˈdiːzɐ

diːz-ɐ

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom

ˈMɛnʃ

Mɛnʃ-∅

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈdiːzɐ ˈMɛnʃ

diːz-ɐ Mɛnʃ-∅

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (German)

(2)

этот человек

ˈɛtət

ɛt-ət

dei-masc.sg.nom

t͡ɕɪɫɐˈvʲek

t͡ɕɪɫɐvʲek-∅

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈɛtət t͡ɕɪɫɐˈvʲek

ɛt-ət t͡ɕɪɫɐvʲek-∅

dei-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Russian)

(3)

iste homo

ˈiste

ist-e

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom

ˈhomoː

hom-oː

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈiste ˈhomoː

ist-e hom-oː

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Latin)

(4)

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος

ˈhûːtos

hûːt-os

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom

ˈántʰrɔːpos

ántʰrɔːp-os

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈhûːtos ˈántʰrɔːpos

hûːt-os ántʰrɔːp-os

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Greek)

(5)

सः मनुष्यः

sɐ́h

sɐ́-h

3-masc.sg.nom

mɐnuʂíjɐh

mɐnuʂíj-ɐh

person-masc.sg.nom

sɐ́h mɐnuʂíjɐh

sɐ́-h mɐnuʂíj-ɐh

3-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Sanskrit)

The [...]

As the cases of pronominal determiners found in the daughter languages are innovations, anaphoric demonstratives supposedly acted exclusively as pronouns in PIE, merely substituting the nouns as in Latin is, ea, id; so that the sense of "this person" was represented by "the person here":

(1)

*[X]-*ḱe

*[X]-*ḱe

person.-dei.prox

*[X]-*ḱe

person.-dei.prox

"this person" (PIE)

(2)

*[X] *ikʰ

*[X]

person

*i-*kʰ

3-dei.prox

*[X] *i-*kʰ

person 3-dei.prox

"this person" (Aryan)

(3)

[X]-ik

[X]-i-k

person-prox-dei

[X]-i-k

person-prox-dei

"this person" (Codex)

*so vs *h₁is

<

• h0e * eah0 *as *ats
  • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
  • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah₀, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

German:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-er -∅,-e	-e, -ie, -∅	-es, -as, -∅, -e	-e, -ie, -en, -er
Genitive	-es, -en	-er, -en	-es, -en	-er, -en
Dative	-em, -en, -e	-er, -en	-em, -en	-en
Accusative	-en	-e, -ie	-es, -as, -e	-e, -ie, -en

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-а/-я, -ая, -ина, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-и/ы, -ые, -ины, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Genitive	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -и	-ой, -иной, -и/ы	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/-ь, -ов/-ей, ∅-/-(е)й, -ей/-мён(-мян)
Dative	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -мени	-им, -ым, -иным, -ам/-ям, -ям/-менам
Accusative.A	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/ь, -ов/-ей, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Accusative.I	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е	-и/-ы, -ые, -ины, -∅/-ь, ∅-/-(е)й, -ь/-мена
Instrumental	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -ью	-ой/-ою//-ей, -иной/-иною, -ю, -ью	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -менем	-ими, -ыми, -иными, -ами/-ями, -ями(ьми)/-менами
Prepositional	-ом, -ином, -е, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ом, -ином, -е, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -ах/-ях, -ях/-менах

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

	LATIN DECLENSION
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-e/-us, -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-a, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ud, -um, -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ī, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ae, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ārum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative	-um, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-am, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ud, -um, -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ōs, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ās, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ā, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative	-e, -is	-a, -is	-ud, -um, -e	-ī, -ēs	-ae, -ēs,	-a, -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	GREEK DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-ος, -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων	-η/α, -(ε)ς, -ων	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες	-α
Genitive	-ου, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ης/-ας, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	ARYAN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*-as	*-ah0	*-am	*-ā	*-āh0	*-ā	*-ayn	*-ah0in	*-a
Genitive	*-asyas	*-āsyas	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

• eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Pronouns [...]

