Aryan

Aryan
*Airás
Models of indo-european migrations hypothesizing the proto-language to pertain to a range between 7000 to 4000 BC
Pronunciation	[əi̯ˈrəs]
Created by	Veno
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Era	c.10,000–8,000 BC
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin
Map of areas where Aryan is believed to have once been spoken

Aryan (*Airás, [əi̯ˈrəs]), also referred to as Pre-Proto-Indo-European, is an ab interiori language depicting the transition from Paleolithic Codes to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of Transitional Dialects.

In most of known History, indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in Eurasia, bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the Roman Empire, the Hellenistic City-States, and the Rigvedic Tribes. Memorable personalities who spoke natively dialects from those areas include the roman general Julius Caesar (speaker of Latin), the macedonian king Alexander the Great (speaker of Ancient Greek), the nazi chancellor Adolf Hitler (speaker of German), the french emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (speaker of Corsican), the british physicist Isaac Newton (speaker of English), the italian renascentist Leoanardo da Vinci (speaker of Tuscan Italian), the indian ascetic Gautama Buddha (speaker of Prakrit), et cetera. Also, due the trajectory of the linguistic stock along the millenia, some of the most culturally influential works of Literature have been yielded, such as the Vulgate, the Iliad, and the Vedas. As of the 21^st Century, half of the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages, with the Americas, Europe, Iran, Pakistan, and India being today the centers of native speakers due the Indo-European Migrations and European Colonialism.

Naturally, the origin of the indo-european family has attracted the curiosity of thousands of researchers in the last centuries, since William Jones' presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786, which famously addressed the similarity between Sanskrit and european languages. Further works that [...]

In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the Armenian Hypothesis, which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers (CHG), who would eventually contribute to the formation of the Yamnaya Culture and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the Kurgan Hypothesis. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of Linguistic Modernity.

History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

The history of Aryan taken into account starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation by the dialects of the Upper Paleolithic, mostly regarding the Pangaean Code as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the End of the Last Ice Age. At that time (12,000 BP), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.

• Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Weak Voiced Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiced Stop before laryngeal
/kH/→/kh/	/kʼH/→/k/	/gH/→/gɦ/	/ɠH/→/g/
/pH/→/ph/	/pʼH/→/p/	/bH/→/bɦ/	/ɓH/→/b/
/tH/→/th/	/tʼH/→/t/	/dH/→/dɦ/	/ɗH/→/d/

• The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of WEAK and STRONG are rearranged to accomodate Aspiration/Breathy Voice instead of Ejection/Implosion.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop	Weak Voiced Stop	Strong Voiceless Stop	Strong Voiced Stop
/k/→/k/	/g/→/g/	/kʼ/→/kh/	/ɠ/→/gɦ/
/p/→/p/	/b/→/b/	/pʼ/→/ph/	/ɓ/→/bɦ/
/t/→/t/	/d/→/d/	/tʼ/→/th/	/ɗ/→/dɦ/

• Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.
  

Retracted before Laryngeal	Retracted	Advanced before Laryngeal	Advanced
/k̠H/→/khph/	/k̠/→/kp/	/k̟H/→/khth/	/k̟/→/kt/
/p̠H/→/phth/	/p̠/→/pt/	/p̟H/→/phkh/	/p̟/→/pk/
/t̠H/→/thkh/	/t̠/→/tk/	/t̟H/→/thph/	/t̟/→/tp/
/g̠H/→/gɦbɦ/	/g̠/→/gb/	/g̟H/→/gɦdɦ/	/g̟/→/gd/
/b̠H/→/bɦdɦ/	/b̠/→/bd/	/b̟H/→/bɦgɦ/	/b̟/→/bg/
/d̠H/→/dɦgɦ/	/d̠/→/dg/	/d̟H/→/dɦbɦ/	/d̟/→/db/
/k̠ʼH/→/kp/	/k̠ʼ/→/khph/	/k̟ʼH/→/kt/	/k̟ʼ/→/khth/
/p̠ʼH/→/pt/	/p̠ʼ/→/phth/	/p̟ʼH/→/pk/	/p̟ʼ/→/phkh/
/t̠ʼH/→/tk/	/t̠ʼ/→/thkh/	/t̟ʼH/→/tp/	/t̟ʼ/→/thph/
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/	/ɠ̠/→/gɦbɦ/	/ɠ̟H/→/gd/	/ɠ̟/→/gɦdɦ/
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/	/ɓ̠/→/bɦdɦ/	/ɓ̟H/→/bg/	/ɓ̟/→/bɦgɦ/
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/	/ɗ̠/→/dɦgɦ/	/ɗ̟H/→/db/	/ɗ̟/→/dɦbɦ/

• Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.
  

Voiceless Sonorant(I)	Voiced Sonorant(I)	Voiceless Sonorant(II)	Voiced Sonorant(II)
/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/	/j/→/j/	/w̥/→/w̥/~/w/	/w/→/w/
/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/	/n/→/n/	/m̥/→/m̥/~/m/	/m/→/m/
/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/	/l/→/l/	/r̥/→/r̥/~/r/	/r/→/r/

• The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.
  

