Luthic

Luthic
Lûthica
Flag of the Luthic-speaking Ravenna
Pronunciation	[ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ]
Created by	Lëtzelúcia
Date	2023
Setting	Alternative history Italy
Native to	Ravenna; Ferrara and Bologna
Ethnicity	Luths
Native speakers	149,500 (2020)
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Italo-Western Gotho-Romance Italo-Luthian Romance Luthic
Writing systems	Latin Braille
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Italy (recognised by the Luthic Community of Ravenna)
Regulated by	Council for the Luthic Language
The areas where Luthic (red and orange) is spoken.

Luthic (/ˈluːθ.ɪk/ LOOTH-ik, less often /ˈlʌθ.ɪk/ LUTH-ik, also Luthish; endonym: Lûthica [ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ] or Rasda Lûthica [ˈʁaz.dɐ ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ]) is an Italic language that is spoken by the Luths, with strong East Germanic influence. Unlike other Romance languages, such as Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan and French, Luthic has a large inherited vocabulary from East Germanic, instead of only proper names that survived in historical accounts, and loanwords. About 250,000 people speak Luthic worldwide.

Luthic is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions after the Gothic raids towards the Roman Empire began, together with the later West Germanic merchants’ travels to and from the Western Roman Empire. These connections and the conquest by the Germanic tribes of the Roman Empire slowly formed a creole for mutual communication.

As a standard form of the Gotho-Romance language, Luthic has similarities with other Italo-Dalmatian languages, Western Romance languages and Sardinian. The status of Luthic as the regional language of Ravenna and the existence there of a regulatory body have removed Luthic, at least in part, from the domain of Standard Italian, its traditional Dachsprache. It is also related to the Florentine dialect spoken by the Italians in the Italian city of Florence and its immediate surroundings.

Luthic is an inflected fusional language, with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); and two numbers (singular, plural).

Classification

Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.

Luthic is an Indo-European language that belongs to the Gotho-Romance group of the Italic languages, however Luthic has great Germanic influence; where the Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic. The first of these branches survives in modern Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Elfdalian, Faroese, and Icelandic, all of which are descended from Old Norse. The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts; Luthic is the only surviving Indo-European language with extensive East Germanic derived vocabulary. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch, Yiddish, Afrikaans, and others.

Among the Romance languages, its classification has always been controversial, for example, it is one of the Italo-Dalmatian languages and most closely related to Istriot on the one hand and Tuscan-Italian on the other. Some authors include it among the Gallo-Italic languages, and according to others, it is not related to either one. Although both Ethnologue and Glottolog group Luthic into a new language group, the Gotho-Romance (opere citato) family is still somewhat dubious.

Luthic has been influenced by Italian, Frankish, Gothic and Langobardic since its first attestation, the great influence of these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern Luthic is widely acknowledged. Most specialists in language contact do consider Luthic to be a true mixed language. Luthic is classified as a Romance langauge because it shares innovations with other Romance languages such as Italian, French and Spanish.

History

The Luthic philologist Aþalphonso Silva divided the history of Luthic into a period from 500 AD to 1740 to be “Mediaeval Luthic”, which he subdivided into “Gothic Luthic” (500–1100), “Mediaeval Luthic” (1100–1600) and “late Mediaeval Luthic” (1600–1740).

Gothic Luthic

The earliest varieties of a Luthic language, collectively known as Gothic Luthic or “Gotho-Luthic”, evolved from the contact of Latin dialects and East Germanic languages. A considerable amount of East Germanic vocabulary was incorporated into Luthic over some five centuries. Approximately 1,200 uncompounded Luthic words are derived from Gothic and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European. Of these 1,200, 700 are nouns, 300 are verbs and 200 are adjectives. Luthic has also absorbed many loanwords, most of which were borrowed from West Germanic languages of the Early Middle Ages.

Only a few documents in Gothic Luthic have survived – not enough for a complete reconstruction of the language. Most Gothic Luthic-language sources are translations or glosses of other languages (namely, Greek and Latin), so foreign linguistic elements most certainly influenced the texts. Nevertheless, Gothic Luthic was probably very close to Gothic (it is known primarily from the Codex Argenteus, a 6th-century copy of a 4th-century Bible translation, and is the only East Germanic language with a sizeable text corpus). These are the primary sources:

• Codex Luthicus (Ravenna), two parts: 87 leaves

It contains scattered passages from the New Testament (including parts of the gospels and the Epistles), from the Old Testament (Nehemiah), and some commentaries. The text likely had been somewhat modified by copyists. It was written using the Gothic alphabet, an alphabet used for writing the Gothic language. It was developed in the 4th century AD by Ulfilas (or Wulfila), a Gothic preacher of Cappadocian Greek descent, for the purpose of translating the Bible.

Detail of the Codex Luthicus, the word Luþiks is attested, referring to the Luths

• Codex Ravennas (Ravenna), four parts: 140 leaves

A civil code enacted under Theodoric the Great. The code covered the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, but mainly Ravenna, as Theodoric devoted most of his architectural attention to his capital, Ravenna. Codex Ravennas was also written using the Gothic alphabet. The text likely had been somewhat modified by copyists. Together with four leaves, fragments of Romans 11–15 (a Luthic–Latin diglot).

Mediaeval Luthic

In the mediaeval period, Luthic emerged as a separate language from Gothic. The main written language was Latin, and the few Luthic-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet. From the 7th to the 16th centuries, Mediaeval Luthic gradually transformed through language contact with Old Italian, Langobardic and Frankish. During the Carolingian Empire (773–774), Charles conquered the Lombards and thus included northern Italy in his sphere of influence. He renewed the Vatican donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection. Frankish was very strong, until Louis’ eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor in name but de facto only the ruler of the Middle Frankish Kingdom.

The first sentence is: “Luthica unsara rasda ist, e scolamos defendere unsarǫ raihtǫ di usare la rasda fremente, l’italiano nogca sarat l’unsara rasda fragca, car gli italiani non unse rispetanno.” English translation: “Luthic is our language, and we must defend our right to use it freely, Italian will never be our language, as the Italians don’t respect us”

Late Mediaeval Luthic

Fraugiani e Narri hanno rasda fre.
“Lords and jesters have free speech.”

“

”

Giuseppe il Lûthico, proverbs

Following the first Bible translation, the development of Luthic as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Luthic, first among them Þiudareico Bianchi’s 1657 Latin grammar De studio linguæ luthicæ.

De Studio Linguæ Luthicæ

De Studio Linguæ Luthicæ (English: On Study of the Luthic Language) often referred to as simply the Luthicæ (/lʌˈθiˌki, lʌθˈaɪˌki/ lu-THEE-KEE), is a book by Þiudareico Bianchi that expounds Luthic grammar. The Luthicæ is written in Latin and comprises two volumes, and was first published on 9 September 1657.

Book 1, De grammatica

Book 1, subtitled De grammatica (On grammar) concerns fundamental grammar features present in Luthic. It opens a collection of examples and Luthic–Latin diglot lemmata.

Book 2, De orthographia

Book 2, subtitled De orthographia (On orthography), is an exposition of the many vernacular orthographies Luthic had, and eventual suggestions for a universal orthography.

Remounted cover, at Luthic Community of Ravenna

Etymology

The name of the Luths is hugely linked to the name of the Goths, itself one of the most discussed topics in Germanic philology. The autonym is attested as 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 (gutþiuda) (the status of this word as a Gothic autonym prior to the Ostrogothic period is disputed) on the Gothic calendar (in the Codex Ambrosianus A): þize ana gutþiudai managaize marwtre jah friþareikeikeis. However, on the basis of parallel formations in Germanic (svíþjóð; angelþēod) and non-Germanic (Old Irish cruithen-tuath) indicates that it means “land of the Goths, Gothia”, instead of a more literal translation “Gothpeople”. The first element however may be also the same element attested on the Ring of Pietrossa ᚷᚢᛏᚨᚾᛁ (gutanī). Roman authors of late antiquity did not classify the Goths as Germani. While the Gutones, the Pomeranian precursors of the Goths, and the Vandili, the Silesian ancestors of the Vandals, were still considered part of Tacitean Germania, the later Goths, Vandals, and other East Germanic tribes were differentiated from the Germans and were referred to as Scythians, Goths, or some other special names. The sole exception are the Burgundians, who were considered German because they came to Gaul via Germania. In keeping with this classification, post-Tacitean Scandinavians were also no longer counted among the Germans, even though they were regarded as close relatives. The word for Luthic is first attested as 𐌻𐌿𐌸𐌹𐌺𐍃 (luþiks) on the Codex Luthicus, named after so. The name was probably first recorded via Greco-Roman writers, as *Luthae, a formation similar to Getae, itself derived from *leuhtą. Ultimately meaning the lighters. 𐌻𐌿𐌸𐌹𐌺𐍃 is probably a corruption *leuhtą, *leuthą, *Luthae, influenced by gothus, then reborrowed via a Germanic language, where *-th- > -þ-.

Geographical distribution

Luthic is spoken mainly in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, where it is primarily spoken in Ravenna and its adjacent communes. Although Luthic is spoken almost exclusively in Emilia-Romagna, it has also been spoken outside of Italy. Luth and general Italian emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in the Americas) sometimes employ Luthic as their primary language. The largest concentrations of Luthic speakers are found in the provinces of Ravenna, Ferrara and Bologna (Metropolitan City of Bologna). The people of Ravenna live in tetraglossia, as Romagnol, Emilian and Italian are spoken in those provinces alongside Luthic.

According to a census by ISTAT (The Italian National Institute of Statistics), Luthic is spoken by an estimated 250,000 people, however only 149,500 are considered de facto natives, and approximately 50,000 are monolinguals.

Status

As in most European countries, the minority languages are defined by legislation or constitutional documents and afforded some form of official support. In 1992, the Council of Europe adopted the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe.

Luthic is regulated by the Council for the Luthic Language (Luthic: Gafaurdo faul·la Rasda Lûthica [ɡɐˈfɔɾ.du fɔl‿lɐ ˈʁaz.dɐ ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ]) and the Luthic Community of Ravenna (Luthic: Gamainescape Lûthica Ravennai [ɡɐˌmɛ.neˈska.fe ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ ʁɐˈvẽ.nɛ]). The existence of a regulatory body has removed Luthic, at least in part, from the domain of Standard Italian, its traditional Dachsprache, Luthic was considered an Italian dialect like many others until about World War II, but then it underwent ausbau.

Luthic geographical distribution in the commune of Ravenna

Luthic regarded as an Italian dialect

Luthic lexicon is discrepant from those of other Romance languages, since most of the words present in Modern Luthic are ultimately of Germanic origin. The lexical differentiation was a big factor for the creation of an independent regulatory body. There were many attempts to assimilate Luthic into the Italian dialect continuum, as in recent centuries, the intermediate dialects between the major Romance languages have been moving toward extinction, as their speakers have switched to varieties closer to the more prestigious national standards. That has been most notable in France, owing to the French government’s refusal to recognise minority languages. For many decades since Italy’s unification, the attitude of the French government towards the ethnolinguistic minorities was copied by the Italian government. A movement called “Italianised Luthic Movement” (Luthic: Movimento Lûthicai Italianegiatai; Italian: Movimento per il Lutico Italianeggiato) tried to italianase Luthic’s vocabulary and reduce the inherited Germanic vocabulary, in order to assimilate Luthic as an Italian derived language; modern Luthic orthography was affected by this movement.

Almost all of the Romance languages spoken in Italy are native to the area in which they are spoken. Apart from Standard Italian, these languages are often referred to as dialetti “dialects”, both colloquially and in scholarly usage; however, the term may coexist with other labels like “minority languages” or “vernaculars” for some of them. Italian was first declared to be Italy's official language during the Fascist period, more specifically through the R.D.l., adopted on 15 October 1925, with the name of Sull'Obbligo della lingua italiana in tutti gli uffici giudiziari del Regno, salvo le eccezioni stabilite nei trattati internazionali per la città di Fiume. According to UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are 31 endangered languages in Italy.

Luthic is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Standard Luthic

The basis of Standard Luthic was developed by the popular language spoken by the Ravennese people, whose was highly influenced by Gothic, together with other East Germanic substrate, such as Vandalic and Burgundian and other ancient West Germanic languages, mainly Frankish and Langobardic. Standard Luthic orthography was further influenced by Italian. Increasing mobility of the population and the dissemination of the language through mass media such as radio and television are leading to a gradual standardisation towards a “Standard Luthic” through the process of koineization.

Alphabet

Luthic has a shallow orthography, meaning very regular spelling with an almost one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. In linguistic terms, the writing system is close to being a phonemic orthography. The most important of the few exceptions are the following (see below for more details):

• The letter c represents the sound /k/ at the end of words and before the letters a, o, and u but represents the sound /t͡ʃ/ before the letters e and i.
• The letter g represents the sound /ɡ/ at the end of words and before the letters a, o, and u but represents the sound /d͡ʒ/ before the letters e and i. It also represents the sound /ŋ/ before c or g.
  • /ɡʷ/ only happens before a nasal and is spelled as ggu /ŋɡʷ/, or inherited from Gothic -ggw- as a regular outcome of Germanic *ww: 𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐍃 [triɡʷːs], tregguo [ˈtɾɛɡ.ɡʷu].
• The letter r represents the sound /ʁ/ onset or stressed intervocalic, /ɾ/ when intervocalic or nearby another consonant or at the end of words and /ʀ/ if doubled.
• The cluster sc /sk/ before the letters e and i represents the sound /ʃ/, geminate if intervocalic.
• The spellings ci and gi before another vowel represent only /t͡ʃ/ or /d͡ʒ/ with no /i/ ~ /j/ sound.
• The spelling qu and gu always represent the sounds /k/ and /ɡ/.
• The spelling ġl and ġn represent the palatals /ʎ/ and /ɲ/ retrospectively; always geminate if intervocalic.

The Luthic alphabet is considered to consist of 22 letters; j, k, w, x, y are excluded, and often avoided in loanwords, as tacċi vs taxi, cċenophobo vs xenofobo, geins vs jeans, Giorque vs York, Valsar vs Walsar:

• The circumflex accent is used over vowels to indicate irregular stress.
  • The digraphs ⟨ai, au, ei⟩ are used to indicate stressed /ɛ ɔ i/ retrospectively.
  • In VCC structures and some Italian borrowings, the digraphs are not found.
• The overdot accent is used to over ⟨a, o⟩ to indicate coda /a o/.
  • The letter o always represents the sound /u/ in coda.
  • The overdot is also used over ⟨c, g⟩ to indicate palatalisation.
• The diaeresis accent is used to distinguish from a digraph or a diphthong.
• The letter ⟨s⟩ can symbolise voiced or voiceless consonants. ⟨s⟩ symbolises /s/ onset before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (⟨p, f, c, q⟩), and when doubled (geminate); it symbolises /z/ when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants.
  • Similarly, the letter ⟨z⟩ can symbolise voiced or voiceless consonants. ⟨z⟩ symbolises /t͡s/ onset before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (⟨p, f, c, q⟩), and when doubled (geminate); it symbolises /d͡z/ when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants.

