Chlouvānem/Morphology

Chlouvānem is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles. Throughout the page there will be references to the topics treated in the pages on Chlouvānem syntax, positional and motion verbs, and exterior and interior verbs.

Nouns (halenī)

→ See Lahob languages § Morphology for diachronical tables and comparisons with sister languages.

The Chlouvānem noun (haloe, pl. halenī) is highly inflected - it declines for:


• Three numbers:

Singular (emibausire smoḍūm)

Dual (danyausire smoḍūm)

Plural (tailyausire smoḍūm)

• Twelve cases:


Direct (daradhūkire dirūnnevya)

Vocative (halausire dirūnnevya)


Accusative (dṛṣokire dirūnnevya)

Ergative (darinūkire dirūnnevya)

Genitive (cārūkire dirūnnevya)


Translative (najamarcūkire dirūnnevya)


Exessive (nenijamarcūkire dirūnnevya)

Essive (jalausire dirūnnevya)

Dative (męlyausire dirūnnevya)

Ablative (tųlunūkire dirūnnevya)

Locative (yuñcūkire dirūnnevya)

Instrumental (drausire dirūnnevya)

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. hærūm lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. chlǣvānem, which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to lila (person), e.g. chlǣvānumi lila (a Chlouvānem).

Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms. There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as s-, m-, or h-nouns.

S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī

There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental. In the plural, the exessive and ablative also share the same form, as do the essive plural and the ergative dual.

1-s (-as, -ās, -o¹)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	prātas "wind"	prātāt	prāte
Vocative	prātau
Accusative	prātu	prātāṣa	prataih
Ergative	prātei	prātāya	prātān
Genitive	prāti	prāteva	prātumi
Translative	prātan	prātaus	prātāmān
Exessive	prātat	prātābhan	prātenīs
Essive	prātą	prātigin	prātāya
Dative	prātom	prātaus	prātasām
Ablative	prātų	prātābhan	prātenīs
Locative	prāte	prātigin	prātilīm
Instrumental	prātap	prātābhan	prātenīka

2-s (-us, -ūs)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	haɂrus "squid"	haɂrūt	haɂraus
Vocative	haɂru
Accusative	haɂravu	haɂrūṣa	haɂravih
Ergative	haɂrave	haɂrūya	haɂrūn
Genitive	haɂravi	haɂragva	haɂrǣmi
Translative	haɂrun	haɂrugus	haɂromān
Exessive	haɂrut	haɂrobhan	haɂruṇīs2
Essive	haɂrą	haɂrugin	haɂrūya
Dative	haɂravom	haɂrugus	haɂrusām
Ablative	haɂrų	haɂrobhan	haɂruṇīs2
Locative	haɂrave	haɂrugin	haɂrulīm
Instrumental	haɂrup	haɂrobhan	haɂruṇīka2

3-s (-is, -īs)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	ḍhogis "monument"	ḍhogīt	ḍhogais
Vocative	ḍhogi
Accusative	ḍhogayu	ḍhogīṣa	ḍhogaih
Ergative	ḍhogaye	ḍhogīya	ḍhogīn
Genitive	ḍhogayi	ḍhogajña	ḍhogyumi
Translative	ḍhogin	ḍhogigus	ḍhogemān
Exessive	ḍhogit	ḍhogebhan	ḍhogenīs
Essive	ḍhogę	ḍhogigin	ḍhogīya
Dative	ḍhogayom	ḍhogigus	ḍhogisām
Ablative	ḍhogyų	ḍhogebhan	ḍhogenīs
Locative	ḍhogaye	ḍhogigin	ḍhogilīm
Instrumental	ḍhogip	ḍhogebhan	ḍhoginīka

Table notes:

1. Mostly toponyms of Toyubeshian origin (e.g. Paramito).
2. The ending is -unīs/-unīka; the n → ṇ shift is a case of regular saṃdhi.

Also note that modern borrowings ending in [s] typically add a further case ending, e.g. Skyrdagor valtasz (nunatak) becomes Chlouvānem valtasas (same meaning), declining as valtasau, valtasu, valtasei...

M- and N-nouns - Mamą naną no lā halenī

1-m (-am, -ām, (-an, -ān, -en, -ēn))

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	yujam "lotus"	yujivā	yujāk
Vocative
Accusative	yujamu	yujmes	yujmaih
Ergative	yujmæ	yujmyan	yujamūn
Genitive	yujami	yujmeva	yujaṃrān
Translative	yujaman	yujmį	yujamān
Exessive	yujamat	yujabhan	yujmenīs
Essive	yujmą	yujmenne	yujmyan
Dative	yujamom	yujmį	yujaṃsām
Ablative	yujamų	yujabhan	yujmenīs
Locative	yujaṃrye	yujmenne	yujmilīm
Instrumental	yujamap	yujabhan	yujaṃrīka

2-m (-um, -ūm, (-un, -ūn))

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	tūlum "worm"	tūlvivā	tūlūk
Vocative	tūlve
Accusative	tūlumu	tūlves	tūluyih
Ergative	tūluga	tūlvyan	tūlumūn
Genitive	tūlumi	tūlveva	tūluṃrān
Translative	tūluman	tūlvį	tūlumān
Exessive	tūlumat	tūlubhan	tūlvenīs
Essive	tūlų	tūlunne	tūlvyan
Dative	tūlumom	tūlvį	tūluṃsām
Ablative	tūlumų	tūlubhan	tūlvenīs
Locative	tūluṃrye	tūlunne	tūlulīm
Instrumental	tūlumap	tūlubhan	tūluṃrīka