Retracted Voiceless Sonorant	Retracted Voiced Sonorant	Advanced Voiceless Sonorant	Advanced Voiced Sonorant
/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̠/→/j/	/j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̟/→/j/
/n̠̊/→/kn/	/n̠/→/kn	/n̟̊/→/pn/	/n̊/→/pn/
/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̠/→/l/	/l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̟/→/l/
/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̠/→/w/	/ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̟/→/w/
/m̠̊/→/dm/	/m̠/→/dm/	/m̟̊/→/gm/	/m̟/→/gm/
/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̠/→/r/	/r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̟/→/r/

• Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by plosive equivalents, and uvular laryngeals turn velar.
  

Labiodental Click	Dental Click	Alveolar Click
/ʘ̪/→/dʷ/	/ǀ/→/dʲ/	/ǁ/→/t͡ɬ/

Voiceless Uvular Laryngeal	Voiced Uvular Laryngeal
/χ/→/x/	/ʁ/→/ɣ/

• Complex and long vowels are reduced to their basic and short versions.
  

Front	Central	Back
/i/→/i/	/ɨ/→/i/	/u/→/u/
/y/→/u/	/ʉ/→/u/	/ɯ/→/i/
/e/→/e/	/ɪ/→/e/	/o/→/o/
/ø/→/o/	/ʊ/→/o/	/ɤ/→/e/
/e̞/→/i/	/ə/→/ə/	/o̞/→/u/
/ɛ/→/e/	/ɐ/→/a/	/ɔ/→/o/
/æ/→/e/	/a/→/a/	/ɒ/→/o/

Special cases
HVHC > HVC
CHVHC > CVC
CHVH > CVH
/ʕɨ̀ː/→/əi̯/
/V̰/→/Vː/~/aV/
/V̤/ > /Vː/~/Va/

In Morphology, Aryan introduced a series of innovations by mixing and developing peculiarities from different Paleolithic Codes. The Hyperborean nominative -s for example was probably borrowed via another caucasian substrate, which completely assumed the role of epenthetic root (next to Aryan *-ar) in the construction "ROOT₁ ROOT₂". Primordial [ˈn̠ʕih ˈə] "old" would therefore yield *knīás "old" (=*knih₁ *ás) [PIE *sénos "old"]. Furthermore, this development culminated into the Indo-European Ablaut. That is: when the accent falls into the epenthetic root, the first root suffers a phonetic change influenced by the interaction between laryngeals and vowels, which fuse into diphthongs or long vowels. This effect is considered a reflex of Umlaut in the Pangaean Code, where guttural fricatives can alternate between their vocalic equivalents and even modify the qualities of the nucleus.

Stress in first root	Stress in second root
HV́C-R	VVC-Ŕ
CV́C-R	C∅C-Ŕ
CV́H-R	CVV-Ŕ

Codex	Aryan	PIE
ˈhuhd-ə "water"	*h1úd-ar "water"	*wód-r̥ "water"
ˈhuhd ˈə "water-like"	*wid-rás "aquatic"	*ud-rós "aquatic"
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho-ə "foot"	*díoph-as "foot"	*pód-s "foot"
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho ˈə "foot-like"	*phd-yás "pedestrian"	*ped-yós "on foot"
ˈkhuħ-ə "sound"	*kʰúh2-as "sound"	*ḱléw-os "fame"
ˈkhuħ ˈə "sound-like"	*kʰaw-ás "sound-maker"	*ḱlu-ós "famous"

Development into Indo-European Languages

Some correspondences include the aspirated velars of Aryan becoming the PIE palatal series (*Kʰ→*Ḱ); ....