Standard Luthic Alphabet

Letter	Name	Historical name	IPA	Diacritics
A, a	a [ˈa]	asga [ˈaz.ɡɐ]	/ɐ/ or /a/	â, ȧ
B, b	bi [bi]	bairca [ˈbɛɾ.kɐ]	/b/ or /ʋ/	—
C, c	ci [ˈt͡ʃi]	caunȯ [ˈkɔ.no]	/k/, /t͡ʃ/ or /x/	ċ
D, d	di [ˈdi]	dago [ˈda.ɣ˕u]	/d/ or /ð̞/	—
E, e	e [ˈɛ]	aiqqo [ˈɛk.kʷu]	/e/ or /ɛ/	ê
F, f	effe [ˈɛf.fe]	faiho [ˈfɛ.hu]	/f/ or /p͡f/	—
G, g	gi [ˈd͡ʒi]	geva [ˈd͡ʒe.vɐ]	/ɡ/, /d͡ʒ/, /ɣ˕/ or /ŋ/	ġ
H, h	acca [ˈak.kɐ]	haġlo [ˈhaʎ.ʎu]	/h/ or /ç/	—
I, i	i [ˈi]	eisso [ˈis.su]	/i/ or /j/	ï
L, l	elle [ˈɛl.le]	lago [ˈla.ɣ˕u]	/l/	—
M, m	emme [ˈẽ.me]	manno [ˈmɐ̃.nu]	/m/	—
N, n	enne [ˈẽ.ne]	nauþo [ˈnɔ.θu]	/n/	—
O, o	o [ˈɔ]	oþalȯ [oˈθa.lo]	/o/, /u/ or /ɔ/	ô, ȯ
P, p	pi [ˈpi]	pairþa [ˈpɛɾ.t͡θɐ]	/p/ or /f/	—
Q, q	qoppa [ˈkʷɔp.pɐ]	qairþa [ˈkʷɛɾ.t͡θɐ]	/kʷ/	—
R, r	erre [ɛˈʀe]	raida [ˈʁɛ.ð̞ɐ]	/ʀ/, /ʁ/ or /ɾ/	—
S, s	esse [ɛsˈse]	sauila [ˈsɔj.lɐ]	/s/, /t͡s/ or /z/	—
T, t	ti [ˈti]	teivo [ˈti.vu]	/t/ or /θ/	—
Þ, þ	eþþe [ˈɛθ.θe]	þaurno [ˈθɔɾ.nu]	/θ/ or /t͡θ/	—
U, u	u [ˈu]	uro [ˈu.ɾu]	/u/ or /w/	û, ü
V, v	vi [ˈvi]	viġna [ˈviɲ.ɲɐ]	/v/	—
Z, z	zi [ˈt͡si]	zetta [ˈt͡sɛt.tɐ]	/t͡s/ or /d͡z/	—

A Luthic computer keyboard layout.

Luthic has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for /d͡z/, /ʎ/, /ɲ/ , which are always geminate when between vowels, and /z/, which is always single. Geminate plosive and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and /l/ are realised as lengthened continuants. When triggered by Gorgia Toscana, voiceless fricatives are always constrictive, but voiced fricatives are not very constrictive and often closer to approximants.

Phonology

There is a maximum of 8 oral vowels, 5 nasal vowels, 2 semivowels and 41 consonants; though some varieties of the language have fewer phonemes. Gothic, Frankish, northern Suebi, Langobardic, Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish (Roman Gaul) influences were highly absorbed into the local Vulgar Latin dialect. An early form of Luthic was already spoken in the Ostrogothic Kingdom during Theodoric’s reign and by the year 600 Luthic had already become the vernacular of Ravenna. Luthic developed in the region of the former Ostrogothic capital of Ravenna, from Late Latin dialects and Vulgar Latin. As Theodoric emerged as the new ruler of Italy, he upheld a Roman legal administration and scholarly culture while promoting a major building program across Italy, his cultural and architectural attention to Ravenna led to a most conserved dialect, resulting in modern Luthic.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Standard Luthic

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Close-mid	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open-mid	ɛ		ɐ	ɐ̃	ɔ
Open			a

Notes

When the mid vowels /ε, ɔ/ precede a nasal, they become close [ẽ] rather than [ε̃] and [õ] rather than [ɔ̃].

Oral monophthongs of Standard Luthic

• /i/ is close front unrounded [i].
• /u/ is close back rounded [u].
• /e/ is close-mid front unrounded [e].
• /o/ is close-mid back rounded [o].
• /ɛ/ has been variously described as mid front unrounded [ɛ̝] and open-mid front unrounded [ɛ].
• /ɔ/ is somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded [ɔ̟].
• /ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ].
• /a/ has been variously described as open front unrounded [a] and open central unrounded [ä].

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Luthic

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar		Uvular	Glottal
						plain	labialized
Nasal		m	n		ɲ	ŋ	(ŋʷ)
Plosive	voiceless	p, pʰ	t, tʰ			k, kʰ	kʷ
	voiced	b	d			ɡ	ɡʷ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s θ	ʃ	ç	(x)			h
	voiced	v	z					ʁ
Affricate	voiceless	(p͡f)	t͡s (t͡θ)	t͡ʃ
	voiceless		d͡z	d͡ʒ
Approximant	semivowel				j		w
	lateral		l		ʎ
	Gorgia Toscana	(ʋ)	(ð̞)			(ɣ˕)
Flap			ɾ
Trill								ʀ

Notes

• Nasals:
  • /n/ is laminal alveolar [n̻].
  • /ɲ/ is alveolo-palatal, always geminate when intervocalic.
  • /ŋ/ has a labio-velar allophone [ŋʷ] before labio-velar plosives.

• Plosives:
  • /p/, /pʰ/ and /b/ are purely labial.
  • /t/, /tʰ/ and /d/ are laminal dentialveolar [t̻, t̻ʰ, d̻].
  • /k/ and /ɡ/ are pre-velar [k̟, ɡ̟] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.
  • /kʷ/ and /ɡʷ/ are palato-labialised [kᶣ, ɡᶣ] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.

• Affricates:
  • /p͡f/ is bilabial–labiodental and is only found as a common allophone.
  • /t͡θ/ is dental and is only found as a common allophone.
  • /t͡s/ and /d͡z/ are dentalised laminal alveolar [t̻͡s̪, d̻͡z̪].
  • /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are strongly labialised palato-alveolar [t͡ʃʷ, d͡ʒʷ].

• Fricatives:
  • /f/ and /v/ are labiodental.
  • /θ/ is dental.
  • /s/ and /z/ are laminal alveolar [s̻, z̻].
  • /ʃ/ is strongly labialised palato-alveolar [ʃʷ].
  • /x/ is velar, and only found when triggered by Gorgia Toscana.
  • /ʁ/ is uvular, but in anlaut is in free variation with [h].
  • /h/ is glottal, but is in free variation with [x ~ ʁ], /h/ is palatal [ç] nearby /i, e, ɛ, j/.

• Approximants, flap, trill and laterals:
  • /ʋ/ is labiodental, and only found when triggered by Gorgia Toscana.
  • /ð̞/ is dental, and only found when triggered by Gorgia Toscana.
  • /j/ and /w/ are always geminate when intervocalic.
  • /ɾ/ is alveolar [ɾ].
  • /ɣ˕/ is velar, and only found when triggered by Gorgia Toscana.
  • /ʀ/ is uvular [ʀ], but is in free variation with alveolar [r].
  • /l/ is laminal alveolar [l̻].
  • /ʎ/ is alveolo-palatal, always geminate when intervocalic.

Historical phonology

The phonological system of the Luthic language underwent many changes during the period of its existence. These included the palatalisation of velar consonants in many positions and subsequent lenitions. A number of phonological processes affected Luthic in the period before the earliest documentation. The processes took place chronologically in roughly the order described below (with uncertainty in ordering as noted).

Vowel system

The most sonorous elements of the [[w:Syllable|syllable] are vowels, which occupy the nuclear position. They are prototypical mora-bearing elements, with simple vowels monomoraic, and long vowels bimoraic. Latin vowels occurred with one of five qualities and one of two weights, that is short and long /i e a o u/. At first, weight was realised by means of longer or shorter duration, and any articulatory differences were negligible, with the short:long opposition stable. Subtle articulatory differences eventually grow and lead to the abandonment of length, and reanalysis of vocal contrast is shifted solely to quality rather than both quality and quantity; specifically, the manifestation of weight as length came to include differences in tongue height and tenseness, and quite early on, /ī, ū/ began to differ from /ĭ, ŭ/ articulatorily, as did /ē, ō/ from /ĕ, ŏ/. The long vowels were stable, but the short vowels came to be realised lower and laxer, with the result that /ĭ, ŭ/ opened to [ɪ, ʊ], and /ĕ, ŏ/ opened to [ε, ɔ]. The result is the merger of Latin /ĭ, ŭ/ and /ē, ō/, since their contrast is now realised sufficiently be their distinct vowel quality, which would be easier to articulate and perceive than vowel duration.

Gotho-Romance vowel changes from Latin.

Vowels phoneme in Classical Latin

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i iː ĩː		u uː ũː
Mid	e eː ẽː		o oː õː
Open		ä äː ä̃ː

Vowels phoneme in Early Spoken Latin

	Front	Central	Back
Close	ɪ iː ĩː		ʊ uː ũː
Mid	ε eː ẽː		ɔ oː õː
Open		ä äː ä̃ː

Unstressed a resulted in a slightly raised a [ɐ]. In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become /j/, while unstressed back vowels become /w/.

In addition to monophthongs, Luthic has diphthongs, which, however, are both phonemically and phonetically simply combinations of the other vowels. None of the diphthongs are, however, considered to have distinct phonemic status since their constituents do not behave differently from how they occur in isolation, unlike the diphthongs in other languages like English and German. Grammatical tradition distinguishes “falling” from “rising” diphthongs, but since rising diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal sound [j] or [w] and one vowel sound, they are not actually diphthongs. The practice of referring to them as “diphthongs” has been criticised by phoneticians like Alareico Villavolfo.

Absorption of nasals before fricatives

This is the source of such alterations as modern Standard Luthic fimfe [ˈfĩ.(p͡)fe] “five”, monþo [ˈmõ.(t͡)θu] “mouth” versus Gothic 𐍆𐌹𐌼𐍆 [ˈɸimɸ] “id.”, 𐌼𐌿𐌽𐌸𐍃 [ˈmunθs] “id.” and German fünf [fʏnf] “id.”, Mund [mʊnt] “id.”.

Monophthongization

The diphthongs au, ae and oe [au̯, ae̯, oe̯] were monophthongized (smoothed) to [ɔ, ɛ, e] by Gothic influence, as the Germanic diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ appear as digraphs written ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ in Gothic. Researchers have disagreed over whether they were still pronounced as diphthongs /ai̯/ and /au̯/ in Ulfilas' time (4th century) or had become long open-mid vowels: /ɛː/ and /ɔː/: 𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃 (ains) [ains] / [ɛːns] “one” (German eins, Icelandic einn), 𐌰𐌿𐌲𐍉 (augō) [auɣoː] / [ɔːɣoː] “eye” (German Auge, Icelandic auga). It is most likely that the latter view is correct, as it is indisputable that the digraphs ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ represent the sounds /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ in some circumstances (see below), and ⟨aj⟩ and ⟨aw⟩ were available to unambiguously represent the sounds /ai̯/ and /au̯/. The digraph ⟨aw⟩ is in fact used to represent /au/ in foreign words (such as 𐍀𐌰𐍅𐌻𐌿𐍃 (Pawlus) “Paul”), and alternations between ⟨ai⟩/⟨aj⟩ and ⟨au⟩/⟨aw⟩ are scrupulously maintained in paradigms where both variants occur (e.g. 𐍄𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰𐌽 (taujan) “to do” vs. past tense 𐍄𐌰𐍅𐌹𐌳𐌰 (tawida) “did”). Evidence from transcriptions of Gothic names into Latin suggests that the sound change had occurred very recently when Gothic spelling was standardised: Gothic names with Germanic au are rendered with au in Latin until the 4th century and o later on (Austrogoti > Ostrogoti).

Palatalisation

Early evidence of palatalized pronunciations of /tj kj/ appears as early as the 2nd–3rd centuries AD in the form of spelling mistakes interchanging ⟨ti⟩ and ⟨ci⟩ before a following vowel, as in ⟨tribunitiae⟩ for tribuniciae. This is assumed to reflect the fronting of Latin /k/ in this environment to [c ~ t͡sʲ]. Palatalisation of the velar consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ occurred in certain environments, mostly involving front vowels; additional palatalisation is also found in dental consonants /t/, /d/, /l/ and /n/, however, these are not palatalised in word initial environment.

• Latin amīcus [äˈmiː.kus̠ ~ äˈmiː.kʊs̠], amīcī [äˈmiː.kiː] > Luthic amico [ɐˈmi.xu], amici [ɐˈmi.t͡ʃi].
• Gothic giba [ˈɡiβa] > Luthic geva [ˈd͡ʒe.vɐ].
• Latin ratiō [ˈrä.t̪i.oː] > Luthic razione [ʁɐˈd͡zjo.ne]
• Latin fīlius [ˈfiː.li.us̠ ~ ˈfiː.lʲi.ʊs̠] > Luthic fiġlo [ˈfiʎ.ʎu].
• Latin līnea [ˈliː.ne.ä ~ ˈlʲiː.ne.ä] , pugnus [ˈpuŋ.nus̠ ~ ˈpʊŋ.nʊs̠], ācrimōnia [äː.kriˈmoː.ni.ä ~ äː.krɪˈmoː.ni.ä] > Luthic liġna [ˈliɲ.ɲɐ], poġno [ˈpoɲ.ɲu], acremoġna [ɐ.kɾeˈmoɲ.ɲɐ].

Labio-velars remain unpalatalised, except in monosyllabic environment:

• Latin quis [kʷis̠ ~ kʷɪs̠] > Luthic ce [t͡ʃe].
• Gothic qiman [ˈkʷiman] > Luthic qemare [kʷeˈma.ɾe ~ kᶣeˈma.ɾe].

