View source for Antarctican/Verbs

In the [[Antarctican]] language, there are no adjectives. Instead of adjectives meaning "red", "old" or "tall", there are verbs meaning "to be red", "to be old", "to be tall" etc. So instead of saying "the tall tree", you would say "the tree that is tall".

These verbs are clearly marked for transitivity (e.g. a different verb is used in the sentence "The door opened" compared to the sentence "I opened the door".They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).

<h3>Direct and Indirect Verbs</h3>

Verbs have a root form, which in itself is only used in compounds. However from this various other base forms are derived which can stand alone in speech. The two most important of these base forms are the direct base and the indirect base. 


The direct base is used when the topic of the sentence is a core argument of the verb (subject of an intransitive verb, agent or patient of a transitive verb). The indirect base is used when the topic of a sentence is an oblique argument.


Below is a list of verb roots with their
corresponding indirect and direct bases:

&nbsp;

doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root

doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag,
intransitive, indirect

`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, direct 

&nbsp;

`ròedu /&#689;&#641;&#600;du/ - red, root

`ròedla /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;d&#622;a/ - red,
indirect

`ròedù /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;du&#689;/ - red,
direct  

&nbsp;

'kiraeypyi /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;i/
- to become scraped, root

'kiraeypyu /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;u/
- to become scraped, indirect

'kiraypùe /ki&#641;a;ip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, direct 

&nbsp;


<h4>Direct Base</h4>

This is the "default" form of the verb that is used normally. 

&nbsp;

<h5>Regular Formation</h5>

The default way of forming it is by putting
breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
the same way as normal e.g.

&nbsp;

éypyii /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root

éypyùey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;&#616;i&#689;/
- to spit out, direct 

&nbsp;

This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.

&nbsp;

gowpeyee /goupeje&#720;/ - to suffer a
setback, root

gowpòeyòoe /goup&#600;&#689;j&#600;&#720;&#689;/
- to suffer a setback, direct

&nbsp;

inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root

ùenyòelòoe /&#660;&#616;&#689;&#626;&#600;&#689;le&#720;/
- to pierce, direct 

&nbsp;

kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root

kùevòelùun /k&#616;&#689;&#613;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#628;&#689;/
- to die, direct 

&nbsp;

Remember that Antarctican only permits
voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.

&nbsp;

hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root

lào /l&#604;&#689;/ - to perform, direct

&nbsp;

These changes do not affect phonation
spreading though, as we can see from:

&nbsp;

madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root

`màotùsòe /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/
- to give birth, intransitive, direct 

&nbsp;

nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root

`nyùeypòe /&#689;&#626;&#616;ip&#600;&#689;/ - to
snow, direct

&nbsp;

san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root

sàonkùesòe /s&#604;&#628;&#689;k&#616;&#689;s&#604;&#689;/
- to bleed, direct

&nbsp;

When a consonant such as a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
preceding it is /&#616;/ or /&#600;/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.

&nbsp;

yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root

yintùrào /ji&#628;tu&#689;&#641;&#604;&#689;/
- to introduce oneself, direct

&nbsp;

imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down, root

imipù /&#660;imipu&#689;/ - to sit down, direct

&nbsp;

nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root

nitùsòe /nitu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/ - to be
fed on, direct

&nbsp;

poensaa /p&#600;&#628;sa&#720;/ - to be lost
in deep thought, root

pensàao /pe&#628;s&#604;&#720;&#689;/ - to
be lost in deep thought, direct

&nbsp;

If the vowel is /&#603;/, or a diphthong
starting with /&#603;/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
e.g.

'kiraeypi /ki&#641;&#603;ipi/ - to
become scraped, root

'kiraypùe /ki&#641;aip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, direct

&nbsp;

<h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>

In addition to this, some verbs lose their
final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.

&nbsp;

doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root

tùlòoezi /tu&#689;l&#600;&#720;&#689;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, direct (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).

&nbsp;

bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to make it across,
root

pùelùezi /p&#616;&#689;l&#616;&#689;zi/ -
to make it across, direct

&nbsp;

<h4>indirect Base</h4>

This is used when the topic of the sentence is an oblique argument of the verb, not a core argument (i.e. not the subject of an intransitive verb or the agent / patient of a transitive verb).

How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
consonant:

<h5>Final Consonant is Soft</h5>

If the final consonant (not including any
placeless nasal /&#628;/) is soft, infix -iq-/i&#660;/ immediately after it
e.g.

&nbsp;

hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root

hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform,
indirect

&nbsp;

However, many vowels shift when this
happens e.g.