Codex	Aryan	PIE	Samples
k̠-	*kʰpʰ-	*ǵʰ/d ~ *ḱh2d- ~ *ǵʰ/s ~ *ǵʰ/∅	*kʰpʰuh1- ⇒ *ǵʰewd- "pour", *ǵʰed- "to defecate", *ǵʰes- "hand", *ǵʰey- "winter" (earlier lexical transition from "autumn", with similar use of English "fall"), *ḱh2d- "fall" [sense of "detaching" turned into "falling"]
-k̠	*-kp	(...)
k-	*kʰ-	*ḱ	*ki ⇒ *kʰi ⇒ ḱe "this"
-k
k̟-	*kʰtʰ-	*ḱ/s ~ *k/s ~ *k/d ~ *gʰ/s ~ *g/∅	k̟hĩ̤ho ⇒ *kʰtʰīh1o ⇒ *(s)ker-, *(s)kelH-, *sek-, *ḱes-, *kh₂eyd- "to cut"; k̟ʕii̯h ⇒ *kʰtʰeyh1- ⇒ *gʰays- ~ *gleyH- "to stick"
-k̟	-kt	*ḱ/∅ ~ *ǵ/∅	(...) *peh₂ḱ- "to join", *peh₂ǵ- "to attach"
g̠-	*gʰbʰ-	*gʰ/p ~ *gʰ/w	g̠ʕih > *gʰbʰih1- ⇒ *(s)pregʰ- "to sprinkle"; g̠ho̰hr "scattering glow" ⇒ *gʰbʰōr- "glow" ⇒ *gʷʰer- "to be warm"
-g̠
g-
-g
g̟-	*gʰdʰ-	*gʰ/dʰ	g̟ʕih ⇒ *gʰdʰih1- ⇒ *gʰedʰ- "to join"
-g̟	*-gd	*ǵ/∅	ʕihg̟ ⇒ *h5igd- ⇒ *leǵ- "to gather"
k̠ʼ-	*kp-	*g/bʰ ~ *k/p	k̠ʼʕih ⇒ *kpih1- > *bʰeg- ~ *bʰreg- ~ *bʰrew- ~ *bʰrews- ~ *kelh₂- ~ *(s)kep- "to break"
-k̠ʼ	*-kʰpʰ	*ǵ/w	ʕihk̠ʼ ⇒ *h5ikʰpʰ- ⇒ *lewǵ- ~ *weh₂ǵ- ~ *wreh₁ǵ- "to break"
kʼ-
-kʼ
k̟ʼ-	kt-
-k̟ʼ	-kʰtʰ	*ǵʰ/dʰ ~ *∅/dʰ	ʕihk̟ʼ ⇒ *h5ikʰtʰ- ⇒ *dʰerǵʰ- "to be firm" ~ *dʰer- "to support"
ɠ̠-	*gb-	*kʷ ~ *(s)k	ɠ̠ʕih ⇒ *gbih1- ⇒ *kʷelh1- "to turn around"; ɠ̠ʕihr ⇒ *gbair- > *(s)ker- "to bend" [semantic transition from "shrink/wither" to "bend/turn around"]
-ɠ̠
ɠ-
-ɠ
ɠ̟-	*gd-	*gʰ/∅ ~ *ḱ/∅	ɠ̟ʕih ⇒ *gdih1- ⇒ *gʰreh1- "to grow (plants)"; ɠ̟ʕihr ⇒ *gdair- ⇒ *ḱer- "to grow"
-ɠ̟	*-gʰdʰ	*gʰ/dʰ	hohɠ̟ "growing fire" ⇒ *hogʰdʰ- ⇒ *dʰegʷʰ- "to burn"
p̠-
-p̠
p-	*pʰ	*bʰ	pʕihr ⇒ *pʰair- ⇒ *bʰer- "to bear"
-p
p̟-	*pʰkʰ-	*bʰ/gʰ ~ *p/ḱ ~ *p/k	p̟ʕih ⇒ *pʰkʰih1- ⇒ *gʰabʰ- ~ *gʰeh₁bʰ- ~ *kap- "to seize", *peḱ- "to pluck"
-p̟
b̠-
-b̠
b-
-b
b̟-
-b̟
p̠ʼ-
-p̠ʼ
pʼ-	*p-	*p	pʼʕih > *pair- ⇒ *per- "to go through", *pel- "to drive", *pent- "to pass", *pes- "penis"
-pʼ
p̟ʼ-
-p̟ʼ
ɓ̠-
-ɓ̠
ɓ-
-ɓ
ɓ̟-
-ɓ̟
t̠-
-t̠
t-
-t
t̟-
-t̟
d̠-
-d̠
d-
-d
d̟-
-d̟
t̠ʼ-
-t̠ʼ
tʼ-
-tʼ
t̟ʼ-
-t̟ʼ
ɗ̠-
-ɗ̠
ɗ-
-ɗ
ɗ̟-
-ɗ̟

*bʰegʷ- "to flee" < *-pʰtʰ "to escape" < …

*bʰerǵʰ- "to rise up " < *pk- "to eject" (?)

*bʰil "good" < *dʷih₁ < ʘ̪-

• temh₁

kpih1 > bʰeg-; h5ikʰpʰ > weh2ǵ- ∅

r is added when the laryngeal is modified (h2 > h1)

l is added when the laryngeal is erased (h1 > ∅)

∅ (H) > r (H̥) > l (∅)

*bʰewdʰ “to be awake”

*bʰeyd ~ *delh₁ “to split”

*deh₂y- ~ *bʰeh₂g- "to divide"

*deh₃ "to give"

‘’’D lemmas’’’

dewh1 (*deh3)

>

daim "to build" (*dem)

daik "to take" (*deḱ)

daipʰkʰ "to lead" (*dewk)

when two voiced consonants in a root, they becomes aspirated

In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except:

-a laryngeal, the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda.

*gʰedʰ- (PIE) < ((*gʰed-)) < *gʰdʰih₁- (Aryan) < g̟ʕih (Codex)

-a liquid, the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda.

*(s)pregʰ- ~ *sper- (PIE) < ((*bregʰ-)) < * gʰbʰair (Aryan) < g̠ʕihr (Codex)

exception: roots with longs vowels [dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)]

h1egóM < aikṓm < aku ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE) uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h₂úrkʰtʰa > *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes

• i and *u disappear before sonorants

mur, mrás > mer as PIE only accepts thorn clusters...

