Valthungian: Difference between revisions

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!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100|  
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|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.n.a”)'''
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|align="center"| barn'''ą''' ||align="center"| barn'''is''' ||align="center"| barn'''ai''' ||align="center"| barn'''ą''' ||align="center"| barn'''ō''' ||align="center"| barn'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| barn'''amaz''' ||align="center"| barn'''ō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''child''’
|align="center"| barn'''ą''' ||align="center"| barn'''is''' ||align="center"| barn'''ai''' ||align="center"| barn'''ą''' ||align="center"| barn'''ō''' ||align="center"| barn'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| barn'''amaz''' ||align="center"| barn'''ō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''child''’
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|colspan=8| <small>This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.</small>
|colspan=8| <small>This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.</small>
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|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: Syllabic''' (“n.st.m.a.syl”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-)
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: Syllabic''' (“n.st.m.a.syl”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-)
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====Strong ō-stem (feminine)====
====Strong ō-stem (feminine)====

Revision as of 14:18, 25 October 2017


Gutish is an East Germanic language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with Gothic, though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of Wulfilas. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Gutish did consider themselves Goths, as reflected in its name. (It is likely similar in development to Modern High German – Deutsch – which is not directly descended from Old High German, but rather a similar dialect spoken by a group who also considered themselves “Diutisk.”) While it shares many of the areal changes of the Northwest Germanic languages, it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalization, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Slavic languages.

Writing System

Alphabet & Pronunciation

Here I give the traditional Gutish letters followed by the Romanization I use for them in the second row. The Romanization is used throughout this article.

Gutish-a.png
Gutish-ae.png
Gutish-b.png
Gutish-g.png
Gutish-gh.png
Gutish-d.png
Gutish-dh.png
Gutish-e.png
a
ǣ
b
g
ǧ
d
ð
e
[ɑ]
aska
‘ash’
[e̞ː]
ǣjus
‘horse’
[b]
berkna
‘birch’
[ɡ]
giva
‘gift’
[ʤ]
ǧus
‘creature’
[d]
daǧ
‘day’
[ð]
ǣði
‘mother’
[e̞]
erða
‘earth’
Gutish-zh.png
Gutish-h.png
Gutish-th.png
Gutish-i.png
Gutish-j.png
Gutish-k.png
Gutish-l.png
Gutish-m.png
ž
h
þ
i
j
k
l
m
[ʐ]
akuža
‘axe’
[h]
haglas
‘hail’
[θ]
þornus
‘thorn’
[i]
igil
‘hedgehog’
[j]
jēr
‘year’
[k,kʰ]
kune
‘family’
[l]
lagus
‘lake’
[m]
matna
‘man’
Gutish-n.png
Gutish-o.png
Gutish-p.png
Gutish-r.png
Gutish-s.png
Gutish-sh.png
Gutish-t.png
Gutish-ch.png
n
o
p
r
s
š
t
č
[n]
nǭþs
‘need’
[o̞]
orte
‘garden’
[p,pʰ]
perðra
‘chance’
[r]
rǣða
‘wheel’
[s]
sōgil
‘sun’
[ʃ]
šug
‘family’
[t],tʰ]
tījus
‘Teu’
[ʧ]
čusins
‘chioce’
Gutish-u.png
Gutish-v.png
Gutish-f.png
Gutish-w.png
Gutish-oe.png
Gutish-y.png
Gutish-oa.png
u
v
f
w
œ
y
ǭ
[u]
uvils
‘bad’
[v]
ivras
‘boar’
[f]
fǣjo
‘cattle’
[w]
wynia
‘joy’
[ø̞]
œrča
‘farmer’
[y]
ynča
‘ounce’
[o̞ː]
ǭsus
‘ox’

Non-Alphabetic Variants

Gutish-aa.png
Gutish-ee.png
Gutish-ii.png
Gutish-oo.png
Gutish-uu.png
Gutish-oeoe.png
Gutish-yy.png
ā
ē
ī
ō
ū
œ̄
ȳ
[ɑː]
āde
‘egg’
[e̞i̯]
ēls
‘eel’
[iː]
īs
‘ice’
[o̞u̯]
ōðlas
‘inheritance’
[uː]
ūrus
‘aurochs’
[ø̞ː]
œ̄ja
‘island’
[yː]
ȳftigi
‘timeliness’

Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered to be part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically to be the equivalent of its doubled short counterpart. That is, ‹ā› is equivalent to ‹aa›, ‹ē› to ‹ee›, ‹ī› to ‹ii›, and so on. (The long vowels ‹ǣ› and ‹ǭ› are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their Romanized forms.)