3-m (-im, -īm, (-in, -īn))

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	jāyim "girl"	jāyīvā	jāyīk
Vocative	jāyī
Accusative	jāyimu	jājñes1	jāyīh
Ergative	jājña1	jāyiyan	jāyimūn
Genitive	jāyimi	jājñeva1	jāyiṃran
Translative	jāyiman	jāyį	jāyimān
Exessive	jāyimat	jāyibhan	jājñenīs1
Essive	jāyį	jāyinne	jāyiyan
Dative	jāyimom	jāyį	jāyiṃsam
Ablative	jāyimų	jāyibhan	jājñenīs1
Locative	jāyiṃrye	jāyinne	jāyilīm
Instrumental	jāyimap	jāyibhan	jāyiṃrīka

1-m (n-paradigm)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	lilvan "sash, belt"	lilvivā	lilvan
Vocative
Accusative	lilvanu	lilunes2	lilunaih2
Ergative	lilunæ2	lilunyan2	lilvanūn
Genitive	lilvani	liluneva2	lilvaṃrān
Translative	lilvanan	lilunį2	lilvanān
Exessive	lilvanat	lilvabhan	lilunenīs2
Essive	liluną2	lilunenne2	lilunyan2
Dative	lilvanom	lilunį2	lilvaṃsām
Ablative	lilvanų	lilvabhan	lilunenīs2
Locative	lilvaṃrye	lilunenne2	lilunilīm2
Instrumental	lilvanap	lilvabhan	lilvaṃrīka

The n-paradigms follow the exact same rules as the corresponding m- ones, with the exception of having the direct plural identical to the singular. All other inflections (including the dual) are the same as the other nouns. Thus e.g. samin may be either child or children, and it is usually the verb that marks the number - compare samin mālchē "the kid runs" and samin mālchāhai "the kids run". They are de facto undistinguishable out of context in forms where singular and plural have the same verb form, e.g. in the perfect - samin amālcha can mean either "the kid has run" or "the kids have run" depending on context.

The noun yaltan (the currency of the Chlouvānem Inquisition) has, outside of legal texts, an irregularity in the exessive singular, being yaltat instead of yaltanat (the latter, regular form is used in very formal styles). This shortening arose in one of its most common uses, the exessive case used to state an amount paid, as in e.g. māmei yalta(na)t ulgutaṃte "I bought it for twelve yaltan."

Table notes:

1. Such forms with -jñ- are underlyingly -y-y- (e.g. jāy-y-es → jājñes).
2. This stem is the result of regular saṃdhi, i.e. *lilvn- → lilun-.

H-nouns - Hahą lā halenī

1-h (-a, -ā, (-ah, -āh))

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	māra "mango"	mārāt	mārai
Vocative	māre
Accusative	māru	mārāṣa	māraih
Ergative	mārei	mārāra	mārān
Genitive	māri1	māreva	mārumi
Translative	māran	mārarį	māremān
Exessive	mārat	mārabhan	mārenīs
Essive	māręs	māranne	mārāra
Dative	mārom	mārarį	māresām
Ablative	mārų	mārabhan	mārenīs
Locative	māre	māranne	mārelīm
Instrumental	mārap	mārabhan	mārenīka

2-h (-ē, -eh, -ǣh²)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	javileh "apple"	javilyāt	javilyai
Vocative	javilei
Accusative	javilyu	javilēṣa	javileih
Ergative	javilei	javilyāra	javilyān
Genitive	javili	javileva3	javilyumi
Translative	javilen	javilerį	javilemān
Exessive	javilet	javilebhan	javilenīs
Essive	javilęs	javilenne	javilyāra
Dative	javilyom	javilerį	javilesām
Ablative	javilių	javilebhan	javilenīs
Locative	javilye	javilenne	javilelīm
Instrumental	javilep	javilebhan	javilenīka

3-h (-uh, -ūh, -u⁴)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	ñaɂuh "fruit skin"	ñaɂūt	ñaɂūvi
Vocative	ñaɂū
Accusative	ñaɂunu	ñaɂūṣa	ñaɂuyih
Ergative	ñaɂuyei	ñaɂura	ñaɂun
Genitive	ñaɂuyi	ñaɂuva	ñaɂūmi
Translative	ñaɂun	ñaɂurį	ñaɂumān
Exessive	ñaɂut	ñaɂubhan	ñaɂunīs
Essive	ñaɂųs	ñaɂunne	ñaɂura
Dative	ñaɂuvom	ñaɂurį	ñaɂusām
Ablative	ñaɂųu	ñaɂubhan	ñaɂunīs
Locative	ñaɂuve	ñaɂunne	ñaɂulīm
Instrumental	ñaɂup	ñaɂubhan	ñaɂunīka

4-m (-ih, -īh, -i⁵)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	ghārṭih "arrow"	ghārṭīt	ghārṭeyi
Vocative	ghārṭī
Accusative	ghārṭyu	ghārṭīṣa	ghārṭeyih
Ergative	ghārṭyei	ghārṭira	ghārṭin
Genitive	ghārṭīyi	ghārṭiva	ghārṭyumi
Translative	ghārṭin	ghārṭirį	ghārṭimān
Exessive	ghārṭit	ghārṭibhan	ghārṭinīs
Essive	ghārṭįs	ghārṭinne	ghārṭira
Dative	ghārṭyom	ghārṭirį	ghārṭisām
Ablative	ghārṭyų	ghārṭibhan	ghārṭinīs
Locative	ghārṭye	ghārṭinne	ghārṭilīm
Instrumental	ghārṭip	ghārṭibhan	ghārṭinīka