[...]

Personal Pronouns [...]

[...]

English, German, French, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Persian, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit...

Brugmann; Grundriss [...] ⇒ Schmidt, Stammbildung und Flexion (argues in favor of eǵ as older tham eǵom) ⇒ P. Forchheimer, The category of person in language, Berlin 1953 ⇒ Benveniste, La nature des pronoms > https://www.academia.edu/1478874/Die_komplexe_Morphologie_der_urindogermanischen_Personalpronomina_draft_

Stop Borrowing! Anatolian/Indo-European Stops, Voice, and Northwest Semitic Loans – With Notes on Ugaritic grdš, ztr, dġṯ and Other Words

[...]

	PERSONAL PRONOUN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural			Collective
	1st-person	2nd-person	3rd-person	1st-person	2nd-person	3rd-person	1rd-person	2nd-person	3rd-person	1rd-person	2nd-person	3rd-person
Nominative	*h5ih1ṓn	*tū́ ~ *táu	*aī́h0i *aī́h0 *aī́ts	*ōi̯ṓn	*ūi̯ū́	*aīaī́ *īu̯ī́h0 *īu̯ī́	*ṓns	*ū́s	*aī́s *ī́h0s *ī́s	*ṓna	*ū́a	*aī́a *ī́h0a *ī́a
Accusative	*nh0(m)	*tu̯h0(m)	*im *ih0m *its	*noh0(m)	*i̯uh0(m)	*aim, *aih0m, *aits	*nsh0(m)	*u̯sh0(m)	*ism *ih0sm *is	*nah0(m)	*u̯ah0(m)	*iam *ih0am *ia
Genitive	*ni̯a	*tu̯i̯a	*itsi̯a *ih0tsi̯a *itsi̯a	*noi̯a	*i̯ui̯a	*aitsi̯a, *aih0tsi̯a, *aitsi̯a	*nsi̯a(m)	*u̯si̯a(m)	*itsi̯am *ih0tsi̯am *itsi̯am	*nai̯a	*u̯ai̯a	*iai̯a *ih0ai̯a *iai̯a
Locative	*ni	*tu̯i	*itsi *ih0tsi *itsi	*noi	*i̯ui	*aitsi *aih0tsi *aitsi	*nsi(m)	*u̯si(m)	*itsim *ih0tsim *itsim	*nai	*u̯ai	*iai *ih0ai *iai
Dative	*nai̯	*tu̯ai̯	*iai̯ *ih0ai̯ *iai̯	*noai̯	*i̯uai̯	*aiai̯ *aih0ai̯ *aiai̯	*nsai̯(m)	*u̯sai̯(m)	*isai̯(m) *ih0sai̯(m) *isai̯(m)	*naai̯	*u̯aai̯	*iaai̯ *ih0aai̯ *iaai̯