Lenition

The Gotho-Romance family suffered very few lenitions, but in most cases the stops /p t k/ are lenited to /b d ɡ/ if not in onset position, before or after a sonorant or in intervocalic position as a geminate. A similar process happens with /b/ that is lenited to /v/ in the same conditions. The non-geminate rhotic present in Latin is simplified to /ɾ ʁ/. The unstressed labio-velar /kʷ/ delabialises before hard vowels, as in:

• Gothic ƕan [ʍan] > *[kʷɐn] > Luthic can [kɐn].
• Latin nunquam [ˈnuŋ.kʷä̃ː ~ ˈnʊŋ.kʷä̃ː] > Luthic nogca [ˈnoŋ.kɐ].

Luthic is further affected by the Gorgia Toscana effect, where every plosive is spirantised (or further approximated if voiced). Plosives, however, are not affected if:

• Geminate.
• Labialised.
• Nearby another fricative.
• Nearby a rhotic, a lateral or nasal.
• Stressed and anlaut.

Fortition

In every case, /j/ and /w/ are fortified to /d͡ʒ/ and /v/, except when triggered by hiatus collapse. The Germanic /ð/ and /xʷ ~ hʷ ~ ʍ/ are also fortified to /d/ and /kʷ/ in every position; which can be further lenited to /d͡z/ and /k ~ t͡ʃ/ in the environments given above. The Germanic /h ~ x/ is fortified to /k/ before a rhotic or a lateral, as in:

• Gothic hlaifs [ˈhlɛːɸs] > Luthic claifo [ˈklɛ.fu].
• Gothic hriggs [ˈhriŋɡs ~ ˈhriŋks] > Luthic creggo [ˈkɾeŋ.ɡu].

Coda consonants with similar articulations often sandhi, triggering a kind of syntactic gemination, it also happens with oxytones:

• Il catto [i‿kˈkat.tu].
• Ed þû, ce taugis? [e‿θˈθu | t͡ʃe ˈtɔ.d͡ʒis?].
• La cittâ stâþ sporca [lɐ t͡ʃitˈta‿sˈsta‿sˈspoɾ.kɐ].

Regarding the absorption of nasals before fricatives, voiceless fricatives are often fortified to affricates after alveolar consonants, such as /n l ɾ/, or general nasals:

• Il monþo [i‿mˈmõ.t͡θu].
• L’inferno [l‿ĩˈp͡fɛɾ.nu].
• La salsa [lɐ ˈsal.t͡sɐ].
• L’arsenale [l‿ɐɾ.t͡seˈna.le].

Deletion

In some rare cases, the consonants are fully deleted (elision), as in the verb havere, akin to Italian avere, which followed a very similar paradigm and evolution:

• 1st person indicative present: Latin habeō, Gothic haba, Luthic hô, Italian ho.
• 2nd person indicative present: Latin habēs, Gothic habais, Luthic haïs, Italian hai.
• 3rd person indicative present: Latin habet, Gothic habaiþ, Luthic hâþ, Italian ha.

Vowels other than /a/ are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially when in contact with liquid consonants:

• Latin angulus [ˈäŋ.ɡu.ɫ̪us̠ ~ ˈäŋ.ɡʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic agglo [ˈaŋ.ɡlu].
• Latin speculum [ˈs̠pɛ.ku.ɫ̪ũː ~ ˈs̠pɛ.kʊ.ɫ̪ũː] ~ Luthic speclȯ [ˈspɛ.klo].
• Latin avunculus [äˈu̯uŋ.ku.ɫ̪us̠ ~ äˈu̯ʊŋ.kʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic avogclo [ɐˈvoŋ.klu].

Phonotactics

Luthic allows up to three consonants in syllable-initial position, though there are limitations. The syllable structure of Luthic is (C)(C)(C)(G)V(G)(C)(C). As with English, there exist many words that begin with three consonants. Luthic lacks bimoraic (diphthongs and long vowels), as the so-called diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal (glide) sound [j] or [w].

Onset

C₁	C₂	C₃
f v p b t d k ɡ	ɾ	j w
s	p k	ɾ l
s	f t	ɾ
z	b	l
z	d ɡ	ɾ
z	m n v d͡ʒ ɾ l	—
p b f v k ɡ	ɾ l	—
ɡ	n l	—
pʰ t tʰ kʰ d	ɾ	—
θ	v ɾ	—
kʷ ɡʷ t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ h ð ʁ ɲ l ʎ	—	—

CC

• /s/ + any voiceless stop or /f/;
• /z/ + any voiced stop, /v d͡ʒ m n l ɾ/;
• /f v/, or any stop + /ɾ/;
• /f v/, or any stop except /t d/ + /l/;
• /f v s z/, or any stop or nasal + /j w/;
• In Graeco-Roman words origin which are only partially assimilated, other combinations such as /pn/ (e.g. pneumatico), /mn/ (e.g. mnemonico), /tm/ (e.g. tmesi), and /ps/ (e.g. pseudo-) occur.

As an onset, the cluster /s/ + voiceless consonant is inherently unstable. Phonetically, word-internal s+C normally syllabifies as [s.C]. A competing analysis accepts that while the syllabification /s.C/ is accurate historically, modern retreat of i-prosthesis before word initial /s/+C (e.g. miþ isforza “with effort” has generally given way to miþ sforzȧ) suggests that the structure is now underdetermined, with occurrence of /s.C/ or /.sC/ variable “according to the context and the idiosyncratic behaviour of the speakers.”

CCC

• /s/ + voiceless stop or /f/ + /ɾ/;
• /z/ + voiced stop + /ɾ/;
• /s/ + /p k/ + /l/;
• /z/ + /b/ + /l/;
• /f v/ or any stop + /ɾ/ + /j w/.

Nucleus

V₁	V₂	V₃
a ɐ e ɛ	i [j] u [w]	—
o ɔ	i [j]	—
i [j]	e o	—
i [j]	ɐ ɛ ɔ	i [j]
i [j]	u [w]	o
u [w]	ɐ ɛ ɔ	i [j]
u [w]	e o	—
u [w]	i	—

The nucleus is the only mandatory part of a syllable and must be a vowel or a diphthong. In a falling diphthong the most common second elements are /i̯/ or /u̯/. Combinations of /j w/ with vowels are often labelled diphthongs, allowing for combinations of /j w/ with falling diphthongs to be called triphthongs. One view holds that it is more accurate to label /j w/ as consonants and /jV wV/ as consonant-vowel sequences rather than rising diphthongs. In that interpretation, Luthic has only falling diphthongs (phonemically at least, cf. Synaeresis) and no triphthongs.

Coda

C₁	C₂
m n l ɾ	Cₓ
Cₓ	—

Luthic permits a small number of coda consonants. Outside of loanwords, the permitted consonants are:

• The first element of any geminate.
• A nasal consonant that is either /n/ (word-finally) or one that is homorganic to a following consonant.
• /ɾ/ and /l/.
• /s/ (though not before fricatives).

Prosody

Luthic is quasi-paroxytonic, meaning that most words receive stress on their penultimate (second-to-last) syllable. Monosyllabic words tend to lack stress in their only syllable, unless emphasised or accentuated. Enclitic and other unstressed personal pronouns do not affect stress patterns. Some monosyllabic words may have natural stress (even if not emphasised), but it is weaker than those in polysyllabic words.

• rasda (ʀᴀ-sda ~ ʀᴀs-da) /ˈʁa.zdɐ ~ ˈʁaz.dɐ/;
• Italia (i-ᴛᴀ-lia) /iˈta.ljɐ];
• approssimativamente (ap-pros-si-ma-ti-va-ᴍᴇɴ-te) /ɐp.pɾos.si.mɐ.θi.vɐˈmen.te/.

Compound words have secondary stress on their penultimate syllable. Some suffixes also maintain the suffixed word secondary stress.

• panzar + campo + vaġno > panzarcampovaġno (ᴘᴀɴ-zar-ᴄᴀᴍ-po-ᴠᴀ-ġno) /ˌpan.t͡sɐɾˌkam.poˈvaɲ.ɲu/;
• broþar + -scape > broþarscape (ʙʀᴏ-þar-sᴄᴀ-pe) /ˌbɾo.θɐɾˈska.fe/.

Secondary stress is however often omitted by Italian influence. Tetrasyllabic (and beyond) words may have a very weak secondary stress in the fourth-to-last syllable (i.e. two syllables before the main or primary stress).

Research

Luthic is a well-studied language, and multiple universities in Italy have departments devoted to Luthic or linguistics with active research projects on the language, mainly in Ravenna, such as the Linguistic Circle of Ravenna (Luthic: Creizzo Rasdavitascapetico Ravennai; Italian: Circolo Linguistico di Ravenna) at Ravenna University, and there are many dictionaries and technological resources on the language. The language council Gafaurdo faul·la Rasda Lûthica also publishes research on the language both nationally and internationally. Academic descriptions of the language are published both in Luthic, Italian and English. The most complete grammar is the Grammatica ġli Lûthicai Rasdai (Grammar of the Luthic Language) by Alessandro Fiscar & Luca Vaġnar, and it is written in Luthic and contains over 800 pages.

Ravenna University’s arms

Multiple corpora of Luthic language data are available. The Luthic Online Dictionary project provides a curated corpus of 35,000 words.

History

The Ravenna School of Linguistics evolved around Giovanni Laggobardi and his developing theory of language in linguistic structuralism. Together with Soġnafreþo Rossi he founded the Circle of Linguistics of Ravenna in 1964, a group of linguists based on the model of the Prague Linguistic Circle. From 1970, Ravenna University offered courses in languages and philosophy but the students were unable to finish their studies without going to Accademia della Crusca for their final examinations.

Ravenna University Circle of Phonological Development (Luthic: Creizzo Sviluppi Phonologici giȧ Accademiȧ Ravennȧ) was developed in 1990, however very little research has been done on the earliest stages of phonological development in Luthic.

Ravenna University Circle of Theology (Luthic: Creizzo Theologiai giȧ Accademiȧ Ravennȧ) was developed in 2000 in association with the Ravenna Cathedral or Metropolitan Cathedral of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ (Luthic: Cathedrale metropolitana deï Osstassi Unsari Siġnori Gesosi Christi; Italian: Cattedrale metropolitana della Risurrezione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo; Duomo di Ravenna).

Phonological development

Phonological development refers to how children learn to organize sounds into meaning or language (phonology) during their stages of growth.

Phoneme inventory and phonotactics

Word-final consonants are rarely produced during the early stages of word production. Consonants are usually found in word-initial position, or in intervocalic position. At 6 months, infants are also able to make use of prosodic features of the ambient language to break the speech stream they are exposed to into meaningful units, e.g., they are better able to distinguish sounds that occur in stressed vs. unstressed syllables. This means that at 6 months infants have some knowledge of the stress patterns in the speech they are exposed and they have learned that these patterns are meaningful.

10 months

Most consonants are word-initial only: They are voiced stops /d/, /b/ and the nasal /m/. A presence of voiceless stops is also found as /t/, /p/ and rarely /k/; who can be allphones of each other. A preference for a front place of articulation is present. Clicks are also present, although mostly for imitative suckling sounds.

Babbling becomes distinct from previous, less structured vocal play. Initially, syllable structure is limited to CVCV, called reduplicated babbling. Consonant clusters are still absent. Children’s first ten words appear around month 12, and take CVCV format, such as mama “mother”, papa “father” and dada “give me!”.

21 months

More phones now appear: the nasal /n/, the voiceless fricative /t͡ʃ/, who can be an allphone of /t ~ d/; as voice is still not a distinctive feature, and the liquid /l/. The preference for front articulation is still present, triggering palatalisation.

24 months

Fricatives may appear: /f ~ v/ and /s/ (who can be further palatalised to /ʃ/), primarily at intervocalic position. Voice may become a distinctive feature at this stage. Onomatopoeiae are also produced, such as /aw aw/ for dog’s barking; /ow/, or preferably /aj/ for denoting pain.

Production of trisyllabic words begins, such as C₁VC₂VC₃V. Consonant clusters are now present and are often subject to consonant harmony, such as -mb-, -nd- and -dɾ-; however voiced-voiceless clusters are still rare, such as -mp- and -tɾ-.

30 months

Approximately equal numbers of phones are now produced in word-initial and intervocalic position. Additions to the phonetic inventory are the voiced stop /ɡ/ and a few consonant clusters. Co-articulations are perceived, such as labio-velar plosives and the aspirated plosive series. Alveolars and bilabials are the two most common places of articulation. Labiodental and postalveolar production increases throughout development, while velar production decreases. Luthic lenitions also become evident, as more fricatives and approximants are produced. Children develop syllabic segmentation awareness earlier than phonemic segmentation awareness.

Word processes

• Weak syllable deletion: word-initial and word-terminal unstressed syllables are often omitted [bɐˈna.nɐ] > [ˈna.nɐ];
• Coda deletion: omission of general coda consonant and the final consonant in the word [kɐɾ] > [kɐ], [ˈbɾo.θɐɾ] > [ˈbɾo.θɐ] ([ˈbɾo]);
• Consonant harmony: a target word consonant takes on features of another target word consonant , [kɐn] > [kɐŋ], [ˈstɛk.kɐ] > [ˈstɛt.tɐ] ([ˈstɛt ~ ˈstɛ]);
• Velar fronting: velar plosives are often replaced by alveolar ones nearby a front vowel [ki] > [ti];
• Stopping or affrication: fricatives are often fortified nearby a front vowel [si] > [ti ~ t͡ʃi];
• Gliding: taps and liquids are replaced by a glide [ˈka.ɾu] > [ˈka.wu], [ˈaʎ.ʎo] > [ˈaj.jo].

6 years

Children produce mostly adult-like segments. Their ability to produce complex sound sequences and multisyllabic words continues to improve throughout middle childhood.

The Handbook of Luthic Linguistics, Culture and Religion

Aina lettura essenziale summȧ importanzȧ, inu andarogiugga.
“An essential lecture, of the highest importance, without equivalents.”

“

”

Lucia Giamane

In 2012, a collaboration of the Circle of Linguistics, the Circle of Phonological Development and the Circle of Theology resulted in The Handbook of Luthic Linguistics, Culture and Religion (Luthic: Il Handobuoco Rasdavitascapeticai, Colturai e Religioni Luthicai) initiated in 2005 by Lucia Giamane, designed to illuminate an area of knowledge that encompasses both general linguistics and specialised, philologically oriented linguistics as well as those fields of science that have developed in recent decades from the increasingly extensive research into the diverse phenomena of communicative action.