1-h (h-paradigm)

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	raiṇah "(piece of) cloth"	raiṇāt	raiṇai
Vocative	raiṇe
Accusative	raiṇu	raiṇāṣa	raiṇaih
Ergative	raiṇei	raiṇāra	raiṇān
Genitive	raiṇi1	raiṇeva	raiṇumi
Translative	raiṇan	raiṇarį	raiṇamān
Exessive	raiṇat	raiṇabhan	raiṇenīs
Essive	raiṇęs	raiṇanne	raiṇāra
Dative	raiṇom	raiṇarį	raiṇasām
Ablative	raiṇų	raiṇabhan	raiṇanīs
Locative	raiṇe	raiṇanne	raiṇalīm
Instrumental	raiṇap	raiṇabhan	raiṇanīka

The h-paradigm used by nouns in -ah and -āh is substantially identical to the regular 1-h one, except for the exessive, dative, ablative, locative, and instrumental plural which have -a- instead of -e- as a linking vowel and, for some nouns, the genitive singular (see table note 1).

Table notes:

1. -ya, and -yā nouns form the genitive singular in -ei (e.g. lalyā "night" → lalei). Nouns in -yah, and -yāh, however, have the regular ending (e.g. yamyah "fog" → yamyi).
2. All -ǣh nouns are of Lällshag origin, and are mostly toponyms (like Laikunanǣh), with some exceptions like the two lunar days kælyaunænǣh and yeicapænǣh. Note that such nouns have their genitive singular in -ǣyi and not in -ī.
3. In older texts -eiva (e.g. javileiva), today only used in literature for an archaïzing effect or to mark a character speaking with a Northern Plain pronunciation (where this form survives in the spoken language).
4. Mostly regional Western words of Dabuke origin.
5. Non-productive with borrowings, but common in native words.

Special declensions

Ablaut declension

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	lila "person"	lilāt	lelyē
Vocative
Accusative	lilu	lilāṣa	lelyu
Ergative	lilei	lilāra	lelyei
Genitive	leli	lileva	laili
Translative	lilan	lilarį	lelyan
Exessive	lilat	lilabhan	lelyat
Essive	liląs	lilanne	lailąs
Dative	lilom	lilarį	lelyom
Ablative	lilų	lilabhan	lelyų
Locative	lile	lilanne	laile
Instrumental	lilap	lilabhan	lelyap

-oe declension

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	haloe "name"	halenāt	halenī
Vocative
Accusative	halenu	halenāṣa	halenaih
Ergative	halenei	halenāya	halenān
Genitive	halenyes	halemva	haloemi
Translative	halenan	halenaus	haloemān
Exessive	halenat	haloebhan	haloenīs
Essive	halen	haloegin	halenāya
Dative	halenom	halenaus	haloesām
Ablative	halenų	haloebhan	haloenīs
Locative	halenye	haloegin	halenilīm
Instrumental	halenap	haloebhan	haloenīka

-ai declension

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Direct	lunai "tea"	lunaiva	lunāye
Vocative
Accusative	lunāyu	lunāyes	lunāyaih
Ergative	lunǣ	lunāyēn	lunāyūn
Genitive	lunāyi	lunaiva	lunāyān
Translative	lunain	lunāyį	lunaimān
Exessive	lunait	lunaibhan	lunǣnīs
Essive	lunąis	lunainne	lunāyēn
Dative	lunāyom	lunāyį	lunaisām
Ablative	lunāyų	lunaibhan	lunǣnīs
Locative	lunāye	lunainne	lunailīm
Instrumental	lunaip	lunaibhan	lunainīka

The ablaut declension is in the singular (except for the vocative and essive) and dual the same as the 1-h one, including the -ei rule for the genitive singular (e.g. rinya "ceiling", gen.sg. renei), except for the fact that the genitive singular has a middle-grade vowel. The plural has mostly the same endings as the singular but with middle-grade vowels in most forms (genitive, essive, and locative have a higher-grade one). -y- is inserted between the stem and the ending, but not for nouns ending in -ya (rinya → renyē).
The vowel that undergoes ablaut is usually the penultimate (e.g. plušamila "Office of the Inquisition", plural plušamelyē), but in some cases it's the first (e.g. kimeda (a type of panther), plural kemedyē).