• The first-person singular *h₅ih₁ṓn (PIE *h₁eǵHóm) seems to be a descendent of the primordial form ˈʕih-ɔː "I" , which would regularly yield stress on the first syllable, yet it is observed that in PIE the consonant <*ǵ> appears (probably a consequence from the sound change *h₁ ⇒ *ǵ / V_V), plus the affixation of <*n>, a borrowing from Diluvian nao "this person".
  • In PIE, the emphatic *h₁eǵHóm could be interpreted as more archaic than *h₁eǵH, as Homeric Greek ἐγών and Sanskrit अहम् suggest. The emphatic particle *-om (PIE) likely arose due the contaminator <*m>.
  • The nasal in *h₅ih₁ṓn "I" became <*m> primarily due two distinct processes; one phonetic and other phonological. It was either subsequently labialized by the preceding vowel, shortening the nucleus (i.e. /oːn/ ⇒ /own/ ⇒ /om/), and/or swapped by the contaminator *m based on its inflected forms.
    • This sound change affected all other inflections of the first person singular (e.g. *nh₀(m) "me" (A) ⇒ *mh₀ ~ *h₀m "me" (?) ⇒ *me ~ *h₁me "me" (PIE)).
• The second-person singular *tū́ (PIE *túH) seems to be a descendent of Diluvian taocar "the person one refers to", with an unusual vocalic paradigm. If this is correct, a more conservative alternative might have been *táu.
  • In PIE, the pronoun *túH is extremely conservative, found as tu in Latin, σύ in Greek, and त्वम् in Sanskrit, for example. In PIA, though, Hittite zīg and Palaic ti suggest Indo-Anatolian *tī́; although it could also be pointed out that the Anatolitan counterparts might be mere rearrangements from the non-emphatic PIE 1.SG.NOM. *h₁eǵ(ō) plus an accusative enclitic of the second-person singular (i.e. *te-eǵ ⇒ *tī́ǵ (PA)), or even the result of the palatalization of apical consonants due phonetic height (i.e. *tū (PIA) ⇒ *tyū (?) ⇒ *tī (PA)).
• The third-person singulars *aī́h₀i, *aī́h₀, and *aī́ts possess a shorter form when complemented by a noun (e.g. *aī́h₀i "he" ⇒ *h₀naī́r h₀i "he, the man"). The reason for this is that in the Codex, pronouns used to be morphologically treated as affixes, and therefore couldn't stand by themselves except when linked to a root (e.g. ˈə-e̞ː "he/she/it", but not **e̞ː).
  • As a result, the clitic counterparts gained a sense as proximal demonstratives in PIE, being evident in forms such as Latin is "he", ea "she", and id "it", whose anaphoric use prohibts them to stand by themselves.
    • e.g. *h₀í "he" ⇒ *h₁í "this/he"; *íh₀ "she" ⇒ *h₁íh₂ "this/she"; *íts "it" ⇒ *h₁íd "this/it".
• Overall, the dual is formed by erasing sounds of the singular, then reduplicating it (e.g. *h₅ih₁ṓn ⇒ *ōi̯ṓn; *tū́ ⇒ *ūi̯ū́; *aī́h₀i ⇒ *aīaī́), while the plural is formed by erasing the reduplication of the dual, then adding the serial particle *-s- (e.g. *ōi̯ṓn ⇒ *ṓns; *ūi̯ū́ ⇒ *ū́s; *aīaī́ ⇒ *aī́s), and the collective simply does the latter but with the suffix *-a (e.g. *ōi̯ṓn ⇒ *ṓna; *ūi̯ū́ ⇒ *ū́a; *aīaī́ ⇒ *aī́a''). Medial *i̯ ~ *u̯ is inserted to avoid diphthongs between reduplicated vowels, and *ts is applied in other cases when two bordering vowels are similar (except those involving schwas).
  • Rather than the nominative of the first and second-person dual/plural in PIE being prehistorical combinations (i.e. *u 2.SG + *e 1.SG. + = we 1.DU./PL.; *i 3.SG. + *u 2.SG = *yu 2.DU./PL.), the dual products of the Aryan patterns would eventually substitute the plural forms of the first and second-person in their nominative equivalents (i.e. *ṓns "we (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by *ōi̯ṓn "we (dual)" (A) ⇒ *wéy "we (plural)" (PIE); *ūs "you (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by *ūi̯ū́ "you (dual)" (A) ⇒ *yū́ "you (plural)" (PIE)), while their oblique inflections for example would assume other spots in the ancestor of Indo-European languages (i.e. *noh₀(m) 1.DU.ACC. (A) ⇒ *n̥h₁wé ~ *nōh₁ 1.DU.ACC. (PIE); *i̯uh₀(m) 2.DU.ACC. (A) ⇒ *uh₁wé ~ *wōh₁ 2.DU.ACC. (PIE)).
  • The particle <*m> gains the property of the serial particle <*s> when the latter conflates with the particle *ts (e.g. third-person plural locative *itsim instead of *itsis). This contamination was likely encouraged due the abundant presence of *m in the accusative, and produces an alternative explanation to the hypothesis that the oblique of the first-person plural was*ms- before becoming *ns-. Later in PIE, not only plural forms (e.g. *nsai̯(m) 1.PL.DAT. (A) ⇒ *n̥sméy 1.PL.DAT. (PIE)) would become contaminated, but also singular ones (e.g. *iai̯ "to him" (A) ⇒ *h₁esmōy "to him" (PIE)); including verbal affixes (e.g.*-nas 1.PL.VB. (A) ⇒ *-mos 1.PL.VB. (PIE)).