&nbsp;

éypyii /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root

éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/
- to spit out, indirect

&nbsp;

inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root

inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/
- to pierce, indirect

&nbsp;

kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root

kiveli-ewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ -
to die, indirect

&nbsp;

These vowel shifts are all in a roughly
anti-clockwise directions around the vowel space. The shifts are listed below:

i /i/ -&gt; e /e/

ii /i&#720;/ -&gt; ey /ei/

e /e/ -&gt; a /a/

ee /e&#720;/ -&gt; aa /a&#720;/

a /a/ -&gt; u /u/

aa /a&#720;/ -&gt; uu /u&#720;/

u /u/ -&gt; i /i/

uu /u&#720;/ -&gt; ew /eu/

ey /ei/ -&gt; ay /ai/

eey /e&#720;i/ -&gt; aay /a&#720;i/

ay /ai/ -&gt; uy /ui/

aay /a&#720;i/ -&gt; uuy /u&#720;i/

uy /ui/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/

ew /eu/ -&gt; aw /au/

eew /e&#720;u/ -&gt; aaw /a&#720;u/

aw /au/ -&gt; ow /ou/

aaw /a&#720;u/ -&gt; oow /o&#720;u/

&nbsp;

<h5>Final Consonant is Hard</h5>

If the final consonant (not including any
placeless nasal /&#628;/) is hard, change it to be soft e.g.

&nbsp;

yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root

yuentolõ /j&#616;&#628;tol&#596;/ - to
introduce oneself, indirect

&nbsp;

However, many vowels shift when this
happens e.g.

&nbsp;

nangarew /na&#331;a&#641;eu/ - to flow,
root

nangaluu /na&#331;alu&#720;/ - to flow,
indirect

&nbsp;

'kirami /&#740;ki&#641;ami/ - to swell
up, root

'kiramyu /&#740;ki&#641;am&#690;u/ - to
swell up, indirect

&nbsp;

imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down,
root

imuepya /&#660;im&#616;p&#690;a/ - to sit
down, indirect

&nbsp;

These vowel changes are often the reverse
of what happens if the final vowel of the stem is a soft consonant. The vowel
shifts are all roughly clockwise around the vowel space, and are listed below:

i /i/ -&gt; u /u/

u /u/ -&gt; a /a/

uu /u&#720;/ -&gt; aa /a&#720;/

a /a/ -&gt; e /e/

aa /a&#720;/ -&gt; ee /e&#720;/

e /e/ -&gt; i /i/ * For some words only,
see below.

ee /e&#720;/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/

ii /i&#720;/ -&gt; uy /ui/

uy /ui/ -&gt; ay /ai/

uuy /u&#720;i/ -&gt; aay /a&#720;i/

ay /ai/ -&gt; ey /ei/

aay /a&#720;i/ -&gt; eey /e&#720;i/

ey /ei/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/

eey /e&#720;i/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/

ow /ou/ -&gt; aw /au/

oow /o&#720;u/ -&gt; aaw /a&#720;u/

aw /au/ -&gt; ew /eu/

aaw /a&#720;u/ -&gt; eew /e&#720;u/

ew /eu/ -&gt; uu /u&#720;/

eew /e&#720;u/ -&gt; uu /u&#720;/

&nbsp;

<h6>Vowel Phonation Changes</h6>

A few verb stems that end in a hard consonant
and e /e/ behave differently. If the consonant is an obstruent and the
vowel is short, has modal voice and not followed by -n /&#628;/, then the
syllable is deleted and voice put onto the preceding syllable(s). This voice is breathy if the deleted obstruent was voiced, and tense if it was voiceless e.g.

&nbsp;

nuetoze /n&#616;toze/ - to be fed on, root

nitù /nitu&#689;/ - to be fed on, indirect


siboete /sib&#600;te/ - to all be present, root

sipáe /sip&#603;&#740;/ - to all be present, indirect (remember that Antarctican does not like plain voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).

&nbsp;

The breathy voice “spreads” backwards
through the word, changing vowel phonation with it, until it hits a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal e.g.

&nbsp;

madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root

`màotù /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;/ - to give
birth, intransitive, indirect

&nbsp;

nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root

`nyùue /&#689;&#626;&#616;&#720;&#689;/ - to snow,
indirect

&nbsp;

san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root

sàon-gùe /s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/
- to bleed, indirect

&nbsp;

Tense voice "spreads" backwards in a similar way, except that it passes through voiceless stops and not through voiced stops, fricatives, or prestopped nasals e.g.


daraeke /da&#641;&#603;ke/ - to cover, root

tárá /ta&#740;&#641;a&#740;/ - to cover, indirect

&nbsp;


<h3>Verbalisation</h3>

Antarctican has a very productive process
for to convert a noun N into an intransitive verb root meaning “to become N” /
“to be N / to do what N does”. How this is done depends on the voicing of the
last vowel of the absolutive form of the noun

&nbsp;

<h4>Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice</h4>

In this case, the verb root is identical to
the absolutive form e.g.