Grammar

Luthic grammar is almost typical of the grammar of Romance languages in general. Cases exist for personal pronouns (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive), and unlike other Romance languages (except Romanian), they also exist for nouns, but are often ignored in common speech, mainly because of the Italian influence, a language who lacks noun cases. There are three basic classes of nouns in Luthic, referred to as genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns typically end in -o, with plural marked by -i, feminine nouns typically end in -a, with plural marked by -ai, and neuter nouns typically end in -ȯ, with plural marked by -a. A fourth category of nouns is unmarked for gender, ending in -e in the singular and -i in the plural; a variant of the unmarked declension is found ending in -r in the singular and -i in the plural, it lacks neuter nouns:

Examples:

Definition	Gender	Singular nominative	Plural nominative
Son	Masculine	Fiġlo	Fiġli
Flower	Feminine	Bloma	Blomai
Fruit	Neuter	Acranȯ	Acrana
Love	Masculine	Amore	Amori
Art	Feminine	Crafte	Crafti
Water	Neuter	Vadne	Vadni
King	Masculine	Regġe	Regġi
Heart	Neuter	Hairtene	Hairteni
Father	Masculine	Fadar	Fadari
Mother	Feminine	Modar	Modari

Declension paradigm in formal Standard Luthic:

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n	i-stem unm	r-stem unm
Singular	nom.	dago	geva	hauviþȯ	crafte	broþar
	acc.	dagȯ	geva	hauviþȯ	crafte	broþare
	dat.	dagȧ	gevȧ	hauviþȧ	crafti	broþari
	gen.	dagi	gevai	hauviþi	crafti	broþari
Plural	nom.	dagi	gevai	hauviþa	crafti	broþari
	acc.	dagos	gevas	hauviþa	craftes	broþares
	dat.	dagom	gevam	hauviþom	craftivo	broþarivo
	gen.	dagoro	gevaro	hauviþoro	craftem	broþarem

Pronouns

Luthic, like Latin and Gothic, inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: personal pronouns (including reflexive pronouns for each of the three grammatical persons), possessive pronouns, both simple and compound demonstratives, relative pronouns, interrogatives and indefinite pronouns. Each follows a particular pattern of inflection (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages. Although Luthic inherited a paradigm extremely close to Gothic (and Common Germanic), the Italic influence is visible in the genitive and plural formations.

PIE	Latin	Gothic	German	Luthic
*u̯ei̯ nom, *n̥s acc	nōs nom/acc	𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍃 nom, 𐌿𐌽𐍃 acc	wir nom, uns acc	vi nom, unse acc

Personal pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	1st person	2st person	3rd person			reflexive
				masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	ic	þû	is	ia	ata	—
	acc.	mic	þuc	inȯ	ina	ata	sic
	dat.	mis	þus	iȧ	iȧ	iȧ	sis
	dat.	meina	þeina	eis	isai	eis	seina
Singular	nom.	vi	gi	eis	isai	ia	—
	acc.	unse	isve	eis	isas	ia	sic
	dat.	unsis	isvis	eis	eis	eis	sis
	gen.	unsara	isvara	eisôro	eisâro	eisôro	seina

Possessive pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	1st person singular			2st person singular			3rd person singular
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	meino	meina	meinȯ	þeino	þeina	þeinȯ	seino	seina	seinȯ
	acc.	meinȯ	meina	meinȯ	þeinȯ	þeina	þeinȯ	seinȯ	seina	seinȯ
	dat.	meinȧ	meinȧ	meinȧ	þeinȧ	þeinȧ	þeinȧ	seinȧ	seinȧ	seinȧ
	gen.	meini	meinai	meini	þeini	þeinai	þeini	seini	seinai	seini
Plural	nom.	meini	meinai	meina	þeini	þeinai	þeina	seini	seinai	seina
	acc.	meinos	meinas	meina	þeinos	þeinas	þeina	seinos	seinas	seina
	dat.	meinom	meinam	meinom	þeinom	þeinam	þeinom	seinom	seinam	seinom
	gen.	meinoro	meinaro	meinoro	þeinoro	þeinaro	þeinoro	seinoro	seinaro	seinoro

Possessive pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	1st person singular			2st person singular			3rd person singular
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	unsar	unsara	unsarȯ	isvar	isvara	isvarȯ	seino	seina	seinȯ
	acc.	unsare	unsara	unsarȯ	isvare	isvara	isvarȯ	seinȯ	seina	seinȯ
	dat.	unsari	unsarȧ	unsarȧ	isvari	isvarȧ	isvarȧ	seinȧ	seinȧ	seinȧ
	gen.	unsari	unsarai	unsari	isvari	isvarai	isvari	seini	seinai	seini
Plural	nom.	unsari	unsarai	unsara	isvari	isvarai	isvara	seini	seinai	seina
	acc.	unsares	unsaras	unsara	isvares	isvaras	isvara	seinos	seinas	seina
	dat.	unsarivo	unsaram	unsarom	isvarivo	isvaram	isvarom	seinom	seinam	seinom
	gen.	unsarem	unsararo	unsaroro	isvarem	isvararo	isvaroro	seinoro	seinaro	seinoro

The pronouns unsar, isvar have an irregular declension, being declined like an unmarked adjective in the masculine gender and marked in the other genders. Every possessive pronoun is declined like an o-stem adjective for masculine and neuter gender, while its feminine counterpart is declined as an a-stem adjective

Interrogative and indefinite pronouns are indeclinable by case and number:

Interrogative pronouns of Standard Luthic

Interrogative pronouns	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
What	ce	ce	ce
Who	qo	qa	qȯ
Whom	ci	ci	ci
Which	carge	carge	carge
Whose	cogio	cogia	cogiȯ

Indefinite pronouns of Standard Luthic

Indefinite pronouns	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Each	caso	casa	casȯ
Every	cargiso	cargisa	cargisȯ
Whoever/Whatever	þecargiso	þecargisa	þecargisȯ

The relative pronoun ei is fully indeclinable, it is sometimes called “common relative particle”.

Luthic has a Proximal-Medial-Distal demonstrative system:

Demonstrative pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	Proximal			Medial			Distal
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	so	sa	þata	este	esta	estȯ	giaino	giaina	giainȯ
	acc.	þȯ	þa	þata	este	esta	estȯ	giainȯ	giaina	giainȯ
	dat.	þammo	þisai	þammo	esti	estȧ	estȧ	giainȧ	giainȧ	giainȧ
	gen.	þis	þisai	þis	estis	estai	esti	giaini	giainai	giaini
Plural	nom.	þi	þai	þa	esti	estai	esta	giaini	giainai	giaina
	acc.	þos	þas	þa	estes	estas	esta	giainos	giainas	giaina
	dat.	þom	þam	þom	estivo	estam	estom	giainom	giainam	giainom
	gen.	þisaro	þisara	þisaro	estem	estaro	estoro	giainoro	giainaro	giainoro

Articles

Luthic articles are used similarly to the English articles, a and the. However, they are declined differently according to the number, gender and case of their nouns.

Number	Case	Indefinite			Definite
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	aino	aina	ainȯ	il	la	lata, ata
	acc.	ainȯ	aina	ainȯ	lȯ	la	lata, ata
	dat.	ainȧ	ainȧ	ainȧ	lȧ	lȧ	lȧ
	gen.	aini	ainai	aini	ġli, i	ġli, i	ġli, i
Plural	nom.	aini	ainai	aina	ġli, i	lai	la
	acc.	ainos	ainas	aina	los	las	la
	dat.	ainom	ainam	ainom	lom	lam	lom
	gen.	ainoro	ainaro	ainoro	loro	loro	loro

Adjectives

In Luthic, an adjective can be placed before or after the noun. The unmarked placement for most adjectives is after the noun. Placing the adjective after the noun can alter its meaning or indicate restrictiveness of reference.

• Aino buoco rosso “a red book” (unmarked)
• Aino rosso buoco “a book that is red” (marked)

Adjectives are inflected for case, gender and number, the paradigmata are identical to the nominal paradigmata.

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n	i-stem unm	r-stem unm
Singular	nom.	rosso	rossa	rossȯ	felice	polchar
	acc.	rossȯ	rossa	rossȯ	felice	polchare
	dat.	rossȧ	rossȧ	rossȧ	felici	polchari
	gen.	rossi	rossai	rossi	felici	polchari
Plural	nom.	rossi	rossai	rossa	felici	polchari
	acc.	rossos	rossas	rossa	felices	polchares
	dat.	rossom	rossam	rossom	felicivo	polcharivo
	gen.	rossoro	rossaro	rossoro	felicem	polcharem

Luthic has two grammatical constructions for expressing comparison: comparative and superlative. The suffixes -izo (the “comparative”) and -issimo (the “superlative”) are of Indo-European origin and are cognate with the Latin suffixes -ior and -issimus and Ancient Greek -ῑ́ων (-īōn) and -ῐστος (-istos). This system also contains a number of irregular forms, mainly because of suppletion.

Regular examples are:

• rosso “red” > rossizo “redder”
• rosso “red” > rossissimo “reddest”
• polchar “beautiful” > polcharizo “more beautiful”
• polchar “beautiful” > polcharissimo “most beautiful”

Irregular examples are:

• buono “good” > betizo “better”
• buono “good” > betissimo “best”
• malo “bad” > vairsizo “worse”
• malo “bad” > vairsissimo “worst”

Comparative

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Singular	nom.	-izo	-iza	-izȯ
	acc.	-izȯ	-iza	-izȯ
	dat.	-izȧ	-izȧ	-izȧ
	gen.	-izi	-izai	-izi
Plural	nom.	-izi	-izai	-iza
	acc.	-izos	-izas	-iza
	dat.	-izom	-izam	-izom
	gen.	-izoro	-izaro	-izoro

Superlative

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Singular	nom.	-issimo	-issima	-issimȯ
	acc.	-issimȯ	-issima	-issimȯ
	dat.	-issimȧ	-issimȧ	-issimȧ
	gen.	-issimi	-issimai	-issimi
Plural	nom.	-issimi	-issimai	-issima
	acc.	-issimos	-issimas	-issima
	dat.	-issimom	-issimam	-issimom
	gen.	-issimoro	-issimaro	-issimoro

Numerals

Standard Luthic numbers

#	Cardinal		Ordinal
	Word	Declension	Word	Declension
1	aino	o-stem adjective	fromo	o-stem adjetive
2	tvi	o-stem adjective, plurale tantum	anþar	r-stem adjetive
3	þreis	indeclinable	þrigiane	i-stem adjetive
4	fidvor	indeclinable	fidvorêsimo	o-stem adjective
5	fimfe	indeclinable	fimfêsimo	o-stem adjective
6	sê	indeclinable	sesto	o-stem adjective
7	siu	indeclinable	siudo	o-stem adjective
8	ahtau	indeclinable	ahtudo	o-stem adjective
9	niu	indeclinable	niudo	o-stem adjective
10	ziu	indeclinable	ziudo	o-stem adjective
11	aillefe	indeclinable	aillefto	o-stem adjective
12	tvelefe	indeclinable	tvelefto	o-stem adjective
13	þreiziu	indeclinable	þreiziudo	o-stem adjective
14	fidvorziu	indeclinable	fidvorziudo	o-stem adjective
15	fimfeziu	indeclinable	fimfeziudo	o-stem adjective
16	seziu	indeclinable	seziudo	o-stem adjective
17	setteziu	indeclinable	setteziudo	o-stem adjective
18	tvedivinta	indeclinable	tvedivintêsimo	o-stem adjective
19	aindivinta	indeclinable	aindivintêsimo	o-stem adjective
20	vinta	indeclinable	vintêsimo	o-stem adjective
28	tvediþreinta	indeclinable	tvediþreintêsimo	o-stem adjective
29	aindiþreinta	indeclinable	aindiþreintêsimo	o-stem adjective
30	þreinta	indeclinable	þreintêsimo	o-stem adjective
38	tvedifidvorinta	indeclinable	tvedifidvorintêsimo	o-stem adjective
39	aindifidvorinta	indeclinable	aindifidvorintêsimo	o-stem adjective
40	fidvorinta	indeclinable	fidvorintêsimo	o-stem adjective
50	fimfinta	indeclinable	fimfintêsimo	o-stem adjective
60	sessanta	indeclinable	sessantêsimo	o-stem adjective
70	siunta	indeclinable	siuntêsimo	o-stem adjective
80	ahtanta	indeclinable	ahtantêsimo	o-stem adjective
90	niunta	indeclinable	niuntêsimo	o-stem adjective
98	tvedihondo	o-stem adjective	tvedihondêsimo	o-stem adjective
99	aindihondo	o-stem adjective	aindihondêsimo	o-stem adjective
100	hondo	o-stem adjective	hondêsimo	o-stem adjective

• Adverbial numbers are formed together with the noun vece: aina vece “once”, tvai veci “twice”.
• Multiplier numbers are formed together with the noun falþo: aino falþo “single, onefold”, hondi falþi “centuple, hundredfold”. This noun was originally a suffix, compare Gothic 𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍆𐌰𐌻𐌸𐍃 (ainfalþs), English onefold, Icelandic einfaldur.
• Distributive numbers are formed together with the adjective falþoleico: þreis falþoleici “triply”.
• Collective numbers are formed together with the adjective somo: tvelefe somi “dozen”.
• Fractional numbers are formed together with the adjective integro: fidvor integri “quarter”.

Standard Luthic large numbers

#	Cardinal		Ordinal
	Word	Declension	Word	Declension
200	tvihondi α	o-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvihondêsimo β	o-stem adjective
500	fimfehondi γ	o-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfehondêsimo	o-stem adjective
1 000	mille	i-stem	millêsimo	o-stem adjective
2 000	tvimilli α	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvimillêsimo β	o-stem adjective
5 000	fimfemilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfemillêsimo	o-stem adjective
10 000	ziumilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	ziumillêsimo	o-stem adjective
20 000	vintamilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	vintamillêsimo	o-stem adjective
50 000	fimfintamilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfintamillêsimo	o-stem adjective
100 000	hondimilli α	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	hondimillêsimo β	o-stem adjective
200 000	tvihondimilli δ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvihondimillêsimo β	o-stem adjective
500 000	fimfehondimilli ε	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfehondimillêsimo β	o-stem adjective
106	millione	i-stem adjective	millionêsimo	o-stem adjective
2 x 106	tvimillioni α	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvimillionêsimo β	o-stem adjective
109	milliarde	i-stem adjective	milliardêsimo	o-stem adjective
1012	billione	i-stem adjective	billionêsimo	o-stem adjective
1015	billiarde	i-stem adjective	billiardêsimo	o-stem adjective
1019	trillione	i-stem adjective	trillionêsimo	o-stem adjective

^α Both elements are declinable, e.g. tvaihondai, tvahonda;

^β Only the last element is declinable, e.g. tvihondêsima, tvihondêsimoro;

^γ The first element is indeclinable;

^δ All the three elements are declinable, e.g. tvarohondaromillem, tvoshondosmilles;

^ε Only the two last elements are declinable, e.g. fimfehondommillivo.