(NB: The Gutish alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented in this wiki are a Romanization of the letters shown in the table above.)

Orthography

The orthography of Gutish is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions – four, in fact:

  1. The letter ‹n› is used before ‹g› or ‹k› to indicate the velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ‹ng› is [ŋg] and ‹nk› is [ŋk]. (E.g. drinkna [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
  2. In combinations where ‹ng› is followed by another nasal consonant, [g] is elided in speech: ‹ngm› is [ŋm] and ‹ngn› is [ŋn]. (E.g. gangna [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋg.na].)
  3. The diphthong ‹eu› is realized as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. sneugna [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
  4. The diphthong ‹øu› is realized as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]).

Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:

  1. The stress is not on the first syllable, and
  2. the stressed syllable is a short vowel. (Long vowels cannot be unstressed, though they may sometimes take secondary stress.)

For example, fergúne ‘mountain’, but garǣts ‘correct’.

Ligatures & Liaisons

When two like vowels of equal value come together, the words may form a ligature. This is most common with the articles ( + a-, + u-, etc.) and particles (e.g + i-).

  • Articles
    • Mandatory:
      • sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
        • sā aplass’āplas, ‘the apple’
        • twā aðnatw’āðna ‘two seasons’
      • sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s’ō-, þ’ō-, h’ō-
        • sō uréčas’ōréča, ‘the persuit’
        • sō ōss’ōs, ‘the ewe’
      • þǣ, twǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ’ǣ-, tw’ǣ-
        • þǣ ǣjusþ’ǣjus ‘the horses’
        • twǣ elistw’ǣlis ‘two others’
      • nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n’ī-, þr’ī-, h’ī-
        • nī istn’īst, ‘isn’t’
        • hī īsranh’īsran ‘this iron’
    • Optional:
      • sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
        • sō akuže, sw’akuže ‘the axe’
        • þō ī, þw’ī ‘those which’

Alternative Writing Systems

Cursive

Coming soon...

Phonology

Vowels

Short Vowels Long Vowels Diphthongs
Front Central Back Front Central Back Front Central Back
Closed i · y
[i · y]
u
[u]
ī · ȳ
[iː · yː]
ū
[uː]
Closed-to-
Mid e · œ
[e̞ · ø̞]
o
[o̞]
ǣ · œ̄
[e̞ː · ø̞ː]
ǭ
[o̞ː]
Mid-to- ē · œu
[e̞i̯ · œy̑]
eu · ō
[ɛu̯ · o̞u̯]
Open a
[ɑ]
ā
[ɑː]
Open-to-

Consonants

Bilabial Labio-
dental
Dental Alveolar Palato-
alveolar
Velar Glottal
Plosive p · b
[p~pʰ · b]
t · d
[t~tʰ · d]
k · g
[k~kʰ · g]
Affricate č · ǧ
[ʧ · ʤ]
Nasal · m
[m]
· n
[n]
· n1
[ŋ]
Fricative f · v
[f · v]
ð · þ
[ð · θ]
s ·
[s]
š · ž
[ʃ · ʒ]
h ·
[h]
Tap or Trill · r
[r~ɾ]
Approximant · j
[j]
· w
[w]
Lateral approximant · l
[l]

1Before ‹g› or ‹k›.

[r]-Assimilation

This is a persistent rule that does not have much effect on declensions within the language, but does have some effect on the development of certain words. This rule is described in the Rules chapter of this document in Assimilation of [ɾ]. Specifically, /r/ is deleted when immediately followed by /ž/. For example, the possessive adjective inkur ‘your’, from earlier igqar /inkwar/ has the genitive plural form inkuža from earlier igqaraizō /inkwarɛ̄zō/ rather than the otherwise expected **inkurža. Similarly, marzjan ‘to offend’ and baurza /bɔrza/ ‘perch, bass’ → mežin, boža.