Irregular plurals

A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:

• The word chlǣvānem itself is plural-only and irregular; direct and vocative are in -em, but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative chlǣvānānu, ergative chlǣvānān, genitive chlǣvānumi);
• maila “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where mailāt is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural mailtvąa. It declines as a singular 1h noun, with two exceptions, namely accusative in -ąu instead of expected *-ahu and genitive in -ąi instead of expected *-ahi. This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. taili mailtvahe hilælulke, lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).
  The -tvąa semantic plural is also used for the word damītah when used for "petals" (damītvąa; the meaning of "nails" has the regular plural damītai), and lairē (lairtvąa, which does not mean "skies" but "galaxy").
• resan "pig" and liken "arm" both have irregular plurals with vowel change: ryasan and læcin respectively.
• ås "ford, crossing of a small river" has the stem av- in all pre-vocalic forms (e.g. plural ave).
• švas "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as švai, as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.
• There are some pluralia tantum: pārāk “hair”, kāraṇḍhai “guts”, also agṇyaucai “sons and daughters”, aryai "square", katanai "clutter", vailašaus "cutlery", šūlyakāše "dishes", and all ethnonyms.
  • Some pluralia tantum are the plural forms of nouns with other (usually related) meanings - when they are used as semantic plurals, they're counted with cardinal numerals (and are singular); when they are used as pluralia tantum, with collective numerals (and are plural). Examples are hamvyenī "nursery" (hamvyoe "cradle"), įsmirte "playground" (įsmirtas "swing"), nacai "clothes" (naca "cloth"), garaṇai "clock, watch" (garaṇa "hour"), lairtvąa "galaxy" (lairē "sky").
    • This is often used in poetry, with words like mešanāt "eyes" - dual of mešanah "view". In many set phrases, læcin "arms" is used with the meaning of "work, effort".
  • Many toponyms in the Inquisition and a few ones abroad are only ever used in the plural. Island groups are an obvious example, but this also includes descriptive names of dioceses such as Vīdhyašaṇṭrē ("regions of the Vīdhyai"), Samvālšaṇṭrē (lit. "the Western Regions"), and many cities even with originally non-Chlouvānem names such as Kašikanye (episcopal seat of Saṃhayolah), Rīkalīnai (episcopal seat of Dārṭijātia), or Kareñjoklai (episcopal seat of Yūgarthāma).
• A few nouns are singularia tantum: hærṣūs “lips”, maula “breasts”, kanai “spices”, paɂeh “dust”, nāmvāvi “dust (made by crushing something)”, narmis “ash”, ñailūh “ice”; lāsīm "cereals" (individual terms for cereals may have duals and plurals meaning "two/more varieties of ..."), mæchlišam "leafy greens", mæcichā "spinach", and bågras "legumes" with all types of legumes (dīlla "peas", mahīra "lentils", miltai "soybeans"...)
• Dvandva compounds are usually all dual and pluralizable - like yāṇḍamaišñukivā “genitals”, or also many dyadic kinship terms (e.g. maihāmeināt “daughter and mother”) - but some of them are inherently “singular” and therefore are dual only, like lillamurḍhyāyunyāt (how some philosophical Yunyalīlti currents refer to the yunya “nature” and the lillamurḍhyā “natural harmony” as two aspects of the same thing).
• Toponyms (except inherently dual or plural ones), personal names, and miscellaneous things that are semantically only singular (like many Yunyalīlti concepts, e.g. yunya or lillamurḍhyā) are found exclusively in the singular.

Irregular vocatives

Five very common words have common, irregular, vocative forms:

• ñæltah "(male's) sister" — ñæli or ñæl
• glūkam "(female's) brother" — galū
• meinā "mother" — mā or mē
• bunā "father" — bā or vā
• udhyāras "Comrade" — udhyā (rarely udhyār)

Use of the plural

Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:

• Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, dani (two), which they can also be dual after), sora (some), læti (any), gu (no), guviṣam (no other), taili (many, much), nanū (more), kaili (most), and ṣubha (few, little).
  • After yaiva, the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": yaiva kita "every house", yaiva kitai "all houses".
• When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. dvārma læjlęs virā "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. læjlai mæn dvārma virā "the chairs are in the room".
• When referring to a single person, dhāna (hand), mešīn (eye), and minnūlya (ear), and often also junai (foot) (more rarely for pājya (leg) and liken (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. nanau mešīp mešute "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
• junyoe (indoor slippers), rapūda ((thick) shoes), mæska (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is varṇaigīk (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.

Verbs (daradhaus)

Main article: Chlouvānem verbs

The Chlouvānem verb (daradhūs, pl. daradhaus) is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.

Pronouns

Chlouvānem has a series of pronouns which are irregular when compared to other nouns, yet they follow a mostly similar pattern among themselves. As with nouns and adjectives, in Chlouvānem there is mostly no difference between possessive and demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. Note that pronouns here are defined as a morphological category, as there are many pronominal locutions or nouns acting as pronouns in the Chlouvānem honorific system, as well as nouns standing for pronouns, both in formal and extremely informal speech.

Standard Chlouvānem as spoken today uses the following morphological pronouns (not including those that follow nominal inflection):

• 1st person lili (sg.), lenak (dual), and mųmā (pl.).
• 2nd person informal sāmi (sg.) and sanak (dual).
• 2nd person formal superior nami (sg.; also used for 2nd plural, both informal and formal generic) and nanak (dual).

• 2nd person formal equal tami (sg.) and tanak (dual).
• 2nd person formal inferior ravi (sg.) and raṇak (dual).
• Reflexive demi (mandatory for 3rd person, commonly used also for 1st and 2nd).

The pronouns doubling as adjectives are:

• The demonstratives, all declining for case; there are 33 different forms depending on distance and position in space; nenē (proximal), nunū (medial), and nanā (distal) being the least marked ones, even though they may imply "ahead" if used to disambiguate from others.
• The possessives, which are also the genitive forms of pronouns: lilyā, ilayā, muṣyā, sāmyā, isayā, namyā, innayā, tamyā, ittayā, ravyā, irayā, demyā, (yanyā).