Luthic uses the long scale, unlike English that uses the short scale instead. The long and short scales are two of several naming systems for integer powers of ten which use some of the same terms for different magnitudes. Luthic has a verbal system similar to Italian, German, Dutch and French:

Short and long scale usage throughout the world

  Long scale

  Short scale

  Short scale with milliard instead of billion

  Both scales

  Other naming system

  No data

	Luthic	Italian	German	Dutch	French	English
106	millione	milione	Million	miljoen	million	million
109	milliarde	miliardo	Milliarde	miljard	milliard	billion
1012	billione	bilione	Billion	biljoen	billion	trillion

Combinations of a decade and a unit are constructed in a regular way: the decade comes first followed by the unit. No spaces are written between them. Vowel collision triggers an interpunct. For example:

• 28 vinta·ahtau (lit “twenty eight”)
• 73 siuntaþreis (lit “seventy three”)
• 82 ahtantatvi (lit “eighty two”)
• 95 niuntafimfe (lit “ninety five”)

Combinations of a hundred and a lower number are expressed by just placing them together, with the hundred coming first.

• 111 hondoaillefe
• 164 hondosessantafidvor
• 225 tvihondivintafimfe
• 788 siuhondi·ahtanta·ahtau

Combinations of a thousand and a lower number are expressed by placing them together, with the thousand coming first. A space is written between them.

• 1 066 mille sessantasê
• 9 011 niumilli aillefe
• 61 500 sessanta·ainomilli fimfehondi
• 123 456 hondivintaþreismilli fidvorhondifimfintasê

For millions and above, combinations with lower numbers are much the same as with the thousands.

• 123 456 789 hondivintaþreis millioni fidvorhondifimfintasêhondi siuhondiniunta·ahtau
• 10 987 654 321 ziu milliardi niuhondi·ahtantasiumillioni sehondifimfintafidvorhondi þreishondivinta·aino

When alone, numbers are always in the masculine gender, however numbers always agree in gender and in case (if declinable) with the head noun. For example:

• aino vaire (“one man”)
• aina qena (“one woman”)
• aino harge hondom vairivo (“an army [composed] of hundred men”)
• il meino hareme hâþ tvashondas qenas (“my harem has two hundred women”)

Compound numbers have both elements declined (if possible):

tvihondi, tvaihondai, tvahonda

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Plural	nom.	tvihondi	tvaihondai	tvahonda
	acc.	tvoshondos	tvashondas	tvahonda
	dat.	tvomhondom	tvamhondam	tvomhondom
	gen.	tvorohondoro	tvarohondaro	tvorohondoro

Verbs

Luthic verbs have a high degree of inflection, the majority of which follows one of three common patterns of conjugation. Luthic conjugation is affected by voice, mood, person, tense, number, aspect and occasionally gender.

The four classes of verbs (conjugation’s patterns) are distinguished by the infinitive’s endings form of the verb:

• 1st conjugation: -are (þagcare “to think”);
• 2nd conjugation: -ere (credere “to believe”);
• 3rd conjugation: -ore (holore “to accuse”);
• 4th conjugation: -ire (dormire “to sleep”).

Additionally, Luthic has a number of verbs that do not follow predictable patterns in all conjugation classes, most markedly the present and the past. Often classified together as irregular verbs, their irregularities occur to different degrees, with forms of vessare “to be”, and somewhat less extremely, havere “to have”, the least predictable. Others, such as ganare “to go”, stare “to stay, to stand”, taugiare “to do, to make”, and numerous others, follow various degrees of regularity within paradigms, largely due to suppletion, historical sound change or analogical developments.

Present

The present is used for:

• Events happening in the present;
• Habitual actions;
• Current states of being and conditions;
• Actions planned to occur in the future.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcȯ	credȯ	holȯ	dormȯ	im	hô	gô	stô	taugiȯ
þû	þagcas	credes	holos	dormis	is	haïs	gâs	staïs	taugis
is	þagcat	credet	holot	dormit	ist	hâþ	gâþ	stâþ	taugit
vi	þagcamos	credemos	holomos	dormimos	ismos	haimos	gamos	stamos	taugiamos
gi	þagcates	credetes	holotos	dormites	istes	haites	gates	states	taugiates
eis	þagcanno	credonno	holonno	dormonno	sonno	hanno	ganno	stonno	taugionno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcara	credera	holora	dormira	—	havara	andara	—	taugiara
þû	þagcaa	credesa	holosa	dormisa	—	havasa	andasa	—	taugiasa
is	þagcada	crededa	holoda	dormida	—	havada	andada	stada	taugiada
vi	þagcanda	credenda	holonda	dorminda	—	havanda	andanda	—	taugianda
gi	þagcanda	credenda	holonda	dorminda	—	havanda	andanda	—	taugianda
eis	þagcanda	credenda	holonda	dorminda	—	havanda	andanda	standa	taugianda

Present subjunctive

Used for subordinate clauses of the present to express opinion, possibility, desire, or doubt. The Subjunctive is almost always preceded by the common relative particle.

Active Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagci	creda	holuȯ	dorma	sia	abbia	vada	stia	taugia
þû	þagcis	credas	holuas	dormas	sias	abbias	vadas	stias	taugias
is	þagcit	credat	holuat	dormat	siaþ	abbiat	vadat	stiaþ	taugiat
vi	þagciamos	crediamos	holuamos	dormamos	siamos	abbiamos	andiamos	stiamos	taugiaumos
gi	þagciates	crediates	holuates	dormates	siates	abbiates	andiates	stiates	taugiautes
eis	þagcinno	credanno	holanno	dormanno	sianno	abbianno	vadanno	stianno	taugianno

Passive Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcira	credara	holuora	dormara	—	abbaira	vadara	—	taugiaura
þû	þagcisa	credasa	holuasa	dormasa	—	abbaisa	vadasa	—	taugiausa
is	þagcida	credada	holuada	dormada	—	abbaida	vadada	stiada	taugiauda
vi	þagcinda	credianda	holuonda	dormanda	—	abbainda	andianda	—	taugiaunda
gi	þagcinda	credianda	holuonda	dormanda	—	abbainda	andianda	—	taugiaunda
eis	þagcinda	credianda	holuonda	dormanda	—	abbainda	andianda	stianda	taugiaunda

Present conditional

Used for events that are dependent upon another event occurring. The conditional is also used for politely asking for something (as in English: “could I please have a glass of water?”)

Active Conditinal

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagceria	crederia	holoria	dormiria	saria	haveria	garia	staria	tavaria
þû	þagcerias	crederias	holorias	dormirias	sarias	haverias	garias	starias	tavarias
is	þagceriat	crederiat	holoriat	dormiriat	sariat	haveriat	gariat	stariat	taveriat
vi	þagceriamos	crederiamos	holoriamos	dormiriamos	sariamos	haveriamos	gariamos	stariamos	tavariamos
gi	þagceriates	crederiates	holoriates	dormiriates	sariates	haveriates	gariates	stariates	tavariates
eis	þagcerianno	crederianno	holorianno	dormirianno	sarianno	haverianno	garianno	starianno	tavarianno

Passive Conditinal

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagceriara	crederiara	holoriara	dormiriara	—	haveriara	gariara	—	tavariara
þû	þagceriasa	crederiasa	holoriasa	dormiriasa	—	haveriasa	gariasa	—	tavariasa
is	þagceriada	crederiada	holoriada	dormiriada	—	haveriada	gariada	stariada	taveriada
vi	þagcerianda	crederianda	holorianda	dormirianda	—	haverianda	garianda	—	tavarianda
gi	þagcerianda	crederianda	holorianda	dormirianda	—	haverianda	garianda	—	tavarianda
eis	þagcerianda	crederianda	holorianda	dormirianda	—	haverianda	garianda	starianda	tavarianda

• vessare lacks a passive voice form;
• stare passive voice form is only impersonal.

Present perfect

The present perfect is used for single actions or events (sa maurgina im ganato a scuola “I went to school this morning”), or change in state (sic ist þvairsoto can ata iȧ hô rogiato “he got angry when I told him that”), contrasting with the imperfect which is used for habits (egġiavȯ biciclettȧ a scuola alla maurgina “I used to go to school by bike every morning”), or repeated actions, not happening at a specific time (sic þvairsovat alla vece ei, giuvedar can ata iȧ rogiavat “he got angry every time someone told him that”).

Past participle

The past participle is used to form the compound pasts (e.g. hô tavito “I have done”). Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern, but there are many verbs with an irregular past participle.

• 1st conjugation: -ato (þagcato “thought”);
• 2nd conjugation: -uto (creduto “believed”);
• 3rd conjugation: -oto (holoto “accused”);
• 4th conjugation: -ito (dormito “slept”);
• vessare and stare have both stato;
• qemare (“to come”) has qemuto;
• taugiare has tavito.

-ato, -uto, -oto, -ito declension

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Singular	nom.	-ato, -uto, -oto, -ito	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita	-atȯ, -utȯ, -otȯ, -itȯ
	acc.	-atȯ, -utȯ, -otȯ, -itȯ	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita	-atȯ, -utȯ, -otȯ, -itȯ
	dat.	-atȧ, -utȧ, -otȧ, -itȧ	-atȧ, -utȧ, -otȧ, -itȧ	-atȧ, -utȧ, -otȧ, -itȧ
	gen.	-ati, -uti, -oti, -iti	-atai, -utai, -otai, -itai	-ati, -uti, -oti, -iti
Plural	nom.	-ati, -uti, -oti, -iti	-atai, -utai, -otai, -itai	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita
	acc.	-atos, -utos, -otos, -itos	-atas, -utas, -otas, -itas	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita
	dat.	-atom, -utom, -otom, -itom	-atam, -utam, -otam, -itam	-atom, -utom, -otom, -itom
	gen.	-atoro, -utoro, -otoro, -itoro	-ataro, -utaro, -otaro, -itaro	-atoro, -utoro, -otoro, -itoro

Except with an immediately preceding third person pronominal direct object, the participle always ends in -o.

All transitive verbs and most intransitive verbs form the present perfect by combining the auxiliary verb havere “to have” in the present tense with the past participle of the transitive verb. A small number of intransitive verbs, namely vessare itself and verbs indicating motion (qemare “to come”, ganare “to go”, affargiare “to arrive”, etc.) use the auxiliary verb vessare instead of havere. The past participle in this agrees with gender and number of the subject. Passive forms always use havere.

Imperfect

The Imperfect fuses past tense with imperfective aspect and is used for:

• Repeated or habitual actions in the past;
• Ongoing actions in the past and ongoing actions in the past that are eventually interrupted;
• States of being and conditions in the past, including weather, time, age.

The difference between imperfective and perfective aspects can be illustrated clearly with the verb vitare “to know”. The Italian imperfect expresses being in possession of knowledge in the past, while the perfective expresses the moment of acquiring the knowledge.

Imperfective: Vitavȯ la vera. “I knew the truth.” Perfective: Hô vitato la vera. “I found out the truth.”

The Imperfect is, in most cases, formed by taking the stem along with the thematic vowel and adding -v- + the ending of the -are verbs in the present tense (with -amos instead of -iamos). There are no irregular conjugations in the Imperfect except for a few forms inherited from Gothic weak verbs, suppletion, and vessare, which uses the stem er- and -v- appears only in 1st and 2nd person plurals.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcavȯ	credevȯ	holovȯ	dormivȯ	erȯ	havaidȯ	egġiavȯ	stavȯ	tavidȯ
þû	þagcavas	credevas	holovas	dormivas	eras	havaidas	egġiavas	stavas	tavidas
is	þagcavat	credevat	holovat	dormivat	erat	havaidat	egġiavat	stavat	tavidat
vi	þagcavamos	credevamos	holovamos	dormivamos	eravamos	havaidamos	egġiavamos	stavamos	tavidamos
gi	þagcavates	credevates	holovates	dormivates	eravates	havaidates	egġiavates	stavates	tavidates
eis	þagcavanno	credevanno	holovanno	dormivanno	eranno	havaidanno	egġiavanno	stavanno	tavidanno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcavara	credevara	holovara	dormivara	—	havaidara	egġiavara	—	tavidara
þû	þagcavasa	credevasa	holovasa	dormivasa	—	havaidasa	egġiavasa	—	tavidasa
is	þagcavada	credevada	holovada	dormivada	—	havaidada	egġiavada	stavada	tavidada
vi	þagcavanda	credevanda	holovanda	dormivanda	—	havaidanda	egġiavanda	—	tavidanda
gi	þagcavanda	credevanda	holovanda	dormivanda	—	havaidanda	egġiavanda	—	tavidanda
eis	þagcavanda	credevanda	holovanda	dormivanda		havaidanda	egġiavanda	stavanda	tavidanda

Subjunctive imperfect

Used for the subordinate clauses of the imperfect indicative or the conditional. For regular verbs, the subjunctive is formed by taking the infinitive and replacing -re with -ssi, -ssis, -ssit, -ssimos, -ssites, -ssero:

Active Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcassi	credessi	holossi	dormissi	fossi	havessi	egġissi	stessi	tavissi
þû	þagcassis	credessis	holossis	dormissis	fossis	havessis	egġissis	stessis	tavissis
is	þagcassit	credessit	holossit	dormissit	fossit	havessit	egġissit	stessit	tavissit
vi	þagcassimos	credessimos	holossimos	dormissimos	fossimos	havessimos	egġissimos	stessimos	tavissimos
gi	þagcassites	credessites	holossites	dormissites	fossites	havessites	egġissites	stessites	tavissites
eis	þagcassero	credessero	holossero	dormissero	fossero	havessero	egġissero	stessero	tavissero

Passive Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcassira	credessira	holossira	dormissira	—	havessira	egġissira	—	tavissira
þû	þagcassisa	credessisa	holossisa	dormissisa	—	havessisa	egġissisa	—	tavissisa
is	þagcassida	credessida	holossida	dormissida	—	havessida	egġissida	stessida	tavissida
vi	þagcassinda	credessinda	holossinda	dormissinda	—	havessinda	egġissinda	—	tavissinda
gi	þagcassinda	credessinda	holossinda	dormissinda	—	havessinda	egġissinda	—	tavissinda
eis	þagcassinda	credessinda	holossinda	dormissinda	—	havessinda	egġissinda	stessinda	tavissinda

Preterite

The preterite (or perfect) has a function distinct from the present perfect. It is used for events which are distant from the present and no longer directly affect it (e.g. telling a story), whereas the present perfect is used for more recent events which may have a direct impact on the present.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcaï	credeï	holoi	dormei	fui	ebbi	gaï	stetti	tavi
þû	þagcasti	credesti	holosti	dormisti	fosti	havesti	gasti	stesti	tavisti
is	þagcaut	credait	holaut	dormeit	fuiþ	ebbet	gauþ	stettet	tavit
vi	þagcammos	credemmos	holommos	dormimmos	fostes	havemmos	gammos	stemmos	tavimmos
gi	þagcastes	credestes	holostes	dormistes	fostes	havestes	gastes	stestes	tavistes
eis	þagcaronno	crederonno	holoronno	dormironno	furonno	ebbero	garonno	stettero	tavironno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcaira	credeira	holoira	dormeira	—	ebbira	gaira	—	tavira
þû	þagcasa	credessa	holossa	dormissa	—	havessa	gassa	—	tavessa
is	þagcauda	credaida	holauda	dormeida	—	ebbeda	gauda	stetteda	taveda
vi	þagcamma	credemma	holomma	dormimma	—	havemma	gamma	—	tavemma
gi	þagcamma	credemma	holomma	dormimma	—	havemma	gamma	—	tavemma
eis	þagcamma	credemma	holomma	dormimma	—	havemma	gamma	stettemma	tavemma

Subjunctive preterite

Used for subordinate clauses of the imperfect indicative or the conditional. The subjunctive preterite is formed the same as the present perfect, but with the auxiliary verb in the subjunctive present.

