7,018
edits
Af Mexee: Difference between revisions
→Negation Particles
(→Number) |
|||
| (20 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
| Line 247: | Line 247: | ||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. --> | <!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. --> | ||
Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or | Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or polyphthong. | ||
The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: ''m, n, l,'' and ''r''. | The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: ''m, n, l,'' and ''r''. | ||
The consonants '' ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n,'' and ''h'' occur syllable-finally. The consonants ''p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m'' and ''ny'' cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for ''t'', ''k'', and ''m''). They undergo the following neutralizations: | The consonants '' ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n,'' and ''h'' occur syllable-finally. The consonants ''p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m'' and ''ny'' cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for ''t'', ''k'', and ''m''). They undergo the following neutralizations: | ||
*''p'' → ''b'' | *''p'' → ''b'', sometimes ''w'' | ||
*''t, th'' → ''d'' | *''t, th'' → ''d'' | ||
*''k, gh'' → ''g'' | *''k, gh'' → ''g'' | ||
*''ny'' → ''yn'', sometimes ''y'' | *''ny'' → ''yn'', sometimes ''y'' | ||
* | *''m'' → ''n'' (except before ''m, b'') | ||
*''n, m'' → ''m'' (before ''b'') | *''n, m'' → ''m'' (before ''m, b'') | ||
*any geminated consonant → degeminated | |||
''J'' and ''dh'' may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with ''sh'' and ''r'' respectively. For example, ''xaj'' "Hajj", ''ogsaydh'' "oxide". Coda ''t'', ''k'', and ''m'' may also occur in non-native words, mostly of Arabic origin. In many cases, variants with the expected ''d'', ''g'', or ''n'' exist (but this applies less often for word-internal ''m''). For example, ''xikmad'' "wisdom" (also ''xigmad''), ''fitno'' "trial, temptation" (also ''fidno''), ''muslim'' "Muslim" (also ''muslin''), ''amni'' "safety, security" (NOT ''*anni''). | ''J'' and ''dh'' may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with ''sh'' and ''r'' respectively. For example, ''xaj'' "Hajj", ''ogsaydh'' "oxide". Coda ''t'', ''k'', and ''m'' may also occur in non-native words, mostly of Arabic origin. In many cases, variants with the expected ''d'', ''g'', or ''n'' exist (but this applies less often for word-internal ''m''). For example, ''xikmad'' "wisdom" (also ''xigmad''), ''fitno'' "trial, temptation" (also ''fidno''), ''muslim'' "Muslim" (also ''muslin''), ''amni'' "safety, security" (NOT ''*anni''). | ||
The consonants ''p'', ''th'', ''gh'', and ''ch'' do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic ''-b/w-'', ''-d/t-'', ''-g/k-'', and ''-lt-'' respectively (the modern intervocalic ''b'', ''d/t'', and ''g/k'' come from originally geminated consonants). In loanwords, ''p'' and ''gh'' are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ instead of the | The consonants ''p'', ''th'', ''gh'', and ''ch'' do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic ''-b/w-'', ''-d/t-'', ''-g/k-'', and ''-lt-'' respectively (the modern intervocalic ''-b-'', ''-d/t-'', and ''-g/k-'' come from originally geminated consonants). In loanwords, initial ''p'' and ''gh'' are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ (instead of the intervocalic /β/ and /ɣ/). | ||
Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, | Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, epenthetic consonants such as <i>'</i>, ''y'', and ''w'' are inserted. | ||
===Morphophonology=== | ===Morphophonology=== | ||
| Line 284: | Line 285: | ||
* ''k → h'' after final ''-a, e, o'' (which then assimilate to the following vowel) | * ''k → h'' after final ''-a, e, o'' (which then assimilate to the following vowel) | ||
*''k → gh'' after ''-aa, ee, oo'' | *''k → gh'' after ''-aa, ee, oo'' | ||