Voicing Alternation

This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Gutish. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular knife and plural knives, or the noun strife and the verb strive.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ‹f› or ‹þ›, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ‹b› or ‹d›, used elsewhere, e.g. giban, ‘to give’, gaf, ‘gave’. There are three main realizations of this rule in Gutish:

  • v → f
  • ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant.
  • ž → s

The implications of this rule for Gutish are:

  • ‹f› or ‹þ› occur before ‹s› in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. þlǣfs ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive þlǣvis.
  • ‹f› or ‹þ› occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. blōþ ‘blood’, but genitive blōðis.
  • ‹f› occurs when word-final or before ‹t› in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. gaf, gaft, ‘gave’, but infinitive givna.
  • ‹þ› also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ‹s› before ‹t› in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. biǧin ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit baþ but second-person bast.
  • The implications for ‹s› and ‹ž› can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ‹s› throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.

Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ‹f› or ‹þ› from earlier ‹h› which is not affected by this rule.

Palatalization

Palatalization is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Gutish, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Gutish. There are actually several types of palatalization that occur in Gutish, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:

  • Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ‹d› or ‹g› become palatalized before ‹s› in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems). E.g. Gothic dags ‘day’, gards ‘yard’ become daǧ, garǧ. This type of palatalization only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
  • A much more common form of palatalization, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ‹j›, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
    • d or g + j → ǧ
    • t or k + j → č
    • s or h + j → š
    • z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ‹z› eventually became ‹ž›, but that’s not applicable to this section.)

Palatalization of the latter type often goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.

[b]/[v] Alternation

A less common alternation is that of ‹b› and ‹v›. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalization (above), but instead of a true palatalization, instead there is a shift of ‹v› to ‹b›; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ‹j› are able to shift from ‹b› to ‹v› when intervocalic, but those with ‹j› are blocked from spirantizing.

For example, the adjective drœ̄vis ‘muddy’ (from Gothic drōbeis) has the dative singular form drœ̄bia (from drōbja).

Umlaut

Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language.

  • The accusative singular of nouns with palatalization are not umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalization are umlauted.
  • The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted (except for the 3rd person singular in formal speech). (First person singular is palatalized and umlauted.)
  • Most class 1 weak verbs and strong verbs ending in –jan in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with –in in Gutish.

Umlaut in Gutish initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:

  • a → e - satjan ‘to set’ → sečin
  • ā → ǣ - hlahjan ‘to laugh’ → þlǣn
  • ǭ (Got. ‹áu›) → œ̄ - hausjan ‘to hear’ → hœ̄šin
  • o (Got. ‹aú›) → œ - þaursjan ‘to thirst’ → þœršin
  • ō → œ̄ - hwōtjan ‘to threaten’ → hwœ̄čin
  • u → y - hugjan ‘to think’ → hyǧin
  • ū → ȳ - hrūkjan ‘to crow’ → þrȳčin

NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type is present in Gutish: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, or front umlaut.

Coronal Consonant Assimilation

This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ‹t› or ‹st›, the coronal consonant becomes s. This accounts for the English word best, from earlier betst, from *batest. This applies mainly to second person preterit strong verbs, e.g. ǧutna ‘to pour’ and biǧin ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of gǭst ‘you poured’ and bast ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **gǭtt and **baþt.

Syncope of Unstressed Non-High Middle Vowel

...um, working on it. I'll get back to you on this one...

Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking

Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like bagms and aþn, and again before Gutish, most notably collapsing the infinitive -an to -n. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, brōþar ‘brother’ became brōðra via an intermediate */brōðr̩/. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the ‹a› before the sonorant could not be deleted; if it were, the word would have been unpronounceable. This metathesis (which, in reality, is not really metathesis, but that’s what I’m calling it for now) is also blocked after any non-intervocalic voiced continuant; that is, V[v/ð]S shifts as expected (e.g. widan > wiðn̩ > wiðna), but VC[v/ð]S does not (e.g. haldan > halðan, not **halðna).