• Active

• abbia þagcato;
• sia qemuto;
• sias affargiato.

• Passive

• abbaira þagcato;
• abbaira qemuto;
• abbaisa affargiato.

Conditional preterite

Used for events that would, could or should have occurred or as a prospective past tense. The conditional preterite is formed the same as the present perfect, but with the auxiliary verb in the conditional.

• Active

• haveria dormito;
• saria venuto.

• Passive

• haveriara dormito;
• haveriara venuto.

Future

The future tense is used for events that will happen in the future. It is formed by adding the forms of havere to the infinitive (with haimos and haites contracted to -êmos and -êtes respectively). Sometimes the infinitive undergoes some changes:

• It always loses its final -e;
• Verbs in -are end in -er, not in -ar (stare however retains star-);
• Most irregular verbs lose the vowel before the last r altogether (e.g. havr- for havere and andr- for ganare, suppletion from *andare). Clusters -mr-, -nr- and -lr- are simplified to -rr- (e.g. qerr- for qemare);
• vessare has sar-.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcerô	crederô	holorô	dormirô	sarô	havrô	andrô	starô	taugierô
þû	þagceraïs	crederaïs	holoraïs	dormiraïs	saraïs	havraïs	andraïs	staraïs	taugieraïs
is	þagcerât	crederât	holorât	dormirât	sarât	havrât	andrât	starât	taugierât
vi	þagcerêmos	crederêmos	holorêmos	dormirêmos	sarêmos	havrêmos	andrêmos	starêmos	taugierêmos
gi	þagcerêtes	crederêtes	holorêtes	dormirêtes	sarêtes	havrêtes	andrêtes	starêtes	taugierêtes
eis	þagceranno	crederanno	holoranno	dormiranno	saranno	havranno	andranno	staranno	taugieranno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcerâra	crederâra	holorâra	dormirâra	—	havrâra	andrâra	—	taugierâra
þû	þagcerâsa	crederâsa	holorâsa	dormirâsa	—	havrâsa	andrâsa	—	taugierâsa
is	þagcerâda	crederâda	holorâda	dormirâda	—	havrâda	andrâda	starâda	taugierâda
vi	þagcerânda	crederânda	holorânda	dormirânda	—	havrânda	andrânda	—	taugierânda
gi	þagcerânda	crederânda	holorânda	dormirânda	—	havrânda	andrânda	—	taugierânda
eis	þagcerânda	crederânda	holorânda	dormirânda	—	havrânda	andrânda	starânda	taugierânda

Future perfect

Used for events that will have happened when or before something else happens in the future. The future perfect is formed the same as the present perfect, but with the auxiliary verb in the future.

• Active

• havrô þagcato;
• saraïs holoto.

• Passive

• havrâra þagcato;
• havrâsa holoto.

Imperative

The imperative is used for giving commands. The imperative is formed by:

• Removing the infinitive -re;
• Adding -te for the plural;
• The word becomes an oxytone in the singular, ending in digraphs for the second, third and fourth conjugation.

Affirmative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
þû	þagcâ	credai	holau	dormei	vessâ	havai	ganâ	stâ	taugiâ
gi	þagcate	credete	holote	dormite	vessate	havete	ganate	state	taugiate

Negative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
þû	non þagcare	non credere	non holore	non dormire	non vessare	non havere	non ganare	non stare	non taugiare
gi	non þagcarete	non crederete	non holorete	non dormirete	non vessarete	non haverete	non ganarete	non starete	non taugiarete

Nominal verb forms

Luthic verbs have three additional forms, known as nominal forms, because they can be used as nouns or adjectives, rather than as verbs.

• The past participle has been discussed above;
• The present participle is used as an adjective or a noun describing someone who is busy doing something. For example, rogiante means “talking” or “someone who is talking”:

• Verbs in -are form the present participle by adding -ante to the stem;
• Verbs in -ere and -ire form the present participle by adding -ente to the stem;
• Verbs in -ore form the present participle by adding -onte to the stem.

• The gerund is the adverbial form of the present participle, and has a very broad use. For example: rogiando can translate to “talking, while talking, by talking, because of one’s talking, through talking…”:

• The gerund is identical to the present participle, but with final -te replaced by -do;
• Keep in mind that the gerund is an adverb, not an adjective, and so it does not agree in gender and number. The ending is always -o.

Sentence structure

Luthic is an OV (Object-Verb) language. Additionally, Luthic, like all Germanic languages except English, uses V2 word order, though only in independent clauses. In dependent clauses, the finite verb is placed last.

Declarative sentences use V2 (verb in the second position) word order: the finite verb is preceded by one and only one constituent (unlike in English, this doesn’t need to be the subject). The subject is usually omitted when it is a pronoun – distinctive verb conjugations make it redundant. Subject pronouns are considered emphatic when used at all.

(Ic) drigcȯ la vadna.

ic drigc-ȯ l-a vadn-a

I.NOM drink-PRS.1SG the-ACC.SG.F water-ACC.SG

“I drink water (lit. I drink the water).”

La vadna drigcȯ (ic).

l-a vadn-a drigc-ȯ ic

the-ACC.SG.F water-ACC.SG drink-PRS.1SG I.NOM

“The water I drink.”

Non-finite verbs as well as separable particles are placed at the end of the sentence:

La meina frigionda ist al·lȧ festȧ anaqemando.

l-a mein-a frigiond-a ist al=l-ȧ fest-ȧ ana=qem-ando

the-ACC.SG.F my-ACC.SG.F friend-ACC.SG.F is at=the-DAT.SG.F party-DAT.SG on=come-GER

“My friend is arriving (lit. is on-coming) at the party.”

La meina frigionda qemaut al·lȧ festȧ ana.

l-a mein-a frigion-a qem-aut al=l-ȧ fest-ȧ ana

the-ACC.SG.F my-ACC.SG.F friend-ACC.SG.F come-PRF.3SG at=the-DAT.SG.F party-DAT.SG on

“My friend arrived (lit. on-came) at the party.”

An inversion is used to emphasise an adverbial phrase, a predicative, an object, or an inner verbal phrase in a sentence. The subject phrase, at the beginning of an indicative unstressed sentence, is moved directly behind the conjugated verb, and the component to be emphasised is moved to the beginning of the sentence. The conjugated verb is always the second sentence element in indicative statements.

Example 1:

Fliugat snele. “(It) flies fast.” – not emphasised;

Snele fliugat. “Fast (it) flies.” – emphasised, i.e. “Fast is how it flies.”

Example 2:

Is liuvaleico. “(You) are adorable.” – not emphasised;

Liuvaleico is. “Adorable (you) are.” – emphasised, i.e. “Adorable is what you are.”

Interrogative and command sentences use the V1 (verb-first) word order: the finite verb occupies the first position in the sentence. However, wh question sentences use the V2 word order. The pronoun subject is never omitted in those cases. Questions are formed by a rising intonation at the end of the sentence (in written form, a question mark).

Fliugas þû snele?

fliug-as þû snel-e

fly-PRS.2SG you.SG fast-ADVR

“Do you fly fast?”

Ce taugis þû?

ce taugis þû

what do-PRS.2SG you-SG

“What are you doing?”

Taugiâ þû svasve rogiȯ!

taugi-â þû svasve rogi-ȯ

do-IMP.2SG you.SG as say-PRS.1SG

“Do as I say!”

Relative and subordinate clauses maintain the same word order.

Intonation of Luthic relative clauses

Galauvȯ, ei sariat beteze si þata tavissimos gestradage.

galauv-ȯ ei sari-at betez-e si þata ta-vi-ssimos gestradag-e

think-PRS.1SG that be-CND.PRS.3SG better-ADVR if it.ACC.SG do-IMPF-CND.1PL tomorrow-ADVR

“I think that it would be better if we did it tomorrow.”

Galauvas þû, ei sariat beteze si þata tavissimos gestradage?

galauv-as þû ei sari-at betez-e si þata ta-vi-ssimos gestradag-e

think-PRS.2SG you.SG that be-CND.PRS.3SG better-ADVR if it.ACC.SG do-IMPF-CND.1PL tomorrow-ADVR

“Do you think that it would be better if we did it tomorrow?”

Case usage

Luthic case usage is very similar to Gothic, itself who calqued Ancient Greek grammar.

• Nominative: (Ic) im lûthico. “I am Luthic”
• Accusative: (Ic) spracȯ lȯ lûthicȯ. “I speak Luthic”
• Dative: (Ic) lasȯ lȯ lûthicȯ þus. “I teach Luthic to you”
• Genitive: La rasda lûthicoro þiudesca non ist. “The language of the Luths is not Germanic”

• Ablato-locatival accusative:

• Extent of space: (Is) qairvô þreis quilometros. “He walked three kilometres”
• Duration of time: (Is) non beidô ainȯ dagȯ. “He didn’t waited for one day”
• Place when: Þȯ staþȯ. “In/on this place”

• Sometimes prepositional: Naþ·þȯ staþȯ. “id.”

• Time when: Giainȯ vintrȯ. “In/at/during that winter”
• Within which: Leizelas horas (is) scolat sveltare. “Within a few hours he shall die”

• Sometimes prepositional (dative is used instead): Dentro di leizelam horam (is) scolat sveltare. “Within a few hours he shall die”

• Dative:

• Purpose: Mannesci non ovilȧ, ac gôdanȧ taugianda. “Humans are not made for evil, but for good”
• Action for: Þus scolȯ helfare los friundos þeinos. “I must help your friends for you”

• Purpose for action for: Qenam naseini im. “I am the (cause of) salvation for women”

• Action against: La þeina frescaþi scolȯ gadauþare þuc. “Against/in opposition to your freedom I shall kill you”

• Purpose for action against: Manni dauþam im. “I am the (cause of) death for men” (affects negatively)

• Concerning: Ce þû mis scolas taugiare? “What will you do for me? (expressing the speaker being especially interested in what the other is doing for him or her)”

• Instrumental dative:

• Instrument: (Ic) reizȯ pennȧ. “I write with a pen”
• Means: (Ic) saiqȯ augonivo. “I see with the eyes”
• Impersonal agent: Is gadauþada coltellȧ velvi. “He was killed by the knife of the robber”
• Manner: (Ic) fregiȯ þuc managv fregiaþþȧ. “I love you with many affection”

• Prepositional if with no adjective: (Ic) fregiȯ þuc miþ fregiaþþȧ. “I love you with affection”

• Accompaniment: (Ic) scolȯ qemare friundom. “I shall come with friends”

• Sometimes prepositional: (Ic) scolȯ qemare miþ friundom. “id.”

• Degree of difference: (Is) alþezo ainom gierivo. “He is older by a few years”
• Quality: Aino vaire summȧ honestȧ. “A man of highest honesty”

• Ablatival dative:

• Separation: (Ic) sculȯ cofare l'ovelȯ þus. “I shall keep the evil away from you”
• Motion away (prepositional): Giofa Ravennȧ du Americȧ furonno. “They went from Ravenna to America”
• Personal agent (prepositional): Roma a lom Gôthicom qesċada. “Rome is destroyed by the Goths”
• Comparison (adjectival): Qenam scauneza. “More beautiful than women”
• Cause: (Ic) gretȯ irȧ ed agi. “I cry with anger and fear” (marks the reason)

Dialectology

Luthic has many sociolects, whose differ in phonology and grammar; Standard Luthic is the only form who declines noun by cases, other informal sociolects are way closer to other Romance languages in grammar (restrict register). Whereas sociolect refers to a variation in language between different social groups, dialect is a language variation based upon a geographical location, and Luthic has a small geographical area, however, a major dialect is found nearby Ferrara, who was first mentioned when it was conquered by Germanic tribe the Lombards in 753 CE, and the Byzantine Empire lost its rule over the city. It was gifted to the Holy See by the Franks in either 754 or 756 CE, and was led by the Bishops of Ravenna. Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries started reclaiming Podeltan lands in the 9th century. This contact with West Germanic languages, and the lesser presence of East Germanic influence (unlike Ravenna) modelled some sound changes in discrepancy when compared to Standard Luthic. This dialect is often called Ferraresi Luthic or Upper Luthic.

Main phonetic differences

• Thorn fortition: /θ/ is fortified to /t/ in every position:

• þû [ˈθu] > tû [ˈtu].

• H elision: /h ~ ç/ is elided in every position:

• hemenȯ, hemena [çeˈme.no çeˈme.nɐ] > emen, emena [e.men e.me.nɐ];

• Vowel fracture: Luthic strong vowels become diphthongs, ai /ɛ/ > ai /ɐj/, au /ɔ/ > au /aw/, ei /i/ > ei /ɐj/:

• aino [ˈɛ.nu] > ain [ɐjn];
• hauviþȯ, hauviþa [ˈhɔ.vi.θo ˈhɔ.vi.θɐ] > auvit, auvita [ɐw.vit ɐw.vi.tɐ];
• þeino [ˈθi.nu] > tein [tɐjn].

• The feminine plural form becomes /e/.

• Monophthongisation: Luthic diphthong /ju/ is monophthongised to /y/:

• diusȯ [ˈdju.zo] > deus [dys].

