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| |'''Lenition of the velar plosive */k/''' to a new consonant, */x/ [x] (probably [h] in some environments) — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðaxis > ''fais'' | | |'''Lenition of the velar plosive */k/''' to a new consonant, */x/ [x] (probably [h] in some environments) — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðaxis > ''fais'' |
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| |'''Hiatus epenthesis'''. The epentheme is */n/ if at least one of the vowels is */a/, unless there is a neighboring */n/ already present, in which case it is instead */j/. Otherwise, a new consonant, */w/, breaks the hiatus. | | |'''*/ɔe/ > */ɔj/; */eɔ/ > */jɔ/''' — *teɸnɔe "speech, language" > *tepɔj > ''tepōi'' "language"; *leɔ "that" > *ljɔ > ''liō'' "(s)he/it, this/that" |
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| |'''Loss of [[laryngeal]]s''', phonemicising the [[allophone]]s of {{PIE|/e/}}: | | |'''Hiatus epenthesis'''. The epentheme is */n/ if at least one of the vowels is */a/ and neither is */u/, unless there is a neighboring */n/ already present, in which case it is instead */j/. Otherwise, a new consonant, */w/, breaks the hiatus: |
| * Word-initial laryngeals are lost before a consonant — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₁dóntm̥}} "tooth, acc." > {{PIE|*dóntum}} > {{PIE|*tanþų}}}} | | * */VV/ > */VnV/ — *ð-a-ɔ-m-sats "in the perspective of going towards" > *ðanɔmsats > ''falusats'' "hello (polite)" |
| * Laryngeals are lost before vowels:
| | * */VV/ > */VjV/ — *nɔam "we (inclusive or dual)" > *nɔjam > ''nōiav'' "we (inclusive)" |
| ** {{PIE|/h₁V/}} > {{PIE|/V/}} — {{PIE|*h₁ésti}} "is" > {{PIE|*ésti}} > {{PIE|*isti}}
| | * */VV/ > */VwV/ — *aue "you (plural)" > *awuwe > ''avuve'' |
| ** {{PIE|/h₂e/}} > {{PIE|/a/}}, {{PIE|/h₂V/}} > {{PIE|/V/}} otherwise — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₂énti}} "in front" > (with shift of accent) {{PIE|*antí}} > {{PIE|*andi}} "in addition"}}
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| ** {{PIE|/h₃e/}} > {{PIE|/o/}}, {{PIE|/h₃V/}} > {{PIE|/V/}} otherwise — {{PIE|*h₃érō}} "eagle" > {{PIE|*órô}} > {{PIE|*arô}} | |
| * Laryngeals are lost after vowels, but lengthen the preceding vowel: {{PIE|/VH/}} > {{PIE|/Vː/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*séh₁mō}} "seeds" > {{PIE|*sēmô}} > {{PIE|*sēmô}}}} | |
| ** Two vowels that come to stand in [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] because of this change contract into an overlong vowel — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*-oHom}} "dative plural" > {{PIE|*-ôm}} > {{PIE|*-ǫ̂}}; {{PIE|*-eh₂es}} "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > {{PIE|*-âs}} > {{PIE|*-ôz}}}}
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| ** In word-final position, the resulting long vowels remain distinct from (shorter than) the overlong vowels that were formed from PIE word-final long vowels — {{PIE|*-oh₂}} "thematic 1st sg." > {{PIE|*-ō}}
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| * Laryngeals remain between consonants.
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| |'''[[Cowgill's law]]''': {{PIE|/h₃/}} (and possibly {{PIE|/h₂/}}) is strengthened to {{PIE|/g/}} between a sonorant and {{PIE|/w/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*n̥h₃mé}} "us two" > {{PIE|*n̥h₃wé}} > {{PIE|*ungwé}} > {{PIE|*unk}}}} | | |'''Merging of */j/ to */i/''' |
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| |'''Vocalisation of remaining laryngeals''': {{PIE|/H/}} > {{PIE|/ə/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*ph₂tḗr}} "father" > {{PIE|*pətḗr}} > {{PIE|*fadēr}}; {{PIE|*sámh₂dʰos}} "sand" > {{PIE|*sámədʰos}} > {{PIE|*samdaz}}}} | | |In closed syllables, and when permitted by phonotactics, the '''reduction of the diphthong */iɔ/ into */iw/''' |
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| |'''Velars are labialised''' by following {{PIE|/w/}}: {{PIE|*éḱwos}} "horse" > {{PIE|*ékwos}} > {{PIE|*ékʷos}} > {{PIE|*ehwaz}} | | |'''Appearance of the closed vowel''', phonemicising the reduced, nasal [[allophone]] */ɵ/ of */ɔ/ between nasal consonants — *ð-a-ɔ-m-sats "in the perspective of going towards" > *ðanɵmsats > ''falusats'' "hello (polite)" |
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| |'''Labiovelars are delabialised''' next to {{PIE|/u/}} (or {{PIE|/un/}}) and before {{PIE|/t/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*gʷʰénti-}} ~ {{PIE|*gʷʰn̥tí-}} "killing" > {{PIE|*gʷʰúntis}} > {{PIE|*gʰúntis}} > {{PIE|*gunþiz}} "battle"}}
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| *This rule continued to operate into the Proto-Germanic period.
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| |} | | |} |
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