Among younger speakers in some areas the Jade Coast, most notably in Līlasuṃghāṇa, Taitepamba, and Kūmanabūruh, demonstratives and possessives, when used attributively, are not inflected at all, e.g. lili nanā phēcamu mišau "I saw that cat" instead of standard lili nanau phēcamu mišau.

In addition, yani is an emphatic pronoun not properly part of common speech (demi is used instead) but sometimes found in high style. Archaic Chlouvānem had a demonstrative series consisting of proximal ami, medial uteni, and distal āteni, which declined in use throughout Classical times, when they were replaced by the newer nenē — nunū — nanā forms.

ami is still used regionally around the mid-course of the Nīmbaṇḍhāra (an area in the Central Plain: roughly the whole of the diocese of Raharjaiṭa, most of Jolenītra, Daikatorāma, Vādhātorama, and Namapleta, and parts of Mūrajātana, Perelkaša, Ryogiñjaiṭa and far northern Sendakārva) where it has been repurposed as a definiteness marker for non-triggered arguments - Standard Chlouvānem usually topicalizes the argument or uses nanā, or, colloquially, leaves it unmarked and only understandable by context; cf. "the tiger is seen by the wolf":

(Standard): ēmīla nanye bāḍhmānæ mešē, or bāḍhmān mæn ēmīla mēšē, or ēmīla bāḍhmānæ mēšē.

(Mid-Nīmbaṇḍhāri): ēmīla amye bāḍhmānæ mešē.

As mentioned before, Chlouvānem does not distinguish singular formal superior and plural "you", having the single pronoun nami for both. Unlike the similar situation in English, Chlouvānem still differentiates them by marking number on the verb, so for example "you (sg) work" is nami pūni, and "you (pl) work" is nami pūnašin. Originally, nami was only the 2nd person singular feminine pronoun (as shown by its cognates in other Lahob languages); in Archaic Chlouvānem the original plural pronoun nagin is attested, but we lack attestations of any form except the direct and the genitive (nagyā).

Personal pronouns

				Direct	Accusative	Ergative	Genitive	Translative	Exessive	Essive	Dative	Ablative	Locative	Instrumental
Singular	1st person			lili	lū	lę	lilyā	lan	lat	lįs	lum	ląu	lēn	laip
	2nd person	Informal		sāmi	sū	sę	sāmyā	sān	sāt	sįs	som	sąu	sēn	saip
		Form. sup.		nami	nū	nę	namyā	nan	nat	nįs	num	nąu	nēn	naip
		Form. equal		tami	tū	tę	tamyā	tan	tat	tįs	tum	tąu	tēn	taip
		Form. inf.		ravi	rū	rę	ravyā	ran	rat	rįs	rum	rąu	rēn	raip
Reflexive pronoun				demi	diyū	ję	demyā	jen	jet	jįs	jum	jąu	jēn	jaip
Dual	1st person			lenak	ilo	ilahę	ilayā	ilān	ilāt	ilęs	ilām	iląu	ilæn	ilaip
	2nd person	Informal		sanak	iso	isahę	isayā	isān	isāt	isęs	isām	isąu	isæn	isaip
		Form. sup.		nanak	inno	innahę	innayā	innān	innāt	innęs	innām	innąu	innæn	innaip
		Form. equal		tanak	itto	ittahę	ittayā	ittān	ittāt	ittęs	ittām	ittąu	ittæn	ittaip
		Form. inf.		raṇak	iro	irahę	irayā	irān	irāt	iręs	irām	irąu	iræn	iraip
Plural	1st person			mųmā	mųu	muhę	muṣyā	mųn	mųt	muhįs	mųum	muhąu	muhēn	muhaip
	2nd person	Informal		nami	nū	nę	namyā	nan	nat	nįs	num	nąu	nēn	naip
Emphatic pronoun (archaic)				yani	yū	yę	yanyā	yan	yat	yįs	yum	yąu	yēn	yaip

yavyāta (though often replaced by nami) and yakaliyātam are used as formal second person plural pronouns; they are however nouns and decline as such (as singular 1-h and 1-m declension respectively, but they take plural verbs and adjectives). Various other nouns may be used as second- or third-person pronouns depending on the situation; see the following section on honorifics for a list of them and their usage.

Use of possessives

Possessive adjectives are always used if they refer to an explicit topic, and in most cases (except those listed below) if the topic is only marked by the voice, e.g.:

• lilyā glūkam mæn māminęltende liven - my brother is in his 14₁₂-th year (= is fifteen years old).
• ūnikire namyā cūlla viṣam ūnime vi - your red car is on the other road.

The voice-marked topic usually does not have a possessive if it belongs to a first- or second-person agent which is explicitely marked. Particularly, the words meinā (mother) and bunā (father) are almost always possessive-less. e.g.:

• ñæltah laitenælire purṣīnaviṣyu lę emęlyosi - It is my sister I gave that wonderful poetry book to. — note how it is simply ñæltah and not lilyā ñæltah because of the presence of the ergative pronoun lę.

If the sentence is focussed on a verb-marked (i.e. with a dropped pronoun) agent, it is more common to use the possessive. In many colloquial varieties of Chlouvānem, there is a developing distinction between using the reflexive and the 1st- or 2nd- person forms, where the reflexive is more commonly (but still not exclusively!) used for alienable possession and the other for inalienable possession. Thus, "my sister" is more commonly lilyā ñæltah, while "my book" is more commonly demyā naviṣya, at least in a sentence with a first person focus. The above example would become lilyåh ñæltom laitenælire purṣīnaviṣyu emęlyaṃte; one could also stress the fact it's their own book and thus say lilyåh ñæltom laitenælire demyau purṣīnaviṣyu emęlyaṃte.
Still, even in this case, "mother" and "father" would still lack a possessive, as referring to someone else's mother or father would anyway need the honorific words nāḍima and tāmvāram respectively, instead of meinā and bunā.