Possessive Pronouns

nás, tu̯ás, h0iás/ih0ás/i ... tsu̯á

in Aryan possessive pronouns could be produced through the pure oblique or any inflected form, as long as it received the affix -ás.

nás ~ nai̯ás ~ ni̯aás ~ niás

nás h0naír

compare the translation for "my man"

*nh0(m)ás h0naī́r (A) > *h1mós h2nḗr (PIE) > ἐμός ἀνήρ (G)

-as -ah0 -am | -aī -ah0ī -aī -ias -i | -īas īs -h0i -ih0 -its | -h0ias -ih0as -itsas

Reflexive Pronouns

	REFLEXIVE PRONOUN DECLENSION
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Collective
Nominative	*tsū́r ~ *tsáur	*ūi̯ū́r	ū́rs	*ū́ra
Accusative	*su̯h0	*ruh0	*u̯rsh0	*u̯rah0
Genitive	*su̯i̯a	*rui̯a	*u̯rsi̯a	*u̯rai̯a
Locative	*su̯i	*rui	*u̯rsi	*u̯rai
Dative	*su̯ai̯	*ruai̯	*u̯rsai̯	*u̯raai̯

• The reflexive pronoun *tsū́r derives from an older *ū́tsar (equivalent to Aryan *aítsar "this/that one", PIE *h₁íteros "(an)other"), itself a borrowing from Diluvian aocar, whose <*ū́> portion is still visible in another borrowing into Aryan (i.e. the second-person singular *tū́).
  • In PIE, it was reanalyzed as its accusative form (i.e.*su̯h₀ "themselves" ⇒ *swé "themselves"), thus degrading the dual, plural, and collective inflections.

Demonstrative Pronouns

[..]

	PRONOUN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural			Collective
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*h0tsar	*tsah0r	*tsar	*h0tātā	*tātāh0	*tātā	*h0tās	*tāh0s	*tās	*h0tāa	*tāh0a	*tāa
Accusative	*tam	*tah0m	*tats	*atam	*atah0m	*atats	*tasm	*tah0sm	*tas	*tam	*tah0am	*taa
Genitive	*tai̯a	*tah0i̯a	*tai̯a	*atai̯a	*atah0i̯a	*atai̯a	*tasi̯a	*tah0si̯a	*tasi̯a	*taai̯a	*tah0ai̯a	*taai̯a
Locative	*tai	*tah0i	*tai	*atai	*atah0i	*atai	*tasi	*tah0si	*tasi	*taai	*tah0ai	*taai
Dative	*taai̯	*tah0ai̯	*taai̯	*ataai̯	*atah0ai̯	*ataai̯	*tasai̯	*tah0sai̯	*tasai̯	*taaai̯	*tah0aai̯	*taaai̯

*-tsaras (emphatic affix) ⇒ *-teros (emphatic affix), with the demonstrative sense shown in *aítsaras "one there" ⇒ *h₁íteros "(an)other"

tsar > *só "that" -om (emphatic)

-tar (loc.)