The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Gutish is that:

  • Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in ‹–m› have the ending of ‹–am› rather than ‹–ma›, e.g. worms ‘worm’ has the dative plural of wormam rather than **wormma.
  • Masculine accusative plural strong a-stem nouns ending in ‹–n› have the ending of ‹–ans› rather than ‹–nas›, e.g. ǭns ‘oven’ has the accusative plural of ǭnans rather than **ǭnnas.
  • Infinitives of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs whose roots end with ‹lð›, ‹lv›, ‹rð›, or ‹rv› have ‹–an› instead of ‹–na›, e.g. Gothic þaurban becomes þorvan rather than the otherwise expected **þorvna.
  • The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in -anþ rather than **naþ.

Assimilation of [r] and [s]

Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Gutish paradigms.

The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *weraz, *drusiz → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *werz, *drusz → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → wers, druss → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic waír /wer/, drus.

Later, beginning around the time of Middle Gutish, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. bērsbēr ‘boar’, stiursčur ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic tersaz (mentula) which became tairs in Gothic, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ter in Gutish. It remains, however, an unkind word.)

Phonemic Inventory

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
1sg ik mīn mis mik I, my, (to) me, me
2sg þū þīn þis þik thou, thy, (to) thee, thee
3sg.masc is is itma in he, his, (to) him, him
3sg.neu it is itma it it, its, (to) it, it
3sg.fem ižas iža ī, īja she, her, (to) her, her
3sg.ind sist is itma sist they, their, (to) them, them
1du wit unkar unkis unk we two, our, (to) us, us
2du jut inkur inkus ink you/ye two, your, (to) you, you
1pl wīs unsar unsis uns we all, our, (to) us, us
2pl jūs ižur ižus ižus you/ye all, your, (to) you, you
3pl.masc īs iža im ins they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.neu ī, īja iža im ī, īja they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.fem ījas iža im ījas they, their, (to) them, them

Relative Pronouns

There are two types of relative pronouns in Gutish, and although they are used interchangeably, I present them here in two separate tables: The first (more common) forms are with the Gothic clitic particle ei- having separated from the pronouns (see Clitic Separation), and the second, more “traditional” forms where the clitic is still attached to the word.

Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
sg.masc is ī þis ī þatm’ī þan ī iži þiži þetmi þeni
sg.neu þat ī þis ī þatm’ī þat ī þī, þeti þiži þetmi þī, þeti
sg.fem sō ī, sw’ī þižas ī þiž’ī þō ī, þw’ī þižaži þiži þī
pl.masc īs ī, þǣ ī þiž’ī þǣm ī þans ī iži þiži þǣmi þenǧi
pl.neu þō ī, þw’ī þiž’ī þǣm ī þō ī, þw’ī þœ̄gi þiži þǣmi þœ̄gi
pl.fem þōs ī þiž’ī þǣm ī þōs ī þœ̄ži þiži þǣmi þœ̄ži

Indefinite Pronouns

Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
inter.masc hwas hwis hwatma hwan who, whose, to whom, whom
inter.neu hwā hwis hwatma hwat what, &c
inter.fem hwō hwižas hwiža hwō who, &c
gen. sist is itma sist one, one’s, &c
neg. nima hun nimis hun nimin hun nimna hun noöne, noöne’s, &c
refl. - sīn sis sik himself, herself, itself, &c

Numbers

Declinable Numerals

Singular (‘one, a, an’)

Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
masc. ǣns ǣnis ǣnatma ǣnan
neu. ǣn(at) ǣnis ǣnatma ǣn(at)
fem. ǣna ǣnažas ǣna ǣna

Dual (‘two, both’)

Numeral Distributive (short) Distributive (long)
Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
masc. twǣ twǣǧa twǣm twans bǣža bǣm bans bījaþs bīðiža bīðum bīðans
neu. twā twǣǧa twǣm twā bǣža bǣm bījaþ bīðiža bīðum bījaþ
fem. twōs twǣǧa twǣm twōs bījas bǣža bǣm bījas bīðas bīðiža bīðum bīðas

Trial (‘three, all three’)

Numeral Distributive
Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
masc. þrīs þrīja þrim þrins þrǣ þrǣža þrǣm þrans
neu. þrī þrīja þrim þrī þrā þrǣža þrǣm þrā
fem. þrīs þrīja þrim þrins þrījas þrǣža þrǣm þrījas