• Loss of untressed final vowels and terminal devoicing: Every unstressed vowel is dropped, except in plurals and monosyllabic words; terminal consonants are devoiced (except if sonorants):

• geva, gevai [ˈd͡ʒe.vɐ ˈd͡ʒe.vɛ] > gef, geve [ʒef ʒe.ve];
• manago, managi [mɐˈna.ɣ˕u mɐˈna.d͡ʒi] > manac, managi [mɐ.nɐk mɐ.nɐ.ʒi].

• Deaffrication: Affricates are lenited to fricatives:

• ce [t͡ʃe] > ce [ʃe];
• gi [d͡ʒi] > gi [ʒi].

• Loss of stress: Stress is fully lost, together with Gorgia Toscana:

• qotidiano [kʷo.θiˈdja.nu] > qotidian [ko.ti.djɐn].

• This also triggers the loss of stressed phonemes, such as /a/ and /ʁ/.

• Degemination: Lack of gemination as a distinctive feature:

• grassa [ˈɡɾas.sɐ] and grasȯ [ˈɡɾa.zo] > gras [ɡɾɐs];
• oreccla [oˈʁek.klɐ] > oreccl [o.ɾekl].

• Loss of coarticulations: Aspiration and labialisation are lost:

• Lûthica [ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ] > Lûthic [lu.tik];
• qena [ˈkᶣe.nɐ] > qen [k̟en].

Sample text and comparison

• Orthographic version in Standard Luthic
  

Fadar unsar, þû hemenȯ,
Veihida lata namnȯ þeinȯ;
La þiudanagarda þeina qemit;
Lȯ veġlanȯ þeinȯ taugiat;
Svasve hemenȯ ed ana airþa.
Il claifo qotidiano unsar gevâ unse ogġi,
Ed afletâ las unsaras colpas,
Svasve afletamos þos ei, colpanno unsis;
E non letare unse in tentazione
Ac friehau unse dȧ malȧ.
Faur þuc ist þiudanagardȧ,
E lȧ forzȧ, lȧ gloriȧ,
Faur saicla saicloro. Amen.

• Orthographic version in Upper Luthic
  

Fadar unsar, tû in emen
Veit lat namn tein
La teudanadagart tein qemit
Lȯ veġlan tein taugiat;
Sva in emen et an airt.
Il claif qotidian unsar gevâ uns ogi
Et afletâ le unsere colpe
Sva afletamos esti ei, colpan unsis
E non letar unse in tentazion
Ac friau unse di il mal.
Faur tuc ist la teudanagart,
E la forza, la glor
Faur la saicla di la saicla. Amen.

• Standard Luthic narrow transcription
  

[ˈfa.ð̞ɐɾ ˈũ.t͡sɐɾ | ˈθu.ç‿çeˈme.no
ˈvi.çi.ð̞ɐ lɐ.θɐ ˈnam.no ˈθi.no
lɐ θjuˌda.nɐˈɡaɾ.dɐ ˈθi.nɐ ˈkᶣe.miθ
lo veʎˈʎa.no ˈθi.no ˈtɔ.d͡ʒɐθ
zvɐ.zve çeˈme.no e.ð̞‿ɐ.nɐ ˈɛɾ.t͡θɐ
il klɛ.fu kʷo.θiˈdja.nu ˈũ.t͡sɐɾ d͡ʒeˈva ũ.t͡se ˈɔd.d͡ʒi
e.ð̞‿ɐ.fleˈta lɐs ˈũ.t͡sɐ.ɾɐs ˈkol.pɐs
zvɐ.zve ɐ.fleˈta.mos θos ˈi | colˈpɐ̃.nu ũ.t͡sis
e non leˈta.ɾe ũ.t͡se in ten.tɐtˈt͡sjo.ne
ɐx fɾjeˈhɔ ũ.t͡se da ˈma.la
fɔɾ θux ist θjuˌda.nɐˈɡaɾ.da
e la ˈfɔr.t͡sa | la ˈɡlɔ.ɾja
fɔɾ ˈsɛ.klɐ ˈsɛ.klo.ɾu ‖ ˈa.men]

• Upper Luthic narrow transcription
  

[fɐ.dɐɾ ũ.sɐɾ | tu in e.men
vɐjt lɐt nɐmn tɐjn
lɐ ty.dɐ.nɐ.ɡɐɾt tɐjn k̟e.mit
lo ve.ʎɐn tɐjn tɐw.ʒɐt
zvɐ in e.men e.t‿ɐn ɐjɾt
il klɐjf ko.ti.djɐn ũ.sɐɾ ʒe.va ũs ɔ.ʒi
e.t‿ɐ.fleˈta le ũ.sɐ.ɾe kol.pe
zvɐ ɐ.fle.tɐ.mos es.ti i | col.pɐn ũ.sis
e non le.tɐɾ ũs in ten.tɐ.sjon
ɐk fɾjɔ ũs di il mɐl
fɔɾ tuk ist lɐ ty.dɐ.nɐ.ɡɐɾt
e lɐ fɔrs | lɐ ɡlɔɾ
fɔɾ lɐ sɐj.klɐ di lɐ sɐj.klɐ ‖ ɐ.men]

Although general grammar remains very similar, prepositions become more frequent due to a lack of cases. Some sociolects may also lack the neuter gender, fully merging it with the masculine or the feminine (via the plural form). There are also many ethnolects influenced by regional languages, such as the Lutho-Emilian ethnolect, who has its grammar and vocabulary largely affected and influenced by the Emilian dialects. The orthography may also be affected, since Upper Luthic lacks a regulatory body:

• ⟨gi⟩ or ⟨j⟩ for /ʒ/: Standard Luthic giâ [ˈd͡ʒa], Upper Luthic gia or ja [ʒɐ];
• ⟨ġl⟩ or ⟨lh⟩ for /ʎ/: Standard Luthic ġli [ʎi], Upper Luthic ġli or lhi [ʎi];
• ⟨ġn⟩ or ⟨nh⟩ for /ɲ/: Standard Luthic siġnore [siɲˈɲo.ɾe], Upper Luthic siġnor or sinhor [si.ɲoɾ];
• ⟨eu⟩, ⟨y⟩ or ⟨ü⟩ for /y/: Standard Luthic niu [nju], Upper Luthic neu, ny or nü [ny];
• Disagreement on voiceless terminal consonant spelling: Standard Luthic ac [ɐx], Upper Luthic ac or ag [ɐk]; Standard Luthic garda [ˈɡaɾ.dɐ], Upper Luthic gart or gard [ɡɐɾt].

Another problem with Upper Luthic lacking a regulatory body is the lack of official statistics:

• Unknown amount of native speakers;
• Unknown status as an endangered language;
• Lack of resources.

Phonology

Estimate vowel phonemes of Upper Luthic

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Close-mid	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open-mid	ɛ		ɐ	ɐ̃	ɔ

Vocabulary

It is generally stated that Luthic has around 370,000 words, or 410,000 if obsolete words are counted, however 98% of the Luthic used today consists of only 5,800 words.

Luthic’s core lexicon (3,172 wors), Lucia Giamane (2016)

A 2016 statistic by Lucia Giamane is based on 3,172 words chosen on the criteria of frequency, semantic richness and productivity, which also contain words formed on the territory of the Luthic language. This statistic gives the percentages below:

• 1,200 words inherited from Gothic;
• 953 words inherited from Latin;
• 510 words, academic loanwords from Latin;
• 133 words borrowed from Italian;
• 125 words borrowed from West Germanic, such as Frankish, Langobardic and Standard High German;
• 101 words formed in Luthic;
• 98 words borrowed from French;
• 52 words borrowed from Greek.

Luthic has approximately 2,000 uncompounded words inherited from Proto-Indo-European. These were inherited via:

• 45% Germanic;
• 43% Italic, Romance;
• 8% Celtic;
• 2% Hellenic;
• 2% Uncertain.

Swadesh list

The Swadesh list (/ˈswɑːdɛʃ/) is a compilation of tentatively universal concepts for the purposes of lexicostatistics. Translations of the Swadesh list into a set of languages allow researchers to quantify the interrelatedness of those languages. The Swadesh list is named after linguist Morris Swadesh. It is used in lexicostatistics (the quantitative assessment of the genealogical relatedness of languages) and glottochronology (the dating of language divergence). Because there are several different lists, some authors also refer to "Swadesh lists".

The most used list nowadays is the Swadesh 207-word list, adapted from Swadesh 1952.

Standard Luthic Swadesh list

Swadesh list
1. ic [iç] “I”	53. stecca [ˈstɛk.kɐ] “stick”	105. flairare [flɛˈʁa.ɾe] “to smell”	157. sabbia [ˈsab.bjɐ] “sand”
2. þû [ˈθu] “you”	54. acranȯ [aˈkɾa.no] “fruit”	106. ogare [oˈɡa.ɾe] “to fear”	158. molda [ˈmɔl.dɐ] “dust”
3. is [is] “he” ia [jɐ] “she” ata [a.θɐ] “it”	55. seme [ˈse.me] “seed”	107. slefare [sleˈfa.ɾe] “sleep”	159. airþa [ˈɛɾ.t͡θɐ] “earth”
4. vi [vi] “we”	56. laufo [ˈlɔ.fu] “leaf”	108. vivere [viˈve.ɾe] “to live”	160. molmano [mɔlˈma.nu] “sand”
5. gi [d͡ʒi] “you”	57. vaurte [ˈvɔɾ.te] “root”	109. sveltare [zvɛlˈta.ɾe] “to die”	161. nêbola [ˈne.ʋo.lɐ] “fog”
6. eis [ˈis] isai [iˈsɛ] eis [ˈis] “they”	58. renda [ˈʁɛn.dɐ] “bark”	110. dauþare [dɔˈθa.ɾe] “to kill”	162. hemeno [heˈme.nu] “sky”
7. so [su] sa [sɐ] þata [θɐ.θɐ] “this”	59. bloma [ˈblo.mɐ] “flower”	111. lottare [lotˈta.ɾe] “to fight”	163. vendo [ˈven.du] “wind”
8. este [ˈes.te] esta [ˈes.tɐ] estȯ [ˈes.to] “that”	60. herba [ˈhɛɾ.bɐ] “grass”	112. cacciare [kɐtˈt͡ʃa.ɾe] “to hunt”	164. neve [ˈnɛ.ve] “snow”
9. her [heɾ] “here”	61. corda [ˈkɔɾ.dɐ] “rope”	113. blegguare [bleɡˈɡʷa.ɾe] “to hit”	165. glacciȯ [ˈɡlat.t͡ʃo] “ice”
10. þar [θɐɾ] “there”	62. pelle [ˈpɛl.le] “skin”	114. taġliare [tɐʎˈʎa.re] “to cut”	166. fumo [ˈfu.mu] “smoke”
11. qo [kʷu] qa [kʷɐ] qȯ [kʷo] “who”	63. carne [ˈkaɾ.ne] “meat”	115. scindere [ʃinˈde.ɾe] “to split”	167. fona [ˈfo.nɐ] “fire”
12. ce [t͡ʃe] “what”	64. saggue [ˈsaŋʷ.ɡʷe] “blood”	116. poġnalare [poɲ.ɲɐˈla.ɾe] “to stab”	168. asga [ˈaz.ɡɐ] “ash”
13. car [kɐɾ] “where”	65. beine [ˈbi.ne] “bone”	117. crazzore [kɾɐtˈt͡so.ɾe] “to scratch”	169. bruciare [bruˈt͡ʃa.ɾe] “to burn”
14. can [kɐn] “when”	66. grassa [ˈɡɾas.sɐ] “fat”	118. gravare [ɡɾɐˈva.ɾe] “to dig”	170. strada [ˈstɾa.ð̞ɐ] “road”
15. ce [t͡ʃe] “how”	67. uovȯ [ˈwo.vo] “egg”	119. svemmare [zvẽˈma.ɾe] “to swim”	171. bairgana [ˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.nɐ] “mountain”
16. non [non] “not”	68. haurnȯ [ˈhɔɾ.no] “horn”	120. fliugare [fljuˈɡa.ɾe] “to fly”	172. rosso [ˈʁɔs.su] “red”
17. allo [ˈal.lu] “all”	69. coda [ˈko.ð̞ɐ] “tail”	121. carvore [kɐɾˈvo.ɾe] “to walk”	173. verde [ˈveɾ.de] “green”
18. manago [mɐˈna.ɣ˕u] “many”	70. feþar [ˈfe.θɐɾ] “feather”	122. qemare [kᶣeˈma.ɾe] “to come”	174. giallo [ˈd͡ʒal.lu] “yellow”
19. somo [ˈso.mu] “some”	71. taglȯ [ˈta.ɡlo] “hair”	123. legare [leˈɡa.ɾe] “to lie”	175. blagco [ˈblaŋ.ku] “white”
20. favo [ˈfa.vu] “few”	72. capo [ˈka.fu] “head”	124. setare [seˈta.ɾe] “to sit”	176. nero [ˈne.ɾu] “black”
21. anþero [ɐ̃ˈt͡θe.ɾu] “other”	73. oreccla [oˈʁek.klɐ] “ear”	125. stare [ˈsta.ɾe]. “stand”	177. natto [ˈnat.tu] “night”
22. aino [ˈɛ.nu] “one”	74. augonȯ [ˈɔ.ɣ˕o.no] “”	126. girare [d͡ʒiˈʁa.ɾe] “to turn”	178. dago [ˈda.ɣ˕u] “day”
23. tvi [ˈtvi] “two”	75. naso [ˈna.zu] “nose”	127. driusare [dɾjuˈza.ɾe] “to fall”	179. giar [d͡ʒɐɾ] “year”
24. þreis [ˈθɾis] “three”	76. monþo [ˈmõ.t͡θu] “mouth”	128. gevare [d͡ʒeˈva.ɾe] “to give”	180. varmo [ˈvaɾ.mu] “warm”
25. fidvor [ˈfid.voɾ] “four”	77. dente [ˈden.te] “tooth”	129. haldare [hɐlˈda.ɾe] “to hold”	181. caldo [ˈkal.du] “cold”
26. fimfe [ˈfĩ.p͡fe] “five”	78. tugga [ˈtuŋ.ɡɐ] “tongue”	130. spremere [spɾeˈme.ɾe] “to squeeze”	182. follo [ˈfol.lu] “full”
27. mêquelo [ˈme.xe.lu] “big”	79. oggla [ˈoŋ.ɡlɐ] “fingernail”	131. fregare [fɾeˈɡa.ɾe] “to rub”	183. nuovo [ˈnwo.vu] “new”
28. laggo [ˈlaŋ.ɡu] “long”	80. piede [ˈpje.ð̞e] “foot”	132. þvahare [θvɐˈha.ɾe] “to wash”	184. alto [ˈal.tu] “old”
29. largo [ˈlaɾ.ɡu] “wide”	81. gamba [ˈgam.bɐ] “leg”	133. asciugare [ɐʃ.ʃuˈɡa.ɾe] “to wipe”	185. buono [ˈbwo.nu] “good”
30. spesso [ˈspes.su] “thick”	82. cnivȯ [ˈkni.vo] “knee”	134. tirare [tiˈʁa.ɾe] “to pull”	186. malo [ˈma.lu] “bad”
31. pesante [peˈzan.te] “heavy”	83. mano [ˈma.nu] “hand”	135. spiggere [spiŋˈɡe.ɾe] “to push”	187. macio [ˈma.t͡ʃu] “rotten”
32. leizelo [ˈlid.d͡ze.lu] “little”	84. ala [ˈa.lɐ] “wing”	136. vairfare [vɛɾˈp͡fa.ɾe] “to throw”	188. sporco [ˈspoɾ.ku] “dirty”
33. scaurto [ˈskɔɾ.tu] “short”	85. qeþo [ˈkᶣe.θu] “belly”	137. bendare [benˈda.ɾe] “to tie”	189. dritto [ˈdɾit.tu] “straight”
34. agguo [ˈaŋʷ.ɡʷu] “narrow”	86. viscerai [ˈviʃ.ʃe.ɾɛ] “”	138. siugiare [sjuˈd͡ʒa.ɾe] “to sew”	190. ritondo [ʁiˈton.du] “round”
35. sottile [sotˈti.le] “thin”	87. collo [ˈkɔl.lo] “neck”	139. contare [konˈta.ɾe] “to count”	191. scarfo [ˈskaɾ.p͡fu] “sharp”
36. qena [ˈkᶣe.nɐ] “woman”	88. dorsȯ [ˈdɔɾ.t͡so] “back”	140. rogiare [ʁoˈd͡ʒa.ɾe] “to say”	192. smussato [zmusˈsa.θu] “dull”
37. manno [ˈmɐ̃.nu] “man”	89. brosto [ˈbɾos.tu] “breast”	141. segguare [seŋʷˈɡʷa.ɾe] “to sing”	193. slaitto [ˈzlɛt.tu] “smooth”
38. mannesco [mɐ̃ˈnes.ku] “human being”	90. hairtene [ˈhɛɾ.te.ne] “heart”	142. giucare [d͡ʒuˈka.ɾe] “to play”	194. ûmido [ˈu.mi.ð̞u] “wet”
39. bambino [bamˈbi.nu] “child”	91. figatȯ [fiˈɡa.θo] “liver”	143. flotore [floˈto.ɾe] “to float”	195. þaurso [ˈθɔɾ.t͡su] “dry”
40. sposa [ˈspo.zɐ] “wife”	92. dregcare [dɾeŋˈka.ɾe] “to drink”	144. fluire [fluˈi.ɾe] “to flow”	196. raitto [ˈʁɛt.tu] “correct”
41. abno [ˈab.nu] “husband”	93. mangiare [mɐnˈd͡ʒa.ɾe] “to eat”	145. glacciare [ɡlɐtˈt͡ʃa.ɾe] “to freeze”	197. vicino [viˈt͡ʃi.nu] “near”
42. modar [ˈmo.ð̞ɐɾ] “mother”	94. beidare [biˈda.ɾe] “to bite”	146. svellare [zvɛlˈla.ɾe] “to swell”	198. lontano [lonˈta.nu] “far”
43. fadar [ˈfa.ð̞ɐɾ] “father”	95. suqquiare [sukˈkja.ɾe] “to suck”	147. sauilȯ [ˈsɔj.lo] “sun”	199. destra [ˈdes.tɾɐ] “right”
44. animale [ɐ.niˈma.le] “animal”	96. speivare [spiˈva.ɾe] “to spit”	148. luna [ˈlu.nɐ] “moon”	200. sinistra [siˈnis.tɾɐ] “left”
45. fesco [ˈfes.ku] “fish”	97. vomitare [vo.miˈta.ɾe] “to vomit”	149. stairna [ˈstɛɾ.nɐ] “star”	201. a [a] ad [a‿ð̞] “at”
46. foglo [ˈfo.ɡlu] “bird”	98. soffiare [sofˈfja.ɾe] “to blow”	150. vadne [ˈvad.ne] “water”	202 in [in] “in”
47. hondo [ˈhon.du] “dog”	99. rispirare [ʁis.piˈʁa.ɾe] “to breathe”	151. plogġia [ˈplod.d͡ʒa] “rain”	203. miþ [miθ] “with”
48. pidocclo [piˈð̞ɔk.klu] “louse”	100. clahare [klɐˈha.ɾe] “to laugh”	152. aca [ˈa.xɐ] “river”	204. e [e] ed [e‿ð̞] “and”
49. serpe [ˈsɛɾ.pe] “snake”	101. saicare [sɛˈka.ɾe] “to see”	153. lago [ˈla.ɣ˕u] “lake”	205. si [si] “if”
50. vaurmo [ˈvɔɾ.mu] “worm”	102. hausare [hɔˈza.ɾe] “to hear”	154. mareina [mɐˈʁi.na] “sea”	206. faurcê [fɔɾˈt͡ʃe] “because”
51. trivȯ [ˈtɾi.vo] “tree”	103. cnoscere [knoʃˈʃe.ɾe] “to know”	155. sale [ˈsa.le] “salt”	207. namnȯ [ˈnam.no] “name”
52. valþo [ˈval.t͡θu] “forest”	104. þagcare [θɐŋˈka.ɾe] “to think”	156. staino [ˈstɛ.nu] “stone”	208. Râsdifice [ˈʁaz.di.fi.t͡ʃe] “Linguifex”