The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

mobile roots: -*r "quality" -*m "result" -*dʰ "fixation"

NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns

origin of PIE declensions:

(_)-as Hysterokinetic:

• kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
• kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos

(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:

• pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
• pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
• (á)-as Acrostatic:
• pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos) > *ǵʰéyos
• pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
• (a)-ás Acrostatic:
• pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
• pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo

ptár > ph2tḗr ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés

What marks a Transitional Dialect:

• the presence of mobile roots

p̠hṵh "fume" > *pʰtʰawimás (*pʰtʰūh₁-*más) "smoke" > *dʰuh₂mós (*dʰewh₂-*mós)

• Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we

Inheritances: huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd

• ud > *úd

p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew pʼhuh > *puh > *plew Borrowings:

• h2ekʷ

-

• Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew

Inheritances: p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2 krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2 Borrowings: -phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3 -

• Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew

Inheritances: kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor) hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed ... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH) pʰol > bʰel "shine"

• h1oh1 > *h1ews

Borrowings: pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)

• h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti

-

• Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e

Inheritances: phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2 Borrowings: -

• ā > ...

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• a > *e/o

Inheritances: ə > *(á)as > *(é)os Borrowings: -

• He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e

Inheritances: heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed Borrowings: -

• Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey

Inheritances: ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey Borrowings: +

• ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
• aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]

+ h4- > s-

heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.

*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]

dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di

• h₂oh₂dʲ-, *h₂óh₂dʲam "hatred"

? > *ak "sharp" borrowing

• dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"

sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)

h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL) h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti

• /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
• /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
• /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
• /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
• kʰpʰ-
• kp- > *kʷʰ-
• kn- > *sn-
• h₂i (TD) > *h₁e (PIE)

an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent

When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old" compare

• sādú > *swādús "sweet"
• sādú méh2dʷ
• swādús médʰu~mélid

Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.

• pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

• mai > *meh1

?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one? ?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?

h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej - h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej - h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew

	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lithuanian	Albanian	Armenian	Hittite	Tocharian	Greek	Latin	Goidelic	Gothic
>*p	p; pʰ	p; f	p	p	p	h; w	p; pp	p	p / pt	p	∅	f; β
>*t				x x
>*k		x x
>*ḱ		x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]		normal	-C-
*p	p; ph [pʰ]	p; f	p			h; w	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β]	f; v, f
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ]	t; θ	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts]	t; c [c]	t	s; tt/ss	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð];	th; d;
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ]	h; ∅; y
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; kh [kʰ]	k; c [tʃ]; x	k; č [tʃ]; c [ts]	k	k; q [c]	kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ					k; s; q [c]		ku, kku		p; t; k		qu [kʷ]; c [k]			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w	wh; w
*b	b; bh	b; β	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh	d; δ	d		d; dh [ð]	t		ts; ś [ɕ]	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; gh; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	k
*gʷ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		b; d; g		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ]	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β	b			b; w	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f; b			b [b]; b [β]; f	b; v / f
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ	d				t	t; c [c]	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f; d; b	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð]; þ	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d	j [dz]; z	k	k; ś [ɕ]	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ]; g [x]	g; y / w
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ]
*gʷʰ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; kh [kʰ]		f; g / u [w]; gu [ɡʷ]			g; b; w; gw	g; b; w
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ]; h	h; ∅	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h; s;/ ∅; [¯]	i	s; r	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z	s; r
	ṣ [ʂ]	š [ʃ]	x [x]	š [ʃ]
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜]	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅	?i	i [j]; ∅	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv					(e)rk	tu, du				b		tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv												q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp	sp		f	sp / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp	?	sp	f	sp
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ	st	st		sht [ʃt]	st	normal dev.		st	s; tt/ss	st		st
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`	normal dev.		sk; kh [kʰ]; skh [skʰ]		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}	sk, sč	normal dev.		?	sk	normal dev.
*skʷ									norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth	st; sθ?	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht	ght [t]
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt
*kʷt									pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ	xš						(ks)
*kʷs							kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	Old English
														normal	umlauted
*e	*e, *h₁e	a		e			je, ie, e, i; ja	ä	e, ʔe, i	e			i; aí [ɛ]	e; eo	i; ie
*a	(*a), *h₂e			o	a	a	ha, a	ā	ha, a	a			a	æ; a; ea	e; ie
*o	*h₃e					o, a	a	a, e	a	o
	*o	a; ā
*ə	*h₁	i	i, ∅	∅		a, ∅		ā	∅	e	a		a, ∅
	*h₂								ḫ	a
	*h₃								∅	o
*-	*h₁-	∅				e (a?)	∅		a, ∅	e (o)	∅
	*h₂-					a			ḫa	a
	*h₃-								a, ha	o
*ē	*ē, *eh₁	ā		ě	ė	i	o, ua	a/e?; ā?	ē, e, i	ē		ī	ē	ǣ
*ā	(*ā), *eh₂			a	o [oː]	a		a/o?	a, ah	ā > ē	ā	ā	ō		ē
*ō	*ō, *eh₃				uo	u	e	a/ā?; ū?	a, ā	ō		ā; ū
*i	*i	i		ь	i	i	i; e	ä	i, ī	i			i; aí [ɛ]	i
*ī	*ih₁	ī		i	y [iː]		i	i		ī	ī		ei [iː]	ī
	*ih₂					i or (j)a?		yā		ī or (j)ā?
	*ih₃									ī or (j)ō?
*ei	*ei, *h₁ei	ai > ē	ai > ōi, āi > aē		ei; ie	i		e	ē	ei	ī	ē
*oi	*oi, *h₃ei			ě	ai; ie	e	e, ai		ē, ai	oi	ū	oi	ái	ā	ǣ
*ai	(*ai), *h₂ei									ai	ae	ai
*ēi	*ēi	āi > ai; ā	āi; ā(i)	i			i		ē	ēi	ī?		ei [iː]	ī
*ōi	*ōi (*oei)			y; u	ai; ui		e, ai		ai	ōi	ō	u	ái	ā	ǣ
*āi	*eh₂ei			ě					ai	āi > ēi	ae
*u	*u	u		ъ	u	u	u; y	ä	u	u	u	u; o	u; aú [ɔ]	u; o	y
*ū	*uh₁	ū		y	ū		y; i	u		ū	ū				ȳ
	*uh₂					u or (w)a?		wā		ū or (w)ā?
	*uh₃									ū or (w)ō?
*eu	*eu, *h₁eu	au > ō	ə̄u; ao	ju	iau	oy	e	u		eu	ū	ou	iu	ēo	īe
*ou	*ou,*h₃eu			u	au		a	o, au		ou			áu	ēa
*au	(*au), *h₂eu					aw				au	au
*ēu	*ēu	āu > au	āu	u	iau		e				ū?		iu	ēo
*ōu	*ōu						a		au	ō			áu	ēa
*m̥	*m̥	a		ę	im̃; um̃	am	a	äm	a, un	a	em	em, am	um	um	ym
*m̥̅	*mh₁	ā			ìm; ùm	ama		mā		mē	mā
	*mh₂									mā > mē
	*mh₃									mō
*m̥m	*m̥m	am		ьm/ъm	im; um	am				am	em	am
*n̥	*n̥	a		ę	iñ; uñ	an		än	an	a	en	en, an	un	un	yn
*n̥̄	*nh₁	ā			ìn; ùn	ana		nā		nē	nā
	*nh₂									nā > nē
	*nh₃									nō
*n̥n	*n̥n	an		ьn/ъn	iñ; uñ	an				an	en	an
*l̥	*l̥	r̥	ərə	lь/lъ	il̃; ul̃	al	il, li; ul, lu	äl	al	la	ol	li; al	ul	ul; ol	yl
*l̥̄	*lh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìl; ùl	ala	al	lā		lē	lā
	*lh₂									lā > lē
	*lh₃									lō
*l̥l	*l̥l	ir; ur	ar	ьl/ъl	il; ul	al, la				al	el	al
*r̥	*r̥	r̥	ərə	rь/rъ	ir̃; ur̃	ar	ir, ri; ur, ru	är	ar, ur	ra	or	ri; ar	aúr [ɔr]	ur; or	yr
*r̥̄	*rh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìr; ùr	ara	ra	rā		rē	rā
	*rh₂									rā > rē
	*rh₃									rō
*r̥r	*r̥r	ir; ur	ar	ьr/ъr	ir; ur	ar				ar	ar	ar
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	normal	umlauted
														Old English