Undeclinable Numerals

# 1# #0 #00 #000 #000
0 (nǣns) tǣjun, tǣn -tiǧis tēhund þūsunde -ljǭn
1 (ǣns) ǣnlif tǣjun ǣn hund ǣna þūsunde miljǭn
2 (twǣ) twalif twǣtiǧis twā hunda tōs þūsunǧis biljǭn
3 (þrīs) þrījatǣn þrīstiǧis þrī hunda þrī þūsunǧis þriljǭn
4 fiður, fiðra fiðratǣn fiðratiǧis fiður hunda fiður þūsunǧis friljǭn
5 fim fimtǣn fimtiǧis fim hunda fim þūsunǧis fimfiljǭn
6 sǣs sǣstǣn sǣstiǧis sǣs hunda sǣs þūsunǧis sǣsiljǭn
7 sivun, sivna sivnatǣn sivnatiǧis sivun hunda sivun þūsunǧis sivniljǭn
8 āta ātatǣn ātatiǧis āta hunda āta þūsunǧis ātatiljǭn
9 njun njuntǣn njuntiǧis njun hunda njun þūsunǧis njuniljǭn

The numbers in Gutish – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by assimilation from the dual (‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Gutish.

The number ‘four’ is fiður, where we would normally expect **fidur through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in fidwōr). There is also a further lenited form of fiðra, which is optional when it stands alone, but required in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: fidwōr and a compound form fidur.)

The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of sivun, but also a lenited form of sivna, again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is āta, but may optionally be lenited to āt. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is tǣjun or lenited tǣn, the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers, the former being preferred elsewhere, though still optional.

Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. þriljǭn ‘trillion’, fiðriljǭn ‘quadrillion’, fimfiljǭn ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **triljǭn, **kwaðriljǭn, and **kwintiljǭn.

Another note concerning the higher numbers: Gutish follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas most European countries currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:

N⁰ Numerals Gutish Short Hybrid Long Metric
10³ 1,000 þūsunde thousand thousand thousand kilo
10⁶ 1,000,000 miljǭn million million million Mega
10⁹ 1,000,000,000 biljǭn billion milliard thousand million Giga
10¹² 1,000,000,000,000 þriljǭn trillion billion billion Tera
10¹⁵ 1,000,000,000,000,000 fiðriljǭn quadrillion billiard thousand billion Peta
10¹⁸ 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 fimfiljǭn quintillion trillion trillion Exa
10²¹ 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 sǣsiljǭn sextillion trilliard thousand trillion Zetta
10²⁴ 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 sivniljǭn septillion quadrillion quadrillion Yotta
10²⁷ 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ātatiljǭn octillion quadrilliard thousand quadrillion -
10³⁰ 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 njuniljǭn nonillion quintillion quintillion -

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English).

In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second used only the weak declension, but all ordinals now use both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules. As with the cardinal numbers, there are two acceptable forms for ‘fourth’, ‘seventh’, and ‘tenth,’ following the same lenition as the cardinals, though there is only one form of ‘eighth’. An alternate form of ‘third’, þrīǧas is sometimes used, but it is not always considered correct.

1 frumist, frums first
2 anðras second
3 þriǧas, þrīǧas third
4 fiðraþs fourth
5 fimft fifth
6 sǣst sixth
7 sivunǧ seventh
8 ātuþs eighth
9 njunǧ ninth
10 tǣjunǧ, tǣnǧ tenth
11 ǣnlift eleventh
12 twālift twelfth
13 þrītǣnǧ thirteenth
20 twǣtiǧist twentieth
100 hundaþs hundredth
1,000 þūsundiþs thousandth
1,000,000 miljǭnǧ millionth

Alternative Numbers

The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages (Middle Gutish), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primarily among these numbers was '13', which was written in Gothic as ·ig·. This also occurred with the numbers '113' (rig), '213' (sig), '313' (tig), '413' (wig), and '513' (fig). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)

The number '19' is also sometimes called by the same formulation.

Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, a 'road' or 'highway' is sometimes referred to as a '413' (fiðrahunda þrījatǣn or fiðra-þrītǣn), written wig (the accusative singular of wiǧ ('road').

A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number '843' to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ·omg·.

Articles & Determiners

Gutish has two definite articles, and his, both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, is usually preferred.