&nbsp;

zive /zi&#613;e/ - boat, absolutive

zive /zi&#613;e/ - to be a boat, verb root

&nbsp;

buraza /bu&#641;aza/ - brother, absolutive

buraza /bu&#641;aza/ - to be a brother, verb
root

&nbsp;

yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ -
employee, absolutive

yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ -
employee, verb root

&nbsp;

<h4>Other Cases</h4>

However, if the final vowel of the
absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the verb stem is formed from the
ergative form of the noun, minus any final –n e.g.

&nbsp;

ùylòen /&#660;ui&#689;l&#604;&#628;&#689;/
- island, absolutive

oylendun /&#660;oile&#628;dun/ - island,
ergative

oylendu /&#660;oile&#628;du/ - to be an
island, verb root

&nbsp;

péy /pei&#740;/ - book, absolutive

péykin /pei&#740;ki&#628;/ - book,
ergative

péyki /pei&#740;ki/ - to be a book, verb root

&nbsp;

támá /ta&#740;ma&#740;/ - victim of a scam
/ swindle, absolutive

damaesin /dam&#603;si&#628;/ - victim of a
scam / swindle, ergative

damaesi /dam&#603;si/ - to be a victim of a
scam / swindle, verb root

&nbsp;

màao /m&#604;&#689;&#720;/ - betel nut,
absolutive

pmaagin /pma&#720;gi&#628;/ - betel nut,
ergative

pmaagi /pma&#720;gi/ - to be a betel nut, verb
stem

&nbsp;

`pùelùe /&#689;p&#616;&#689;l&#616;&#689;/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge,
ergative

bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to be bridge / to
make it across, verb stem

&nbsp;

`pàoy /&#689;p&#604;i&#689;/ - baby, absolutive

baybyin /baib&#690;i&#628;/ - baby,
ergative

baybyi /baib&#690;i/ - to be a baby, verb
stem

&nbsp;

pàoy /p&#604;i&#689;/ - page, absolutive

paydlin /paid&#622;i&#628;/ - page,
ergative

paydli /paid&#622;i/ - to be a page, verb
stem

<h3>Transitivity</h3>

&nbsp;

Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive {{lg|Transitivity}} is very important in Antarctican syntax. Unlike English, where a verb such as "drag" can either be used transitively (as in the sentence "He was dragging his pants along the ground"), or intransitively (as in the sentence "His pants were dragging along the ground"), Antarctican uses distinct verb roots for each case e.g.

&nbsp;

doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, intransitive, indirect (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")

dleeju
/d&#622;e&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, transitive, indirect (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")

&nbsp;

`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ – to drag, intransitive,
direct

`tlòoezi
/&#689;t&#620;&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/– to drag, transitive, direct

&nbsp;

Very
commonly, transitive roots are formed from intransitive roots by deletion of
the first vowel and the second consonant. And if, out of the first and second
consonants, one was soft and the other hard, the first consonant is changed to
agree in hardness / softness with the second (deleted) consonant e.g.

&nbsp;

doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

dleegi /d&#622;e&#720;gi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

&nbsp;

shinari
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root

hari
/&#967;a&#641;i/ - to twist, transitive, root

&nbsp;

The transitive roots are then inflected for indirect vs. direct e.g.

&nbsp;

shinari
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root

shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, indirect

yùenàorùe
/j&#616;&#689;n&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, intransitive,
direct

&nbsp;

hari
/&#967;a&#641;i/ - to twist, transitive, root

hali
/&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect

ràorùe
/&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, direct


<h3>Voice and Object Marking</h3>

Grammatical voice is very important in
Antarctican. It is conflated with pronominal object marking, both only
affecting transitive verbs and usually using infixes that come immediately after
the first consonant of the verb base. As with elsewhere in the language, these
are not differentiated for number, although there is an inclusive and exclusive
“us”.