'''sh (causative)''' | |||
* ''sh + t → s'' | |||
* ''sh + n → nn'' (simplified to ''-n'' word-finally) | |||
'''s (middle causative)''' | '''s (middle causative)''' | ||
| Line 308: | Line 313: | ||
! Stressed !! Unstressed !! Subject<sup>1</sup> !! Object<sup>2</sup> !! + ún !! + ká !! + kú !! + lá | ! Stressed !! Unstressed !! Subject<sup>1</sup> !! Object<sup>2</sup> !! + ún !! + ká !! + kú !! + lá | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <center>1S</center> || <center>aní</center> || <center>an(i)</center> ||<center>an</center> || <center>i</center> || <center>kéy</center> || <center> | | <center>1S</center> || <center>aní</center> || <center>an(i)</center> ||<center>an</center> || <center>i</center> || <center>kéy</center> || <center>iín</center> || <center>iká</center> || <center>ikú</center> || <center>ilá</center> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <center>2S</center> || <center>athí</center> || <center>ad/athi</center> || <center>ad</center> || <center>ku</center> || <center>káa</center> || <center>kuún</center> || <center>koó</center> || <center>kukú</center> || <center>kulá</center> | | <center>2S</center> || <center>athí</center> || <center>ad/athi</center> || <center>ad</center> || <center>ku</center> || <center>káa</center> || <center>kuún</center> || <center>koó</center> || <center>kukú</center> || <center>kulá</center> | ||
| Line 358: | Line 363: | ||
There are two main genders: masculine and feminine. Plural and collective/mass nouns are considered masculine, but may be treated as a separate gender (especially because they take plural agreement). Double plurals are feminine. | There are two main genders: masculine and feminine. Plural and collective/mass nouns are considered masculine, but may be treated as a separate gender (especially because they take plural agreement). Double plurals are feminine. | ||
Nouns with a non-final high tone are often masculine, and nouns ending in ''- | Nouns with a non-final high tone are often masculine, and nouns ending in ''-o'' are most often feminine. However, these are not reliable rules but rather tendencies. Sometimes, the gender of words is distinguished solely by tone. This distinction is lost in the nominative and genitive cases. Of course, they still use different articles and verb forms. | ||
e.g. Absolutive: ''ínan(ki)'' "boy", ''inán(ti)'' "girl" | e.g. Absolutive: ''ínan(ki)'' "boy", ''inán(ti)'' "girl" | ||
:Nominative: ''inan(ki/ti)'' "boy/girl" | :Nominative: ''inan(ki/ti)'' "boy/girl" | ||
:Genitive: ''inán(ki/ti)'' "boy/girl" | :Genitive: ''inán(ki/ti)'' "boy/girl" | ||
:Vocative: ''ínan'' "boy/girl!", '' | :Vocative: ''ínan'' "boy/girl!", ''ínamów / ínanków / ínanyow'' "boy!", ''ináméy / inántéy / inányey'' "girl!" | ||
====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||
Plural is formed with ''-oóyn'' (definite: ''-oóyki'') or ''-yáal'' (definite: ''-yáalki''). When either of these endings is added to a noun, any high tones in the singular are dropped. The ending ''-yáal'' is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'', e.g. ''tuké'' "crow" → ''tukeyáal''. All other nouns take the ending ''-oóyn''. Note that both endings override any other high tones in the word. For feminine nouns ending in ''-o'', the ''-o'' becomes '' | Plural is formed with ''-oóyn'' (definite: ''-oóyki'') or ''-yáal'' (definite: ''-yáalki''). When either of these endings is added to a noun, any high tones in the singular are dropped. The ending ''-yáal'' is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'', e.g. ''tuké'' "crow" → ''tukeyáal''. All other nouns take the ending ''-oóyn''. Note that both endings override any other high tones in the word. For feminine nouns ending in ''-o'', the ''-o'' becomes ''-a-'' and an epenthetic ''-th-'' is added before the ending. For example, ''maghaaló'' "city" + ''-oóyn'' → ''maghaalathoóyn'' "cities". Masculine nouns assimilate an ''-o'' to the ending. | ||