There is no indefinite article in Gutish.

Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.
masc.sg þis þatma þan his his hitma hin
neu.sg þat þis þatma þat hit his hitma hit
fem.sg þižas þiža þō hīja hižas hiža hī, hīja
masc.pl þǣ þiža þǣm þans hīs hiža him hins
neu.pl þō þiža þǣm þō hī, hīja hiža him hī, hīja
fem.pl þōs þiža þǣm þōs hījas hiža him hījas

Nouns

Noun classes differ by suffix vowel class and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described below: See A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns). There are also a few minor classes in consonant stems (a.k.a. Ø-stem), in /r/ (a very small class having to do with familial relations), and in /nd/ (based on the nominalization of the present participle). These minor classes will be discussed here, but for the learner who is new to Germanic languages, these should be treated as irregular declensions and learned by rote. Many of these have also been regularized in Gutish through the process of paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated into other classes.

Every noun in Gutish (and most Germanic languages) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).

Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.

In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural also takes –a. The dative plural takes –am, but in most cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesize to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a.

Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardized, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.

A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns

In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.” In nouns and adjectives, “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. For the purposes of this text, I will dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various categories into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Gutish language to add this additional arbitrary distinction.

a- and ō-stems

By far the most common type of noun in all of the Germanic languages, a- and ō-stems become the basis of several sub-classes of nouns. Masculine and neuter nouns took and ending of -a (from Proto-Indo-European -o), while feminine nouns took -ō (from PIE -ā).

Strong a-stem (masculine)

This is the most common type of noun class in Gutish as well as in most Germanic languages. As such, it is also the most varied in terms of declension.

Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
slǣpaz slǣpis slǣpai slǣpą slǣpōz slǣpǫ̂ slǣpamaz slǣpanz sleep
slēps slēpis slēpa slēp slēpōs slēpē slēpam slēpans
slēps slēpis slēpa slēp slēpas slēpa slēpma slēpnas
This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.

Strong a-stem (neuter)

The strong neuter a-stems are just like the masculine, except that the neuter does not take an ‹-s› on the nominative singular (i.e. the nominative is the same as the accusative), and the nominative and accusative plurals are identical to the dative singular. In other words, any of the irregularities discussed above that have to do with these categories will no longer apply for neuter a-stem nouns.

Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
barną barnis barnai barną barnō barnǫ̂ barnamaz barnō child
barn barnis barna barn barna barnē barnam barna
barn barnis barna barn barna barna barnma barnnas
This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.

Strong ō-stem (feminine)

The simplest noun class by far is the strong feminine ō-stem. There is only one paradigm with no variations.

Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type I: Default (“n.st.f.ō”)
erþō erþōz erþōi erþǭ erþôz erþǫ̂ erþōmaz erþôz earth
aírþa aírþais aírþai aírþa aírþōs aírþō aírþōm aírþōs
erða erðis erða erða erðas erða erðam erðas
This is the default declension of the ō-stem paradigm. Note the assimilation of the genitive singular (from the expected “-as”).

ja- and jō-stems

While traditionally listed as sub-classes of a- and ō-stems, the j-stem nouns differ from these in two important ways: Umlaut and Palatalization. (…more below…)

Strong ja-stem (masculine)

Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ja”)
harjaz harjis harjai har harjōz harjǫ̂ harjamaz harjanz army
harjis harjis harja hari harjōs har harjam harjans
heris heris heria hare heris heria herim herins
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: bja (“n.st.m.bja”)
sebjaz sebjis sebjai seb sebjōz sebjǫ̂ sebjamaz sebjanz kinsman
sibjis sibjis sibja sibi sibjōs sib sibjam sibjans
sibis sibis sibia sive sibis sibia sibim sibins
Accusative changes to /v/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIa: dja (“n.st.m.dja”)
medjaz medjis medjai med medjōz medjǫ̂ medjamaz medjanz middle
midjis midjis midja midi midjōs mid midjam midjans
miǧis miǧis miǧa miðe miǧis miǧa miǧim miǧins
Accusative changes to /ð/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIb: gja (“n.st.m.gja”)
sagjaz sagjis sagjai sag sagjōz sagjǫ̂ sagjamaz sagjanz messenger
sagjis sagjis sagja sagi sagjōs sag sagjam sagjans
seǧis seǧis seǧa sage seǧis seǧa seǧim seǧins
Accusative changes to /g/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIc: tja (“n.st.m.tja”)
tjaz tjis tjai t tjōz tjǫ̂ tjamaz tjanz army
tjis tjis tja ti tjōs t tjam tjans
čis čis ča te čis ča čim čins
Accusative changes to /t/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIId: kja (“n.st.m.kja”)
kjaz kjis kjai k kjōz kjǫ̂ kjamaz kjanz army
kjis kjis kja ki kjōs k kjam kjans
čis čis ča ke čis ča čim čins
Accusative changes to /k/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIe: sja (“n.st.m.sja”)
sjaz sjis sjai s sjōz sjǫ̂ sjamaz sjanz army
sjis sjis sja si sjōs s sjam sjans
šis šis ša se šis ša šim šins
Accusative changes to /s/…