In the third person, especially plural, demyā may be used without an explicit subject, i.e. demyau kitu āntedarāhai "they are building their own home".

Correlatives

Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).

Category ↓ / Type →	Proximal	Medial	Distal	Interrogative	Negative	Ass. exist.	Elect. exist.	Universal	Positive altern.	Negative altern.
Attributive	nenē (and others; see below) this (one)	nunū (and others; see below) that (one) (near you)	nanā (and others; see below) that (one) (over there)	yanū? what?, which (one) ?	gu no	sora some	læti any	yaiva every(thing)	viṣam another, other	guviṣam no other
Thing					gvami nothing	sorami something	lætyami anything		viṣāmi something else	guviṣāmi nothing else
Person	·evita this one	·utvita that one (near you)	·ātvita that one (over there)	yavita? who?	guvita no one	soraita someone	lævita anyone	yaivita everyone	viṣvita someone else	guviṣvita no one else
Time	emiya now	utiya then	ātiya then (remote)	yamiya? when?	gumiya never	soramiya sometime, somewhen	lætmiya anytime, whenever	yaivmiya always, everytime	viṣmiya sometime else	guviṣmiya never else
Place	·ejulā here	·uñjulā there	·āñjulā over there	yajulā? where?	gujulā nowhere	sorajulā somewhere	læjulā anywhere	yavijulā everywhere	viñjulā elsewhere	guviñjulā nowhere else
Destination	·ejulyom hither	·uñjulyom thither	·āñjulyom thither (remote)	yajulyom? whither?	gujulyom nowhither	sorajulyom somewhither	læjulyom anywhither	yavijulyom everywhither	viñjulyom elsewhither	guviñjulyom nowhither else
Source	·ejulųu hence	·uñjulųu thence	·āñjulųu thence (remote)	yajulųu? whence?	gujulųu nowhence	sorajulųu somewhence	læjulųu anywhence	yavijulųu everywhence	viñjulųu elsewhence	guviñjulųu nowhence else
Manner	elīce thus, hereby	ūlīce thereby	ālīce thereby; that other way	yalīce? how?	gulīce no way	soralīce somehow	lælīce anyhow	yaivlīce everyway	viṣlīce otherwise	guviṣlīce no other way
Reason	emena herefore	utmena therefore	ātmena therefore; for that other reason	yamenat? why?	gumena for no reason	soramena somewhy	lætmena whyever, for any reason	yaivmena for every reason	viṣmena for another reason	guviṣmena for no other reason
Quality	esmā this kind	utsmā that kind	ātsmā that other kind	yasmāt? which kind?	gusmā no kind	sorasmā some kind	læsmā any kind	yavismā every kind	viṣasmā another kind	guviṣasmā no other kind
Quantity	enūḍa this much	utnūḍa that much	ātnūḍa that much (remote)	yanūḍat? how much?	gunūḍa none	soraṇūḍa some of it	lætnūḍa any much	yaivnūḍa all of it	viṣṇūḍa another quantity	guviṣṇūḍa no other quantity

Note that in common speach ālīce and ūlīce as well as ātmena and utmena are basically interchangeable. The QUALITY correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. lajlęs læsmā "any kind of chair".
THING and PERSON correlatives decline for case and, in the case of evita, utvita, and ātvita, also for number (1h declension: evita, acc. sg. evitu, dir. pl. evitai, dat. pl. evitesām…). QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives also decline for case.

Not to be confused with their literal English translations are yaivemibe (or yaiva emibe) "each, every" (literally "everyone") - which is most often attributive only in Chlouvānem - and especially sora emibe, literally "someone", which has a completely different meaning: sora emibe denotes "some single subjects, considered as single entities, hence inherently plural and taking plural verbs: sora emibe draikate "some single subjects did it" ≠ soraita dṛkte "someone did it".

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:

gvamīt～guvitāt "neither";

lætyamīt～lævitāt "either";

yaivāt～yaivitāt "both";

viṣāmāt～viṣvitāt "the other one".

Further correlatives not included in the above table:

yambā? (whose?)

smāmi (such a...) (archaic, literary)

Positional demonstratives

Chlouvānem has a large number of demonstratives, as they are integrated with the system of positional verbs, combining a general proximal-medial-distal distinction with positional prefixes, further localizing them in space. Only a subset of 10 out of the 24 positional prefixes are used to build demonstratives; the ones with a ∅- prefix correspond to most of the unused ones, and may be translated as "this/that one in front/ahead/in the middle" when a disambiguation from another one is needed. The same ten prefixes (except for įs-) are also used together with the PERSON series (with the same logic), and with the PLACE, DESTINATION, and SOURCE correlatives, which act as adverbial anaphoras of positional and motion verbs. This results in forms like kamyejulā "here, around" or māhāñjulyom "thither (remote), rightwards".