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Since Lazaridis et al's paper, absence of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) ancestry in the Anatolian component of the Indo-European speaking populations has suggested a caucasian homeleand for earlier stages of PIE rather than a pre-Yamnaya pontic continuance. Recent studies, furthermore, point to a total farming economy by the Zagros around 6,000 BC, which tempts an older dating for a Transitional Dialect such as Aryan.

Phonology

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the basic inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form. In comparison, PIE is often reconstructed as having 24 consonants.

		Labial	Alveolar			Palatal	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	Voiceless	m̥	n̥
	Voiced	m	n
Plosive	Voiceless	p	t				k		ʔ
	Voiced	b	d	dʲ	dʷ		g
	Aspirated	ph	th				kh
	Murmured	bɦ	dɦ				gɦ
Fricative	Voiceless		s				x	ħ	h
	Voiced		z				ɣ	ʕ	ɦ
Vibrant	Voiceless		r̥
	Voiced		r
Lateral	Voiceless		l̥	t͡ɬ
	Voiced		l
Approximant	Voiceless					j̊	ẘ
	Voiced					j	w

Vowels

While the simplicity of the vocalic inventory of PIE (constituted exclusively of *e, *o, *ē, and *ō, ignoring allophones of syllabic consonants and diphthongs with sonorants) has inspired some researchers to draw connections with language families of similar conditions near the Pontic–Caspian Steppe, such as the Pontic Hypothesis witht the Northwest Caucasian Languages, Aryan is reconstructed instead with a rich system of monophthongs, diphthongs, and even triphthongs.

Monophthongs Front Central Back Close i iː u uː Mid e eː ə əː o oː Open a aː

Diphthongs Front Central Back Close u̯i i̯u Mid ei̯ eu̯ əi̯ əu̯ oi̯ ou̯ Open i̯a u̯a ai̯ au̯

Triphthongs Front Central Back Close u̯iᵊ i̯uᵊ Mid ei̯ᵊ eu̯ᵊ əi̯ᵊ əu̯ᵊ oi̯ᵊ ou̯ᵊ Open i̯aᵊ u̯aᵊ ai̯ᵊ au̯ᵊ

Morphology

Affix

• gʷaináh0
• gʷaināsyas
• gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Aryan has only zero-grade (∅) and full grade (_) .