Strong ja-stem (neuter)

Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type I: Default (“n.st.n.ja”)
fergun fergunjis fergunjai fergun fergun fergunjǫ̂ fergunjamaz fergun mountain
faírguni faírgunjis faírgunja faírguni faírgunja faírgun faírgunjam faírgunja
fergúne fergýnis fergýnia fergúne fergýnia fergýnia fergýnim fergýnia
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: bja (“n.st.n.bja”)
lubją lubjis lubjai lubją lubjō lubjǫ̂ lubjamaz lubjō drug, poison
lubi lubjis lubja lubi lubja lubjē lubjam lubja
luve lybis lybia luve lybia lybia lybim lybia
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: dja (“n.st.n.dja”)
badją badjis badjai badją badjō badjǫ̂ badjamaz badjō bed
badi badjis badja badi badja badjē badjam badja
baðe beǧis beǧa baðe beǧa beǧa beǧim beǧa
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: ddja (“n.st.n.ddja”)
ai aijis aijai ai ai aijǫ̂ aijamaz ai egg
addi addjis addja addi addja addjē addjam addja
āde ǣǧis ǣǧa āde ǣǧa ǣǧa ǣǧim ǣǧa
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: gja (“n.st.n.gja”)
hawją hawjis hawjai hawją hawjō hawjǫ̂ hawjamaz hawjō hay
hawi hawjis hawja hawi hawja hawjē hawjam hawja
hauge heuǧis heuǧa hauge heuǧa heuǧa heuǧim heuǧa
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: tja (“n.st.n.tja”)
witją witjis witjai witją witjō witjǫ̂ witjamaz witjō knowledge
witi witjis witja witi witja witjē witjam witja
wite wičis wiča wite wiča wiča wičim wiča


ija- and ijō-stems

Strong ija-stem (masculine)

Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ija”)
blōstrijaz blōstrijis blōstrijai blōstriją blōstrijōz blōstrijǫ̂ blōstrijamaz blōstrijanz worshipper
blōstrjis blōstrjis blōstrja blōstri blōstrjōs blōstr blōstrjam blōstrjans
blœ̄stris blœ̄stris blœ̄stria blōstre blœ̄stris blœ̄stria blœ̄strim blœ̄strins
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type II: bija (“n.st.m.bija”)
drōbijaz drōbijis drōbijai drōbiją drōbijōz drōbijǫ̂ drōbijamaz drōbijanz mud, muck
drōbeis drōbeis drōbja drōbi drōbjōs drōb drōbjam drōbjans
drœ̄vis drœ̄vis drœ̄bia drōve drœ̄bis drœ̄bia drœ̄bim drœ̄bins
Accusative changes to /v/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIa: dija (“n.st.m.dija”)
herdijaz herdijis herdijai herdiją herdijōz herdijǫ̂ herdijamaz herdijanz herder
haírdeis haírdeis haírdja haírdi haírdjōs haírd haírdjam haírdjans
herðis herðis herǧa herðe herǧis herǧa herǧim herǧins
Accusative changes to /ð/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIb: gija (“n.st.m.gija”)
drangijaz drangijis drangijai drangiją drangijōz drangijǫ̂ drangijamaz drangijanz servant
*draggeis *draggeis *draggja *draggi *draggjōs *dragg *draggjam *draggjans
drengis drengis drea drange dreis drea dreim dreins
Accusative changes to /g/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIc: tija (“n.st.m.tija”)
fastijaz fastijis fastijai fastiją fastijōz fastijǫ̂ fastijamaz fastijanz restraint
fasteis fasteis fastja fasti fastjōs fast fastjam fastjans
festis festis fesča faste fesčis fesča fesčim fesčins
Accusative changes to /t/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIId: kija (“n.st.m.kija”)
lǣkjaz lǣkjis lǣkjai lǣk lǣkjōz lǣkjǫ̂ lǣkjamaz lǣkjanz medicine
lēkeis lēkeis lēkja lēki lēkjōs lēk lēkjam lēkjans
lēkis lēkis lēča lēke lēčis lēča lēčim lēčins
Accusative changes to /k/…
Nom.Sg. Gen.Sg. Dat.Sg. Acc.Sg. Nom.Pl. Gen.Pl. Dat.Pl. Acc.Pl.  
Type IIIe: sija (“n.st.m.sija”)
bǣrusijaz bǣrusijis bǣrusijai bǣrusiją bǣrusijōz bǣrusijǫ̂ bǣrusijamaz bǣrusijanz parent
bēruseis bēruseis bērusja bērusi bērusjōs bērus bērusjam bērusjans
bērusis bērusis bēruša bēruse bērušis bēruša bērušim bērušins
Accusative changes to /s/…