Prefix ↓ / Type →	Proximal	Medial	Distal
∅- (ahead)	nenē this one ahead	nunū that one (near you) ahead	nanā that one ahead
ān- (above)	āninē this one above	ānnū that one (near you) above	ānnā that one above
šu- (below)	šunē this one below	šūnū that one (near you) below	šonā that one below
įs- (hanging)	įsinē this one hanging	įsunū that one (near you) hanging	įsanā that one hanging
na(ñ)- (inside)	najinē this one inside	najunū that one (near you) inside	najanā that one inside
kau- (outside)	kaunē this one outside	kaunū that one (near you) outside	kaunā that one outside
kami- (around)	kaminē this one around	kamyunū that one (near you) around	kamyanā that one around
pri- (behind)	prinē this one behind	prinū that one (near you) behind	prinā that one behind
vai- (beside; in the corner) (sāṭ- for the main meaning)	vainē this one beside	vayunū that one (near you) beside	vayanā that one beside
vyā- (left)	vyāɂinē this one to the left	vyāɂunū that one (near you) to the left	vyāɂanā that one to the left
māha- (right)	māhenē this one to the right	māhonū that one (near you) to the right	māhānā that one to the right

The įs- forms may also be used for things lying on people's hands.

The forms for the PERSON, PLACE, DESTINATION, and SOURCE series are mostly formed through regular saṃdhi (with the partial exception of the na(ñ)- and vyā- prefixes):

Prefix ↓ / Base →	·evita ·ejulā ·ejulyom ·ejulųu	·utvita ·uñjulā ·uñjulyom ·uñjulųu	·ātvita ·āñjulā ·āñjulyom ·āñjulųu
∅- (ahead)	evita	utvita	ātvita
ān- (above)	ānevita	ānutvita	ānātvita
šu- (below)	švevita	šūtvita	švātvita
na(ñ)- (inside)	naivita	notvita	nātvita
kau- (outside)	kāvevita	kāvutvita	kāvātvita
kami- (around)	kamyevitai	kamyutvitai	kamyātvitai
pri- (behind)	pryevita	pryutvita	pryātvita
vai- (beside, in the corner)	vāyevita	vāyutvita	vāyātvita
vyā- (left)	vyāɂevita	vyāɂutvita	vyāɂātvita
māha- (right)	māhaivita	māhotvita	māhātvita

Note that, in the PERSON series, the kami- forms are only used with a plural meaning, as reflected in the table above.

Declensions of correlatives and possessives

Case	ā-paradigm	ē-paradigm	ū-paradigm	t-paradigm
	All possessives, nanā and other distals, yambā?, ami, correlatives in -i	nenē and other proximals	nunū, and other medials, yanū?	yasmāt? and yanūḍat?
Direct Vocative	lilyā	nenē	nunū	yasmāt
Accusative	lilyau	nenyu	nunūyu	yasmau
Ergative	lilye	nenye	nunūye	yasmātei
Genitive	lilyai	neniai	nunūyai	yasmai
Translative	lilyān	nenēn	nunūn	yasmān
Exessive	lilyāt	nenēt	nunūt	yasmātat
Essive	lilyąa	nenęe	nunųu	yasmātą
Dative	lilyåh	nenǣh	nunǣh	yasmātom
Ablative	lilyąu	nenēhu	nunūvu	yasmąu
Locative	lilǣ	neniǣ	nunūvǣ	yasmātǣ
Instrumental	lileni	nenēni	nunauni	yasmaini

Honorifics

Honorific pronouns

Second person

The rules for second person pronouns are mostly fairly easy. There are usually two contexts: formal and informal.

Formal pronouns are three and (in contemporary Chlouvānem) invariable for gender, but they vary for relative rank instead: nami is used towards a superior, tami towards one of the same rank, and ravi towards a lower ranked person (until around 6350, nani was strictly feminine and ravi strictly masculine, and the rules for all three varied also according to the relative genders). nanak, tanak, and raṇak are their respective dual forms.

Plural second person pronouns are usually two: yakaliyātam is used towards the representative of a specifically defined group - an institution or a company -, while yavyāta (but also, in not extremely formal styles, nami) is used for less defined groups.

There are, however, more formal second-person pronouns with a limited use. All of these (here listed in Latin alphabetical order), unless noted, are morphologically nouns, but they are used with second person verbs anyway:


• aveṣyotariri nami (locution with the pronoun nami) is sometimes used towards the highest ranked non-religious superiors, if they are several ranks ahead: examples include commanders of a military brigade or presidents of a company. However, nami is in most cases respectful enough; it is however invariably used in the set phrase lālyu nanyau aveṣyotariri yaccechlašute nami "I humbly ask for your forgiveness".
• gopūrṭham is often used towards public/religious and military officials.
• gopūrṭhami brausa (or yobrausa) are used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
• lalla yobrausa is used exclusively for the Great Inquisitor.

• ṣari, nowadays mostly old-fashioned, was used by guests towards homeowners and also by soldiers towards their superiors. It also meant, aside from being a pronoun, "landowner" or "head of a non-religious state"; in contemporary Chlouvānem it mostly only survives as a vocative expression towards homeowners when used by guests.
• ūttuka is today only used in parts of the Northeast (aside by fictional characters in historical settings), but until about 6300 was a common pronoun word used by servants towards their superiors, particularly landowners (it thus partially overlapped with ṣari).
• yobrausa — see gopūrṭhami brausa above.