• íta "there/then/thus"
• h1itH "thus" EX: ita
• h1idH "here" EX: ibi
• tor "there"

tso -r "locative"

ítar > h1itH tsatar "that > tor

h0tā́a > h1etṓa > tóy táa > téa > teh2

h0 may become h1 as <e> or h2 as <a>

• aī́h0i, *aī́h0, *aíts > *h0i, *ih0, *its
• h5ílias, *h5íli > *lis, li

specialized/not

as this segment results in 6 possibilities ʕih > ~ h5ī ~ aī ~ aih1 ~ h5ih1 ~ ai ~ i

• All demonstratives of the *-ias paradigm transitioned from animate/inanimate to masculine/feminine/neuter declension.
  • Either through the tonic form (e.g. "other" *h₅ílias, *h₅íli (Aryan) ⇒ *h₂élyos, *h₂élyeh₂, *h₂élyod (PIE)), or the clitic form (e.g. "this" *kis, *ki (from Aryan *h₅íkias, *h₅íki) > *ḱís, *ḱíh₂, *ḱíd (PIE)).

Interrogative Pronouns

[..]

Indefinite Pronouns

[..]

Relative Pronouns

[..]

Verb

[...]

Aspect

The Origin of Aspect in the Indo-European Languages Oswald Szemerényi

?

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

• gánas > γόνος "offspring"

Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/

• ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
  
• páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"
  

[*peh5] "feed, protect"

*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h₁ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h₁édōm, *yédmi) > *h₁édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h₁ádas [result-noun]

In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law) ...

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV

• the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
• absolute construction
• subject is ommitted

• na pʰaírīt mai
• pʰaírīt mai na?

h₅ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

• pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

• -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

• paid- ... *p∅dás

• p∅dás > páds > póds

• p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
• p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

iacio ((H)yéh₁k-yoh₂) iaceo (*(H)ih₁k-éh₁yoh₂) aeykīōm > (H)yéh₁k-yoh₂ əi̯Hk > heyk /hei̯k/ > (H)yeh1(k) -éh₁- passive/stative (intransitive) suffix > -éh₁mi, -éh₁si, -éh₁ti -ye- transitive suffix > -yoh₁, -yesi, -yeti -éh₁-ye- passive/stative transitive suffix -é-ye- causative transitive suffix -eh₂- (nominal suffix) -yé- intransitive suffix > -yóh₂, -yési, -yéti -eh₂-yé- frequentative suffix -

• h₂er-éh₁mi "I am arranging" > *h₂reh₁-yoh₁ "I am counting, thinking"

Latin reor "I think" < PIE *h₂réh₁-yoh₁ "I count"

• h₂er- "fix/put in order"
• h₂reh₁ "think"< *h₂er- (“to join; to prepare”) +‎ *-éh₁

Syntax

It goes without saying that orthographic implications are disregarded. In French, for example, the past participle agrees in gender and number if the direct object precedes it (e.g. ils auraient hérité la maison "they would have inherited the house" et ils l'auraient héritée "they would have inherited it (the house)"), but the choice between -é, -ée, and -ées in the participle is ultimately irrelevant phonetically speaking.

почему?

I am still here Je suis encore ici Ich bin noch hier Я все ещё здесь Hic adhuc sum

absolutive of "that" yields "if"

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen; ich, wer wusste nichts darüber

ils disent que demain je veux travailler pour gagner d'argent; moi, qui n'y savais rien pas

Subordinate clause... in German, Russian, Latin, and Greek:

Sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen.

Они говорят, что завстра я хачу работат, чтобы зарабатывать деньге.

Illi dicent me cras laborare volo ut pecuniam meream.

They say I want to work tomorrow in order to earn money.

The hypothetical in French is marked by the imperfect indicative, whereas in Portuguese by the imperfect subjunctive; in German by an auxiliary verb linking the infinite form, while in English the bare preterite states the sense; and Russian applies a conditional/optative particle of subjunctive mood in conjunction with the past tense:

Il serait ennuyeux si ils nous reconnaissaient [French]

Seria irritante se eles nos reconhecessem [Portuguese]

Es wäre ärgerlich, wenn sie uns erkennen würden [German]

It would be annoying if they recognized us [English]

было бы досадно, если бы они нас узнали [Russian]

Ancient indo-european languages, furthermore ... general use of imperfect subjunctive in Latin, while present and aorist optatives in Greek's protasis and apodasis respectively:

molestus esset si nos recognoscerent [Latin]