Verbs

I haven't got quite as far as describing the verbs on this page yet, but everyone likes a good conjugation of their favorite irregular verbs, right? So here you go:

wisna ‘to be’

Preterit Present Imperative
Infinitive: Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
wisna ik was wēša im sīja
Present Participle: þū wast wēsis is sījas sī, ī
wisnaǧ sist was wēse ist sīja imda
Past Participle: wīs wēsum wēsim sīm, sījum sījam sīm
wisnas jūs wēsuþ wēsiþ sīþ, sījuþ sījaþ sīþ
īs wēsun wēsin sinþ sījan sinda

gēn, gangna ‘to be’

Preterit Present Imperative
Infinitive: Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
gēn, gangna ik īǧa īǧa gēm, ganga ganga
Present Participle: þū īǧis īǧis gēs, gangis gangas gē, gang
gangnaǧ sist īǧa īǧa gēþ, gangiþ ganga gangaða
Past Participle: wīs īǧim īǧim gēm, gangma gangam gēm, gangma
gēns jūs īǧiþ īǧiþ gēþ, gangiþ gangaþ gēþ, gangiþ
īs īǧin īǧin gēnþ, gangnaþ gangan gangnaða

dōn ‘to do’

Preterit Present Imperative
Infinitive: Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
dōn ik dedéða dedēða dōm dōwa
Present Participle: þū dedéðis dedēðis dōs dōwas
dōnǧ sist dedéða dedēðe dōþ dōwa dōða
Past Participle: wīs dedēðum dedēðim dōm dōwam dōm
dēns jūs dedēðuþ dedēðiþ dōþ dōwaþ dōþ
īs dedēðun dedēðin dōnþ dōwan dōnaða

stēn, standna ‘to stand, to stay’

Preterit Present Imperative
Infinitive: Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
stēn, standna ik stōþ stœ̄þia stēm, standa standa
Present Participle: þū stōst stœ̄ðis stēs, standis standas stē, stand
standnaǧ sist stōþ stœ̄ðe stēþ, standiþ standa standaða
Past Participle: wīs stōðum stœ̄ðim stēm, standma standam stēm, standma
standnas jūs stōðuþ stœ̄ðiþ stēþ, standiþ standaþ stēþ, standiþ
īs stōðun stœ̄ðin stēnþ, standnaþ standan standnaða

wilin ‘to want’

Preterit Present Imperative
Infinitive: Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
wilin ik wilða wilǧa wilia wilia
Present Participle: þū wilðas wilðis wilis wilis wili
wilinǧ sist wilða wilðe wilia wilia wiliða
Past Participle: wīs wilðum wilðim wilim wilim wilim
wiliþs jūs wilðuþ wilðiþ wiliþ wiliþ wiliþ
īs wilðun wilðin wilin wilin wilinaða

Adjectives