Sample text

The North Wind and the Sun in Luthic:

• Orthographic version in Luthic

Il vendo trabairganȧ ed ata sauilȯ giucavanno carge erat il fortizo, can aino pellegrino qemavat avvolto hacolȧ varmȧ ana. I tvi dicideronno ei, il fromo a rimuovere lȯ hacolȯ pellegrinȧ sariat il fortizo anþerȧ. Il vendo trabairganȧ dustogġiat a soffiare violenzȧ, ac ata maize is soffiavat, ata maize il pellegrino striggevat hacolȯ; tanto ei, al·lȯ angiȯ il vendo desistait dȧ seinȧ sforzȧ. Ata sauilȯ allora sceinaut varmamente nal·lȯ hemenȯ, e þan il pellegrino rimuovait lȯ hacolȯ immediatamente. Þan il vendo trabairganȧ obbligauda ad andahaitare ei lata sauilȯ erat ata fortizȯ tvoro.

• Broad transcription

/il ˈven.du tɾɐˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.na e.d‿ɐ.tɐ ˈsɔj.lo d͡ʒu.kɐˈvɐ̃.nu kɐɾ.d͡ʒe ˈɛ.ɾɐθ il ˈfɔɾ.ti.d͡zu | kɐn ɛ.nu pel.leˈɡɾi.nu kʷeˈma.vɐθ ɐvˈvol.tu hɐˈkɔ.la ˈvaɾ.ma a.nɐ ‖ i tvi di.t͡ʃi.deˈʁõ.nu ˈi | il ˈfɾo.mu ɐ ʁi.mwoˈve.ɾe lo hɐˈkɔ.lo pel.leˈɡɾi.na ˈsa.ɾjɐθ il ˈfɔɾ.ti.d͡zu ɐ̃ˈθe.ɾa ‖ il ˈven.du tɾɐˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.na duˈstɔd.d͡ʒɐθ ɐ sofˈfja.ɾe vjoˈlɛn.t͡sa | ɐ.k‿ɐ.tɐ ˈmɛ.d͡ze is sofˈfja.vɐθ | ɐ.tɐ ˈmɛ.d͡ze il pel.leˈɡɾi.nu stɾiŋˈɡe.vɐθ hɐˈkɔ.lo | ˈtan.tu ˈi | ɐl.lo ˈan.d͡ʒo il ˈven.du deˈzi.stɛθ da ˈsi.na ˈsfɔɾ.t͡sa ‖ ɐ.tɐ ˈsɔj.lo ɐlˈlɔ.ɾɐ ʃiˈnɔθ vɐɾ.mɐˈmen.te nɐl.lo çeˈme.no | e θɐn il pel.leˈɡɾi.nu ʁiˈmwo.vɛθ lo hɐˈkɔ.lo ĩ.me.djɐ.tɐˈmen.te ‖ θɐn il ˈven.du tɾɐˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.na ob.bliˈɡɔ.dɐ ɐ.d‿ɐn.da.çɛˈta.ɾe ˈi | lɐ.tɐ ˈsɔj.lo ˈɛ.ɾɐθ ɐ.tɐ ˈfɔɾ.ti.d͡zo ˈtvo.ɾu/

• Narrow transcription (differences emphasised)

[il ˈven.du tɾɐˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.na e.ð̞‿ɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo d͡ʒu.xɐˈvɐ̃.nu kɐɾ.d͡ʒe ˈɛ.ɾɐθ il ˈfɔɾ.tid.d͡zu | kɐn ɛ.nu pel.leˈɡɾi.nu kᶣeˈma.vɐθ ɐvˈvol.tu hɐˈkɔ.la ˈvaɾ.ma a.nɐ ‖ i tvi di.t͡ʃi.ð̞eˈʁõ.nu ˈi | il ˈfɾo.mu ɐ‿ʀi.mwoˈve.ɾe lo hɐˈkɔ.lo pel.leˈɡɾi.na ˈsa.ɾjɐθ il ˈfɔɾ.tid.d͡zu ɐ̃ˈt͡θe.ɾa ‖ il ˈven.du tɾɐˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.n' duˈstɔd.d͡ʒɐθ ɐ.s‿sofˈfja.ɾe vjoˈlɛn.t͡sa | ɐ.x‿ɐ.θɐ ˈmɛd.d͡ze is sofˈfja.vɐθ | a.θɐ ˈmɛd.d͡ze il pel.leˈɡɾi.nu stɾiŋˈɡ̟e.vɐh‿hɐˈkɔ.lo | ˈtan.tu ˈi | ɐl.lo ˈan.d͡ʒo il ˈven.du deˈzis.tɛθ da‿sˈsi.na ˈsfɔɾ.t͡sa ‖ ɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo ɐlˈlɔ.ɾɐ ʃiˈnɔθ vɐɾ.mɐˈmen.te nɐl.lo çeˈme.no | e θɐn il pel.leˈɡɾi.nu ʁiˈmwo.vɛθ lo hɐˈkɔ.lo ĩ.me.djɐ.θɐˈmen.te ‖ θɐn il ˈven.du tɾɐˈbɛɾ.ɡɐ.na ob.bliˈɡɔ.ð̞ɐ ɐ.ð̞‿ɐn.da.çɛˈta.ɾe ˈi | lɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo ˈɛ.ɾɐθ ɐ.θɐ ˈfɔɾ.tid.d͡zo ˈtvo.ɾu]

• Orthographic version in English

The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveller fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveller took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

The Lord’s Prayer in Luthic:

• Orthographic version in Luthic
  

Fadar unsar, þû hemenȯ,
Veihida lata namnȯ þeinȯ;
La þiudanagarda þeina qemit;
Lȯ veġlanȯ þeinȯ taugiat;
Svasve hemenȯ ed ana airþa.
Il claifo qotidiano unsar gevâ unse ogġi,
Ed afletâ las unsaras colpas,
Svasve afletamos þos ei, colpanno unsis;
E non letare unse in tentazione
Ac friehau unse dȧ malȧ.
Faur þuc ist þiudanagardȧ,
E lȧ forzȧ, lȧ gloriȧ,
Faur saicla saicloro. Amen.

• Broad transcription
  

/ˈfa.dɐɾ ˈũ.sɐɾ | ˈθu çeˈme.no
ˈvi.çi.dɐ lɐ.tɐ ˈnam.no ˈθi.no
lɐ θjuˌda.nɐˈɡaɾ.dɐ ˈθi.nɐ ˈkʷe.miθ
lo veʎˈʎa.no ˈθi.no ˈtɔ.d͡ʒɐθ
zvɐ.zve çeˈme.no e.d‿ɐ.nɐ ˈɛɾ.θɐ
il klɛ.fu kʷo.tiˈdja.nu ˈũ.sɐɾ d͡ʒeˈva ũ.se ˈɔd.d͡ʒi
e.d‿ɐ.fleˈta lɐs ˈũ.sɐ.ɾɐs ˈkol.pɐs
zvɐ.zve ɐ.fleˈta.mos θos ˈi | colˈpɐ̃.nu ũ.sis
e non leˈta.ɾe ũ.se in ten.tɐtˈt͡sjo.ne
ɐk fɾjeˈhɔ ũ.se da ˈma.la
fɔɾ θuk ist θjuˌda.nɐˈɡaɾ.da
e la ˈfɔr.t͡sa | la ˈɡlɔ.ɾja
fɔɾ ˈsɛ.klɐ ˈsɛ.klo.ɾu ‖ ˈa.men/

• Narrow transcription (differences emphasised)
  

[ˈfa.ð̞ɐɾ ˈũ.t͡sɐɾ | ˈθu.ç‿çeˈme.no
ˈvi.çi.ð̞ɐ lɐ.θɐ ˈnam.no ˈθi.no
lɐ θjuˌda.nɐˈɡaɾ.dɐ ˈθi.nɐ ˈkᶣe.miθ
lo veʎˈʎa.no ˈθi.no ˈtɔ.d͡ʒɐθ
zvɐ.zve çeˈme.no e.ð̞‿ɐ.nɐ ˈɛɾ.t͡θɐ
il klɛ.fu kʷo.θiˈdja.nu ˈũ.t͡sɐɾ d͡ʒeˈva ũ.t͡se ˈɔd.d͡ʒi
e.ð̞‿ɐ.fleˈta lɐs ˈũ.t͡sɐ.ɾɐs ˈkol.pɐs
zvɐ.zve ɐ.fleˈta.mos θos ˈi | colˈpɐ̃.nu ũ.t͡sis
e non leˈta.ɾe ũ.t͡se in ten.tɐtˈt͡sjo.ne
ɐx fɾjeˈhɔ ũ.t͡se da ˈma.la
fɔɾ θux ist θjuˌda.nɐˈɡaɾ.da
e la ˈfɔr.t͡sa | la ˈɡlɔ.ɾja
fɔɾ ˈsɛ.klɐ ˈsɛ.klo.ɾu ‖ ˈa.men]

• Orthographic version in English
  

Our Father, who art in heaven,
Hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come,
Thy will be done on earth,
as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our debts,
as we forgive our debtors.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil:
For thine is the kingdom,
and the power, and the glory,
forever. Amen.

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