εἴη ὀχληρός ἄν, εἰ ἡμᾶς ἐπιγνοῖεν [Greek]

... [Sanskrit]

An areal feature of Standard Average Euroepan is the [...] The perfect in West Germanic Languages such as English and German requires a past participle to be modified by either the verb "to be" or "to have":

ich bin ins Haus gewesen [German]

I have been in the house [English]

What determines the use of "to be" or "to have" is the distinction between "motionless" and "motive" verbs, as seen in French and German:

je suis allé à la maison [French]

ich bin nach Hause gegangen [German]

In German, the auxiliary werden is obligatory in the passive voice:

Ich werde gezwungen, die Wahrheit zu zählen [German]

[...]

als ob du auf der Flucht gewesen wärst

as if you had been on the run

[...]

er lehnte es ab, sich zu der sogennanten Affäre zu beschreiben

Implications of agreement

There is a tendence for heavy agreement to lead to lax syntax. Vide the Latin sentence, wherein cases reprove ambiguity:

Maenala trānsieram latebrīs horrenda ferārum [Latin]

"I had travelled over horrendous Maenalus, through the lairs of beasts"

Oddities in agreement, on the other hand, reveal oddities in syntax. In Portuguese, for example, the relative determiner cujo/cuja necessarily precedes the noun, yet the equivalent genderles expression ao qual allows the noun to be farther away into the clause. Likewise, in French, the relative determiner dont doesn't agree with the noun, and therefore can be separated as well. Compare the translation of "the man whose existence I do not know" in both instances and languages:

(1) o homem cuja existência eu não conheço [Portuguese]

l'homme dont l'existence je ne connais pas [French]

(2) o homem ao qual eu não conheço a existência [Portuguese]

l'homme dont je ne connais pas l'existence [French]

Enclitics

[...]

By examining a large corpus of hellenic texts, Jakob Wackernagel stated in his essay how enclitics in Greek sentences are mostly located in the second position. For example, he contrasted specifically the accusative of the first-person pronoun in the isolated (ἐμέ) and enclitic (με) forms:

Besonders belehrend sind aber die paar Inschriften mit ἐμέ. Zweimal steht dieses ἐμέ auch an zweiter Stelle: IGA. 20,8 (Korinth) ᾿Απολλόδωρος ἐμὲ ἀνέθ[ηκε] und Gazette archéol. 1888 S. 168 Μεναΐδας ἐμ’ ἐποί(ϝ)εςε Χαρόπ(ι). Aber sechsmal steht ἐμέ anders: Klein S.39 Ἐξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀπόηςε ἐμέ (Vers?) 5. 40 Ἑξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀ(ι)ποίης᾽ ἐμέ (Vers?). S.ΟῚ Χαριταῖος ἐποίηςεν ἔμ᾽ εὖ. 8. 82 Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐμέ. 8.85 Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐνέ (liess ἐμέ). S. 85 Σακωνίδης ἔγραψεν ἐμέ. Diese Stellen zeigen, dass die regelmässige Stellung von με hinter dem ersten Wort nicht zufällig und dass sie durch seine enklitische Natur bedingt ist. [Vgl. noch die Nachträge.]

?

A riddle in German:

Der Vater ist noch nicht geboren,

der Sohn ist schon auf dem Dache.

The father is not yet born,

the son is already on the roof.

A riddle in French:

Blanc est le champ,

noire est la semmence,

l'homme qui le semme,

est de très grand science.

White is the field,

black is the seed,

the man who seeds it,

is of great science.

dd

imperfect: I am running [action started but not halted, not necessarily intended to be completed]

imperfective: I am running [action started but not halted, has yet to be completed]

perfect: I have run [action started and halted, not necessarily completed]

perfective: I have run [action started and completed]

• the syntax of a language is marked by its idiosyncratic constructions

il semblerait qu'ils se soient intensifiés

parece (por hypóthese) que eles se intensificaram

movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund eo domum end goal: accusative

• h2iyṓm dámam

|europoid

какой-то сказал

in dem Anfang, hat Gott die Erde und den Himmel geschaffen Männer, deren Kinder gestorben haben, der Schicksal dessen, der gelitten habt der Schicksal derer, die gelitten haben

Ja vot tut ...