*(_)-as [forms active animate nouns] EX: kʰúh2as "sound" = PIE *(é)-os in *ḱlewos
*(∅)-ás [forms active animate adjectives] EX: *pdás "capable to step" = PIE *(e)-ós in *pṓds
*(á)-as [forms passive animate nouns] EX: ... = PIE *(ó)-os in ...
*(a)-ás [forms passive animate adjectives] EX: = PIE *(o)-ós, *the construction became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear"
*(_)-ar [forms active inanimate nouns] EX: *húdar "water" = PIE *-r̥ in *wódr̥
*(∅)-ár [forms active inanimate adjectives] 
*(á)-ar [forms passive inanimate nouns]
*(a)-ár [forms passive inanimate adjectives]

mas

*(_)-tár [forms agent nouns]
*(_)-tram [forms instrument nouns] *fusion of *(_)-tár [agent particle] and *-am [neuter particle]
*(∅)-C-ás [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: *pʰtʰūymás PIE = PIE *(∅)-mós

Root

In Aryan, roots are either static or mobile. In the first case, they serve as a prototypical source of meaning, impossible to be further decomposed. Otherwise, further analysis is possible through pure consonantal and vocalic segments, treated as "fundamental atoms".

A consonantal root is intrinsically modified by vocalic roots.

• pʰair < action root *p "bearing" + class root *h5ih1 "person" + epenthetic *r

Clitic

In Aryan, clitics, similarly to tones, became fossilized as affixes.

Case

The Indo-european accusative *-m ... as an earlier allative

While

*h₁i-m 3.SG-ACC (PIE) ⇒ μίν 3.SG.MASC.ACC (Greek)

*h₁i-s 3.SG-NOM (PIE) ⇒ is 3.SG.MASC.NOM (Latin)

Noun

[...]

Fossilization of object affix into the anaphoric pronoun *i

(1)

dieser Mensch

ˈdiːzɐ

diːz-ɐ

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom

ˈMɛnʃ

Mɛnʃ-∅

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈdiːzɐ ˈMɛnʃ

diːz-ɐ Mɛnʃ-∅

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (German)

(2)

этот человек

ˈɛtət

ɛt-ət

dei-masc.sg.nom

t͡ɕɪɫɐˈvʲek

t͡ɕɪɫɐvʲek-∅

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈɛtət t͡ɕɪɫɐˈvʲek

ɛt-ət t͡ɕɪɫɐvʲek-∅

dei-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Russian)

(3)

iste homo

ˈiste

ist-e

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom

ˈhomoː

hom-oː

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈiste ˈhomoː

ist-e hom-oː

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Latin)

(4)

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος

ˈhûːtos

hûːt-os

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom

ˈántʰrɔːpos

ántʰrɔːp-os

person-masc.sg.nom

ˈhûːtos ˈántʰrɔːpos

hûːt-os ántʰrɔːp-os

dei.prx-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Greek)

(5)

सः मनुष्यः

sɐ́h

sɐ́-h

3-masc.sg.nom

mɐnuʂíjɐh

mɐnuʂíj-ɐh

person-masc.sg.nom

sɐ́h mɐnuʂíjɐh

sɐ́-h mɐnuʂíj-ɐh

3-masc.sg.nom person-masc.sg.nom

"this person" (Sanskrit)

The [...]

As the cases of pronominal determiners found in the daughter languages are innovations, anaphoric demonstratives supposedly acted exclusively as pronouns in PIE, merely substituting the nouns as in Latin is, ea, id; so that the sense of "this person" was represented by "the person here":

(1)

*[X]-*ḱe

*[X]-*ḱe

person.-dei.prox

*[X]-*ḱe

person.-dei.prox

"this person" (PIE)

(2)

*[X] *ikʰ

*[X]

person

*i-*kʰ

3-dei.prox

*[X] *i-*kʰ

person 3-dei.prox

"this person" (Aryan)

(3)

[X]-ik

[X]-i-k

person-prox-dei

[X]-i-k

person-prox-dei

"this person" (Codex)

*so vs *h₁is

<

• h0e * eah0 *as *ats
  • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
  • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah₀, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

German:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-er -∅,-e	-e, -ie, -∅	-es, -as, -∅, -e	-e, -ie, -en, -er
Genitive	-es, -en	-er, -en	-es, -en	-er, -en
Dative	-em, -en, -e	-er, -en	-em, -en	-en
Accusative	-en	-e, -ie	-es, -as, -e	-e, -ie, -en

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-а/-я, -ая, -ина, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-и/ы, -ые, -ины, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Genitive	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -и	-ой, -иной, -и/ы	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/-ь, -ов/-ей, ∅-/-(е)й, -ей/-мён(-мян)
Dative	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -мени	-им, -ым, -иным, -ам/-ям, -ям/-менам
Accusative.A	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/ь, -ов/-ей, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Accusative.I	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е	-и/-ы, -ые, -ины, -∅/-ь, ∅-/-(е)й, -ь/-мена
Instrumental	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -ью	-ой/-ою//-ей, -иной/-иною, -ю, -ью	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -менем	-ими, -ыми, -иными, -ами/-ями, -ями(ьми)/-менами
Prepositional	-ом, -ином, -е, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ом, -ином, -е, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -ах/-ях, -ях/-менах