Some words have a "short" plural (usually in ''-ó'', definite: ''-íhi'') in addition to the "long" plural in ''-oóyn/yáal''. In the case of body parts, the short plural is normally used when they belong to one person. | Some words have a "short" plural (usually in ''-ó'', definite: ''-íhi'') in addition to the "long" plural in ''-oóyn/yáal''. In the case of body parts, the short plural is normally used when they belong to one person. | ||
| Line 377: | Line 382: | ||
For other words, the short plural is most often used as a collective/mass noun or as a paucal. Short plurals are mostly relics of earlier plural formations, although some are analogical innovations. | For other words, the short plural is most often used as a collective/mass noun or as a paucal. Short plurals are mostly relics of earlier plural formations, although some are analogical innovations. | ||
There is also a double plural, used to emphasize the large number of something. This is formed with the suffix ''- | There is also a double plural, used to emphasize the large number of something. This is formed with the suffix ''-oónyo'' (definite: ''-oonyáthi'') or ''-yaálo'' (definite: ''-yaaláthi''), for ''-oóyn'' and ''-yáal'' nouns respectively. | ||
====Case==== | ====Case==== | ||
Af Mexee has absolutive, nominative, genitive, and vocative cases. Case is indicated primarily by tonation. Unless otherwise stated, tonation applies to the plural in the same way as the singular. Special rules apply to words with k/t determiners (see below). | Af Mexee has absolutive, nominative, genitive, and vocative cases. Case is indicated primarily by tonation. Unless otherwise stated, tonation applies to the plural in the same way as the singular. Special rules apply to words with k/t determiners (see below). | ||
*'''Absolutive''': The default citation form of a noun. If a high tone is present, feminine nouns often have it finally, while masculine nouns tend to have it penultimately. However, this is not a rule but only a general tendency. | *'''Absolutive''': The default citation form of a noun. If a high tone is present, feminine nouns often have it finally, while masculine nouns tend to have it penultimately. However, this is not a rule but only a general tendency. Feminine nouns ending in unaccented ''-o'' can shift their accent to the final vowel when occurring phrase-finally. | ||
*'''Nominative''': Formed by removing any high tones in the word. | *'''Nominative''': Formed by removing any high tones in the word. | ||
*'''Genitive''': Any high tones in the word are removed, and a high tone is added to the final syllable. | *'''Genitive''': Any high tones in the word are removed, and a high tone is added to the final syllable. | ||
| Line 389: | Line 394: | ||
**'''Tonal vocative''': Formed with a high tone in the initial mora (and no other high tones). Regardless of the regular plural suffix, the plural takes ''-(a)yaal''. | **'''Tonal vocative''': Formed with a high tone in the initial mora (and no other high tones). Regardless of the regular plural suffix, the plural takes ''-(a)yaal''. | ||
**'''Suffixed vocative''': Formed with a suffix. There are two types: "specific" and "general" vocatives. | **'''Suffixed vocative''': Formed with a suffix. There are two types: "specific" and "general" vocatives. | ||
***"Specific" vocatives: have high tone | ***"Specific" vocatives: have high tone (but do not affect those in the word). | ||
****Masculine: ''-ów'' (any final vowels are elided) | ****Masculine: ''-ów'' (any final vowels are elided) | ||
****Feminine: ''-éy'' (ending in consonant or ''-e'') / ''-óy'' (ending in ''-o'') / ''-áy'' (ending in ''-a'') | ****Feminine: ''-éy'' (ending in consonant or ''-e'') / ''-óy'' (ending in ''-o'') / ''-áy'' (ending in ''-a'') | ||
****Plural: ''-oónyów / -yáalów / -(a)yáalów'' | ****Plural: ''-oónyów / -yáalów / -(a)yáalów'' | ||
***"General" vocatives: | ***"General" vocatives: have low tone. These cannot be used with definite or proper nouns. | ||
****Masculine: ''-yow'' (corresponds to Af Maxaa ''-yohow'') | ****Masculine: ''-yow'' (corresponds to Af Maxaa ''-yohow'') | ||
****Feminine: ''-yey'' (corresponds to Af Maxaa ''-yahay'') | ****Feminine: ''-yey'' (corresponds to Af Maxaa ''-yahay'') | ||
| Line 431: | Line 436: | ||