<h4> Infixation </h4>

This is the default way of marking pronominal objects and grammatical voice. In each case there are two forms of the infix, one that contains a hard consonant that is used with verbs beginning
with hard consonants, and another that contains a soft consonant that is used
with verbs beginning with soft consonants. Note that there is no infix to mark 3rd person objects. Instead the antipassive voice is used. The infixes are listed below in pairs,
with the hard version coming first and then the soft version.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Infixes for Voice and Object Pronouns
|-
|
|Hard Form
|Soft Form
|-
|1PS Exclusive
|em
|imy
|-
|1PS Inclusive
|as
|ehl
|-
|2PS
|õs
|õhl
|-
|who
|ar
|el
|-
|what
|ab
|eby
|-
|Reflexive
|er
|il
|-
|Perfective Antipassive
|ut / óws (see below)
|atl
|-
|Imperfective Antipassive
|am
|emy
|-
|Superordinate
|át(q)
|áet(q)l
|}


These come immediately after the first
consonant of the verb base e.g.


damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, indirect

dõsamaehlu /d&#596;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle you, indirect


damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam, indirect

demamaehlu /dem&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam me / us (not including you), indirect


All of the usual rules about phonation
spreading apply e.g.


pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify, direct

pyùemyùu /p&#690;&#616;&#689;mp&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify me / us (not including you, direct

pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who, direct 


The infixes with non-back vowels and
voiceless consonants also undergo vowel mutation if the following vowel has
modal voice. This is the exact same as has been described before for noun and verb prefixes e.g.


damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, indirect

daesamaehlu /d&#603;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), indirect

deramaehlu /de&#641;am&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle oneself, indirect


If the first vowel of the verb base has
breathy or tense voice, and the infix inserted would contain /&#620;/ (which
can only occur before modal voice vowels), then it becomes /l/ and /t&#620;/ respectively. However it
still blocks the spread of the voicing e.g.


pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify,
direct

pyolùu /p&#690;&#596;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify you, direct

pyelùu /p&#690;elu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify
ourselves (including you), direct


The last example this is distinct
from pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who,
direct, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.

Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.


*yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ - employee, absolutive
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*damasùe - /damas&#616;&#689;/ - to scam / swindle, direct


{| class="wikitable"
|- 
| yuenpiloy || damasùe || sõwdla
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || damas&#616;&#689; || s&#616;ud&#622;
|-
|- employee-ERG || scam || soldier-ABS
|}
An employee scammed a soldier


Above, we can see that the word for "employee" is in the ergative case, and must come before the verb. However, when the object is a pronoun, the word for "employee" must take the absolutive case e.g.


{| class="wikitable"
|- 
| yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || d&#603;samas&#616;&#689;
|-
| employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)


Antarctican also permits the subjects of intransitive verbs to come after the verb, so the following sentence is also grammatical (and perhaps more common):


{| class="wikitable"
|- 
| daesamasùe || yuenpiluy   
|-
| d&#603;samas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam || employee-ABS
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)


<h4>Antipassive Voice</h4>


Antarctican has extremely productive antipassivisation ({{lg|Antipassive_voice}}). There are two infixes, which depend on whether the verb has perfective or imperfective aspect.


<h5>Perfective Antipassive</h5>

This is used for when the action described by the verb is not viewed as having any internal structure ({{lg|Perfective_aspect}}). It can be used for past, present or future actions e.g.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
| d&#616;tamas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
| <PFV.AP>scam || employee-ABS
|}
An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).


However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /&#616;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#740;/ and /&#600;&#740;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.


inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, indirect

ówsinyeli-aa /&#660;ou&#740;si&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, indirect, perfective antipassive


kiveliqewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, indirect

kówsiveli-ewn /kou&#740;si&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, indirect, perfective antipassive


'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect

'kówsátla /&#740;kou&#740;sa&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect, perfective antipassive


éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, indirect

ówséypyi-eey /&#660;ou&#740;sei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, indirect, perfective antipassive


<h5>Imperfective Antipassive</h5>

This is used for ongoing, habitual and repeated action ({{lg|Imperfective_aspect}}).


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| damamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
| damamas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
| <IMPV.AP>scam || employee-ABS
|}
An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).


<h4>Superordinate Voice</h4>

Like the antipassive, this also reduces a transitive verb's valency (the number of arguments it has, see here http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)) by one, and requires that its subject take the absolutive case. However, it requires some other verb to come afterwards to be subordinate to it e.g.


*`wùnnào /&#689;wu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689;/ - to want (something)
*'wátùnnào /&#740;wa&#740;tu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689;/ - to want (to do something / something to happen)


*chùun /cu&#720;&#740;&#628;/ - to fear (something)
*'cháetlùun /&#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628;/ - to fear (that something will happen)


So using the nouns below:

*yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ - employee, absolutive
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*sõwdlan - /s&#596;ud&#622;&#628;/ - soldier, ergative
*nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
*nayban /naiba&#628;/ - neighbour, ergative
*tõn /t&#596;&#628;/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
*tãn /t&#594;&#628;/ - change, ergative


We can say:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || `wùnnào || tõn
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#689;wu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689; || t&#596;&#628;
|-
| employee-ERG || want || change-ABS
|}
An employee wants change.