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

	LATIN DECLENSION
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-e/-us, -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-a, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ud, -um, -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ī, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ae, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ārum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative	-um, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-am, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ud, -um, -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ōs, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ās, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ā, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative	-e, -is	-a, -is	-ud, -um, -e	-ī, -ēs	-ae, -ēs,	-a, -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	GREEK DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-ος, -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων	-η/α, -(ε)ς, -ων	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες	-α
Genitive	-ου, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ης/-ας, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	ARYAN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*-as	*-ah0	*-am	*-ā	*-āh0	*-ā	*-ayn	*-ah0in	*-a
Genitive	*-asyas	*-āsyas	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

• eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Verb

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

• gánas > γόνος "offspring"

Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/

• ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
  
• páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"
  

[*peh5] "feed, protect"

*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h₁ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h₁édōm, *yédmi) > *h₁édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h₁ádas [result-noun]

In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law) ...

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV

• the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
• absolute construction
• subject is ommitted

• na pʰaírīt mai
• pʰaírīt mai na?

h₅ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

• pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

• -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

• paid- ... *p∅dás

• p∅dás > páds > póds

• p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
• p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

iacio ((H)yéh₁k-yoh₂) iaceo (*(H)ih₁k-éh₁yoh₂) aeykīōm > (H)yéh₁k-yoh₂ əi̯Hk > heyk /hei̯k/ > (H)yeh1(k) -éh₁- passive/stative (intransitive) suffix > -éh₁mi, -éh₁si, -éh₁ti -ye- transitive suffix > -yoh₁, -yesi, -yeti -éh₁-ye- passive/stative transitive suffix -é-ye- causative transitive suffix -eh₂- (nominal suffix) -yé- intransitive suffix > -yóh₂, -yési, -yéti -eh₂-yé- frequentative suffix -

• h₂er-éh₁mi "I am arranging" > *h₂reh₁-yoh₁ "I am counting, thinking"

Latin reor "I think" < PIE *h₂réh₁-yoh₁ "I count"

• h₂er- "fix/put in order"
• h₂reh₁ "think"< *h₂er- (“to join; to prepare”) +‎ *-éh₁

Syntax

It goes without saying that orthographic implications are disregarded. In French, for example, the past participle agrees in gender and number if the direct object precedes it (e.g. ils auraient hérité la maison "they would have inherited the house" et ils l'auraient héritée "they would have inherited it (the house)"), but the choice between -é, -ée, and -ées in the participle is ultimately irrelevant phonetically speaking.

почему?

I am still here Je suis encore ici Ich bin noch hier Я все ещё здесь Hic adhuc sum

absolutive of "that" yields "if"

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen; ich, wer wusste nichts darüber

ils disent que demain je veux travailler pour gagner d'argent; moi, qui n'y savais rien pas

Subordinate clause... in German, Russian, Latin, and Greek:

Sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen.

Они говорят, что завстра я хачу работат, чтобы зарабатывать деньге.

Illi dicent me cras laborare volo ut pecuniam meream.

They say I want to work tomorrow in order to earn money.

The hypothetical in French is marked by the imperfect indicative, whereas in Portuguese by the imperfect subjunctive; in German by an auxiliary verb linking the infinite form, while in English the bare preterite states the sense; and Russian applies a conditional/optative particle of subjunctive mood in conjunction with the past tense:

Il serait ennuyeux si ils nous reconnaissaient [French]

Seria irritante se eles nos reconhecessem [Portuguese]

Es wäre ärgerlich, wenn sie uns erkennen würden [German]

It would be annoying if they recognized us [English]

было бы досадно, если бы они нас узнали [Russian]

Ancient indo-european languages, furthermore ... general use of imperfect subjunctive in Latin, while present and aorist optatives in Greek's protasis and apodasis respectively:

molestus esset si nos recognoscerent [Latin]

εἴη ὀχληρός ἄν, εἰ ἡμᾶς ἐπιγνοῖεν [Greek]

... [Sanskrit]

An areal feature of Standard Average Euroepan is the [...] The perfect in West Germanic Languages such as English and German requires a past participle to be modified by either the verb "to be" or "to have":

ich bin ins Haus gewesen [German]

I have been in the house [English]

What determines the use of "to be" or "to have" is the distinction between "motionless" and "motive" verbs, as seen in French and German:

je suis allé à la maison [French]

ich bin nach Hause gegangen [German]

In German, the auxiliary werden is obligatory in the passive voice:

Ich werde gezwungen, die Wahrheit zu zählen [German]

[...]

als ob du auf der Flucht gewesen wärst

as if you had been on the run

[...]

er lehnte es ab, sich zu der sogennanten Affäre zu beschreiben

Implications of agreement

There is a tendence for heavy agreement to lead to lax syntax. Vide the Latin sentence, wherein cases reprove ambiguity:

Maenala trānsieram latebrīs horrenda ferārum [Latin]

"I had travelled over horrendous Maenalus, through the lairs of beasts"

Oddities in agreement, on the other hand, reveal oddities in syntax. In Portuguese, for example, the relative determiner cujo/cuja necessarily precedes the noun, yet the equivalent genderles expression ao qual allows the noun to be farther away into the clause. Likewise, in French, the relative determiner dont doesn't agree with the noun, and therefore can be separated as well. Compare the translation of "the man whose existence I do not know" in both instances and languages:

(1) o homem cuja existência eu não conheço [Portuguese]

l'homme dont l'existence je ne connais pas [French]

(2) o homem ao qual eu não conheço a existência [Portuguese]

l'homme dont je ne connais pas l'existence [French]

Enclitics

[...]

By examining a large corpus of hellenic texts, Jakob Wackernagel stated in his essay how enclitics in Greek sentences are mostly located in the second position. For example, he contrasted specifically the accusative of the first-person pronoun in the isolated (ἐμέ) and enclitic (με) forms:

Besonders belehrend sind aber die paar Inschriften mit ἐμέ. Zweimal steht dieses ἐμέ auch an zweiter Stelle: IGA. 20,8 (Korinth) ᾿Απολλόδωρος ἐμὲ ἀνέθ[ηκε] und Gazette archéol. 1888 S. 168 Μεναΐδας ἐμ’ ἐποί(ϝ)εςε Χαρόπ(ι). Aber sechsmal steht ἐμέ anders: Klein S.39 Ἐξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀπόηςε ἐμέ (Vers?) 5. 40 Ἑξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀ(ι)ποίης᾽ ἐμέ (Vers?). S.ΟῚ Χαριταῖος ἐποίηςεν ἔμ᾽ εὖ. 8. 82 Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐμέ. 8.85 Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐνέ (liess ἐμέ). S. 85 Σακωνίδης ἔγραψεν ἐμέ. Diese Stellen zeigen, dass die regelmässige Stellung von με hinter dem ersten Wort nicht zufällig und dass sie durch seine enklitische Natur bedingt ist. [Vgl. noch die Nachträge.]

?

A riddle in German:

Der Vater ist noch nicht geboren,

der Sohn ist schon auf dem Dache.

The father is not yet born,

the son is already on the roof.

A riddle in French:

Blanc est le champ,

noire est la semmence,

l'homme qui le semme,

est de très grand science.

White is the field,

black is the seed,

the man who seeds it,

is of great science.

dd

imperfect: I am running [action started but not halted, not necessarily intended to be completed]

imperfective: I am running [action started but not halted, has yet to be completed]

perfect: I have run [action started and halted, not necessarily completed]

perfective: I have run [action started and completed]

• the syntax of a language is marked by its idiosyncratic constructions

il semblerait qu'ils se soient intensifiés

parece (por hypóthese) que eles se intensificaram

movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund eo domum end goal: accusative

• h2iyṓm dámam

|europoid

какой-то сказал

Ja vot tut ...

References

Bergaige, Abel; Du Rôle de la dérivation dans la déclinaison indo-européenne: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57721099.texteImage#

Bergaige, Abel; Essai sur la construction grammaticale considérée dans son développement historique, en sanscrit, en grec, en latin, dans les langues romanes et dans les langues germaniques: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5803410m/f6

>

Einleitung in die Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (Pott)

https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.322486/mode/2up

https://archive.org/details/sanskritgrammari00whituoft/page/xx/mode/2up?view=theater

https://archive.org/details/AGrammarOfModernIndo-european/page/n1/mode/2up?view=theater&q=determiner

• Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
• Brugmmann, Karl (1925), Die syntax des einfachen satzes im indogermanischen
• Brugmmann; Delbrück (1889), Grundriss der vergleichenden grammatik der indogermanischen sprachen
• Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
• Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
• Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
• Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
• Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung

*Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft

• Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
• Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
• Kortlandt. Frederik H.H. (1983). “Proto-Indo-European Verbal Syntax”. In: Journal of Indo-European Studies 11, 307–324.

• https://www.academia.edu/37684312/On_the_origin_of_grammatical_gender

The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European (Kloekhorst, Pronk

Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon (Derksen) Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon (Kloekhorst) Etymological Dictionary of Latin (de Vaan) Etymological Dictionary of Greek (Beekes) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (Kroonen) A Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary (Mayrhofer) The Indo-European Languages (Kapović) Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics 1, 2, 3 (Klein, Joseph, Fritz) The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European (Mallory, Adams)

https://www.academia.edu/117830047/Stop_Borrowing_Anatolian_Indo_European_Stops_Voice_and_Northwest_Semitic_Loans_With_Notes_on_Ugaritic_grd%C5%A1_ztr_d%C4%A1%E1%B9%AF_and_Other_Words

https://archive.org/details/bomhardtheoriginsofprotoindoeuropean/page/n1/mode/2up

https://www.academia.edu/40559059/The_Precursors_of_Proto_Indo_European_The_Indo_Anatolian_and_Indo_Uralic_Hypotheses_2019_

The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives

https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/if-2024-0008/html

Indo-European Phonology