====Negation Particles==== | ====Negation Particles==== | ||
The negation particles are ''mâ, an, hâ,'' and ''yâa''. Each of these serves a different function. | The negation particles are ''mâ, an, hâ,'' and ''yâa''. Each of these serves a different function. | ||
*''mâ'' is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. ''má | *''mâ'' is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. ''má qapo'' "I do not have". It can combine to clitic subject pronouns: | ||
**''mâ'' + ''an(an)'' → ''mâan(an)'' (for ''(an)'', see the next point) | **''mâ'' + ''an(an)'' → ''mâan(an)'' (for ''(an)'', see the next point) | ||
**''mâ'' + ''ad/athan'' → ''mâad/máathan'' | **''mâ'' + ''ad/athan'' → ''mâad/máathan'' | ||
| Line 447: | Line 452: | ||
**''an'' is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ''ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin'' "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, ''an'' prefers clause-initial position (although something like ''ninkii af soomaali <b>an</b> aqiin'' would not be incorrect). | **''an'' is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ''ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin'' "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, ''an'' prefers clause-initial position (although something like ''ninkii af soomaali <b>an</b> aqiin'' would not be incorrect). | ||
*''hâ'' is used in the negative imperative. e.g. ''ha bíxin'' "don't leave". | *''hâ'' is used in the negative imperative. e.g. ''ha bíxin'' "don't leave". | ||
*''yâa'' is used to negate the jussive. e.g. ''yá usan bíxin'' "don't let him leave". Like ''mâ'', ''yâa'' can combine with clitic subjects (it does so in the same manner as ''wâa''). e.g. '' | *''yâa'' is used to negate the jussive. e.g. ''yá usan bíxin'' "don't let him leave". Like ''mâ'', ''yâa'' can combine with clitic subjects (it does so in the same manner as ''wâa''). e.g. ''yóosan bíxin''. | ||
====Focus Particles==== | ====Focus Particles==== | ||
Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are ''wâa'', ''wixi'', '' | Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are ''wâa'', ''wixi'', ''yaa'', ''âa'' and their interrogative equivalents (more may be added later). | ||
*''wâa'' optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It puts emphasis on the verb. | *''wâa'' optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It puts emphasis on the verb. | ||
:e.g. ''ninki bixi'' "the man left"; ''ninki <b>wáa</b> bixi'' "the man ''left''" | :e.g. ''ninki bixi'' "the man left"; ''ninki <b>wáa</b> bixi'' "the man ''left''" | ||
| Line 484: | Line 489: | ||
*''yaa'' (not to be confused with the negative particle ''yâa'') put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized. Unlike the negative particle ''yâa'', the following verb is in the indicative. | *''yaa'' (not to be confused with the negative particle ''yâa'') put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized. Unlike the negative particle ''yâa'', the following verb is in the indicative. | ||
:e.g. ''ninki <b>yaa</b> qálinki qaathi''/''qálinki ninki <b>yaa</b> qaathi'' "''the man'' took the pen" | :e.g. ''ninki <b>yaa</b> qálinki qaathi''/''qálinki ninki <b>yaa</b> qaathi'' "''the man'' took the pen" | ||
:*The interrogative equivalent of ''yaa'' is ''mâ'' - '' | :*The interrogative equivalent of ''yaa'' is ''mâ'' - ''yaa'' (i.e. ''yaa'' is kept and the noun is preceded by ''ma''). | ||
::e.g. ''<b>ma</b> nínki <b>yaa</b> qálinki qaathi?'' "did ''the man'' take the pen?" (or "did the pen take ''the man''?) | ::e.g. ''<b>ma</b> nínki <b>yaa</b> qálinki qaathi?'' "did ''the man'' take the pen?" (or "did the pen take ''the man''?) | ||
:*''yaa'' can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as ''wâa''. | :*''yaa'' can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as ''wâa''. | ||