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiluy || 'wátùnnào || sõwdla || damasùe
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || &#740;wa&#740;tu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
| employee-ABS || <SPR>want || soldier-ABS || scam
|}
An employee wants to scam a soldier.


Note that in the second sentence, the case for the word "employee" has changed from ergative to absolutive. And since Antarctican allows nouns in the absolutive case to also come after the verb, the following sentences would also be grammatical, and all mean roughly the same thing:


'wátùnnào yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe

yuenpiloy 'wátùnnào damasùe sõwdla

'wátùnnào yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla


Similarly, using the verb meaning "to fear", we can say:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || chùun || sõwdla
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || cu&#720;&#740;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
|-
| employee-ERG || fear || soldier-ABS
|}
The employee fears the soldier

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetlùun || sõwdla || damasùe 
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear || soldier-ABS || scam
|}
The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.


The words in this sentence can be ordered in the same fashion as before.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetliqiin || sõwdlan || damasùe 
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear || soldier-ERG || scam
|}
The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.


Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").


<h4>Reciprocal Voice</h4>

One other voice that needs to be mentioned here is the reciprocal voice. This carries to meaning of "to do to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb base e.g.


wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want, indirect

wowonnye /wowo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want each other, indirect


darakòe /da&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover, direct

dadarakòe /dada&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover each other, direct


shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, indirect

shueshuetinju /&#231;&#616;&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count each other, indirect


However, the reduplicated syllable cannot contain a long vowel, a diphthong, or the placeless nasal /&#628;/. If the first syllable of the verb base contains any of these, then it is truncated e.g.


ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), indirect

ziziitlàoji /zizi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know each other, indirect


yinwùumùe /ji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn in, direct

yiyinwùumùe /jiji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn each other in, direct


kaaeykyu /k&#603;&#720;i&k#690;u/ - to sell, indirect

kaekaaeykyu /k&#603;k&#603;&#720;ik&#690;u/ - to sell each other, indirect


The reduplicated syllable has whatever floating phonation is at the start of the word e.g.


'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect

'kákátla /&#740;ka&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make each other's acquaintance, indirect


This may not be the same phonation as is on the first syllable of the word e.g.


'kamyu /&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate (someone's ego), indirect

'kákamyu /&#740;ka&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate each other('s ego), indirect


'kaypùe /&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape, direct

'kákaypùe /&#740;ka&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape each other, direct


Any changes to vowel quality that happen because of vowel phonation changes, also happen here e.g.


'puytlù /&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight, direct

'póyputlu /&#740;poi&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight with each other, direct


As well as all the other regular vowel quality changes that happen when a noun takes a prefix e.g.


hali /&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect

haehali /&#967;&#603;&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect


As with reciprocal possession, a few verbs have irregular forms in the reciprocal voice e.g.


ràorùe /&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, direct

haràorùe /&#967;a&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist each other, transitive, direct


Generally, if a noun has an irregular reciprocal possessive form, then any verbs derived from it will also have irregular reciprocal voice forms e.g.


wùeròen /w&#616;&#689;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - friend, absolutive

fiwùeròen /fiw&#616;&#689;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - friends (of each other), absolutive


wòenzi /w&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend, direct

fiwòenzi /fiw&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend each other, direct


These irregularities happen for the same reason in reciprocal verbs as they do in reciprocal nouns, namely because there is an underlying initial consonant that changes form to something else because it is before a vowel with breathy voice or tense voice (which prohibit some consonants from coming before it). However, if there is modal floating phonation, then the underlying forms can resurface in the reduplication.


<h3>Pronominal Subject Prefixes</h3>

Instead of using pronouns to indicate subject, Antarctican uses prefixes on verbs. Which prefix is used depends on the tense of the verb (normally unmarked). They do not inflect for number. They are listed in the table below:


{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future
|-
| 1PS Exclusive || uy || omyi || ow
|-
| 1PS Inclusive || chi || we|| wi
|-
| 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
|-
| 3PS || zay || ze || zaw
|-
| Who / What || wu || hew || ri
|}


Note that, for habitual actions in the present, the past tense is used. Also the present tense is used for imminent actions in the future (where English might use "about to").


===Emphatic Forms===

All of the pronomnial affixes have emphatic forms that are generated by lengthening the vowel e.g.


chisàon-gùe /cis&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you bleed, indirect

chiisàon-gùe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you (emphatic) bleed, indirect


This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.


pyõhli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you, indirect

pyõohli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#720;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you (emphatic), indirect

<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Antarctican]]