References

Einleitung in die Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (Pott)

hermann hirt Indogermanische Grammatik

Franz Bopp

Schleicher

Calvert Watkins

Jochem Schindler

Helmut Rix

Kuryłowicz

Boisacq : É. Boisacq, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Heidelberg, 1916. Brugmann, Griech. Gram?: Griechische Grammatik, Chantraine, GH: Grammaire homérique. Chantraine, Morphologie : Morphologie historique du grec. 1947. 2nd ed. 1961. Chantraine, Formation ` La formation des noms en grec ancien CIL : Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Collitz-Bechtel, D: Sammlung griechischer Dialektinschriften. 1884— 1915 Egli, Heteroklisie im Griechischen: J. Egli, Heteroklisie im Griechischen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Fälle von Gelenkheteroklisie. Dissert. Zürich Ehrlich, Betonung ` Untersuchungen über die Natur der griechischen Betonung. 1912 Ernout-Meillet, Dictionnaire étym.: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine Evidence for Laryngeals : Evidence for Laryngeals — Work papers of a conference in Indo—European linguistics on May 7 and 8, 1959. Edited by Werner Winter. Austin, Texas, 1960 Frisk, GEW ` Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg 1954 Kuryłowicz, A pophonie ` L'apophonie en indo-européen. 1956. Kuryłowicz, Accentuation *: L'accentuation des langues indo—européennes. 2nd ed. 1958. Leumann-Hofmann :M. Leumann-]. B. Hofmann, Lateinische Grammatik, 5th ed. 1926-8 Meillet, Zz£roduction 9: Introduction a l'étude comparative des langues indo-européennes. 8th ed. 1937 Pokorny : Pokorny, /wdogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. 1948- Wackernagel (-Debrunner), AzGr. : Altindische Grammatik

Bergaige, Abel; Du Rôle de la dérivation dans la déclinaison indo-européenne: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57721099.texteImage#

Bergaige, Abel; Essai sur la construction grammaticale considérée dans son développement historique, en sanscrit, en grec, en latin, dans les langues romanes et dans les langues germaniques: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5803410m/f6

>

https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.322486/mode/2up

https://archive.org/details/sanskritgrammari00whituoft/page/xx/mode/2up?view=theater

https://archive.org/details/AGrammarOfModernIndo-european/page/n1/mode/2up?view=theater&q=determiner

• Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
• Brugmmann, Karl (1925), Die syntax des einfachen satzes im indogermanischen
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• Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung

• Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
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• Kortlandt. Frederik H.H. (1983). “Proto-Indo-European Verbal Syntax”. In: Journal of Indo-European Studies 11, 307–324.

• https://www.academia.edu/37684312/On_the_origin_of_grammatical_gender

The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European (Kloekhorst, Pronk

Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon (Derksen) Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon (Kloekhorst) Etymological Dictionary of Latin (de Vaan) Etymological Dictionary of Greek (Beekes) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (Kroonen) A Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary (Mayrhofer) The Indo-European Languages (Kapović) Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics 1, 2, 3 (Klein, Joseph, Fritz) The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European (Mallory, Adams)

https://www.academia.edu/117830047/Stop_Borrowing_Anatolian_Indo_European_Stops_Voice_and_Northwest_Semitic_Loans_With_Notes_on_Ugaritic_grd%C5%A1_ztr_d%C4%A1%E1%B9%AF_and_Other_Words

https://archive.org/details/bomhardtheoriginsofprotoindoeuropean/page/n1/mode/2up

https://www.academia.edu/40559059/The_Precursors_of_Proto_Indo_European_The_Indo_Anatolian_and_Indo_Uralic_Hypotheses_2019_

The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives

https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/if-2024-0008/html

Indo-European Phonology