It is also important to note that it's increasingly common to simply use the vocative formula - given name plus lāma - instead of any pronoun in formal context: when speaking to a superior named Lārtāvi Vaihātiai Lælithiam, in order to say a sentence like "have you already done (it)?", nami nanau dadrāste nāṭ dām? and lælicham lāma nanau dadrāste nāṭ dām? are both just as correct. The pronoun forms are more commonly used in other cases, particularly in the genitive.
Note that lāma itself does NOT decline: only the noun does – e.g. lælichamom lāma lę emęlya "it has been given by me to you/Mr. Lælithiam".

In informal contexts, the only basic morphological second-person pronoun is sāmi, which has the dual form sanak and uses nami as the plural form (with plural agreement on verbs). However, there may be even more informal contexts where other nouns may be used: the prototypical example is among siblings, where blikā (dual blikāt, plural blikai), an endearing term for girls (think of Japanese -chan or -tan) is used as a pronoun for and among sisters — e.g. blikā meyom umuṣeste tane? meaning "did you ask mum or not?"; as for all nouns standing for pronouns, this is not a vocative expression as it declines for case - e.g. blikom emęliaṃte nāṭ! "I've already given it to you!"; other such pro-nouns used among siblings are lorkhās (for and among brothers; literally "guy", can be rude outside this context), nājhali (non-binary equivalent to "girl" and "boy" — somewhat rarer as even in general use it's a more neutral term than either blikā or lorkhās), and even samin (literally "kid"). Informal names are also sometimes used instead of pronouns among siblings, and they're more often than not used that way among close friends and kaleyai.

Third person

In Chlouvānem, the third person pronouns – which are the demonstrative sets, most commonly the distal nanā - eṣanā - ānnā – are not used for people; the name of the person referred to with the appropriate honorific title is used instead.

Repetition of names is usually not considered strange in Chlouvānem, but there are a few ways to avoid excessive repetition. The most natural one is obviously to state the person once at the beginning as the topic and then have all following verbs agree with it through the trigger system.

All titles listed in the following section may be freely used with and without names. Furthermore, it is common in not excessively formal speech to use nāḍima (honorific word for "mother") for all female older relatives - of previous generations, not older siblings - of the interlocutor and similarly tamvāram (honorific for "father") for male older relatives.

Especially in contemporary Chlouvānem, the rank-neutral udhyāras (cf. "Comrade") is increasingly commonly used as a generic third person pronoun, though only after stating the name before.

Reference table

The following table is meant as a non-exhaustive reference for the most common ways used to refer to third person human referents in different situations, excluding titles:

If...		Speaker is higher than Listener	Speaker is equal to Listener	Speaker is lower than Listener
3SG is higher than...	both Speaker and Listener	yamei (name) lāma yamei (name) suntam/sintam	(yamei) (name) suntam/sintam(/lāma)	yamei (name) suntam/sintam
	Listener, but lower than or equal to Speaker	udhyāras yamei lātiṃṣin (name) lāma	/	/
	Speaker, but lower than or equal to Listener	/	/	yamei (name) lāma
3SG is equal to...	Listener	udhyāras yamei (name) tanta (name) lāma	/	/
	both Speaker and Listener	/	udhyāras lātiṃṣin (name) lāma	/
	Speaker	/	/	yamei (name) lāma udhyāras lātiṃṣin
3SG is lower than...	Listener	udhyāras (name) tanta	/	/
	both Speaker and Listener	/	udhyāras (name) tanta	/
	Speaker	/	/	(name) lāma udhyāras

Honorific titles

→ See also: Chlouvānem names § Using names

Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective yamei is often added to many of them - especially lāma - and is mandatory in other ones.

• lāma - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, lāma is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. Namihūlša lāma); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then lāma comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with lāma (e.g. Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma) are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
• tanta - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
• suntam (regionally also sintam) - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
• lallāmaha - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with yamei. Inquisitors may also be referred to as lallāmaha + matronymic + yamei + given name + murkadhāna (lāma)
• jūlin - less formal than lāma, used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
• telen - less formal than lāma, used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
• jāmilšīreh - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
• udhyā(ras) - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form yamei dāvudhyāre. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of товарищ. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.
  Note that udhyāras is the direct form, udhyā the irregular vocative.
• pūrivāla - an impersonal term of address used in written language, towards unfamiliar people never met personally. Often used as yamei [name] pūrivāla.
• cuca is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese -chan. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.

Occupations commonly used as titles

• camitorai — head of a company (usually as [matronymic] yamei [name] camitorai lāma)
• kauchlærīn (voc.: kauchlærī) — professor (in universities, seminaries, institutions, and work schools)
• tatnāmęlīn (voc.: tatnāmęlī) — teacher (in first and basic schools)

Official titles

Where not noted, the formula is [matronymic] yamei [name] [title] lāma.

• brausamailenya — Baptist — rendered as aveṣyotārire lallāmaha [matronymic] yamei [surname + given name] brausamailenia lāma.
• camimurkadhāna — Great Inquisitor — rendered as nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmaha [matronymic] yamei [surname + given name] camimurkadhāna lāma.
• camitorai — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] yamei [name] camitorai lāma.
• plušamelīs (voc.: plušamelī) — Prefect (head of an Office (plušamila) of the Inquisition). Rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] plušamelī(s) lāma.
• gatvā — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (ṣramāṇa "province", lalka "circuit", hālgāra "district", marta "city"…).
• hurdagīn — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma (+ monastery name-GEN)
• juṃša — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [(surname +) name] juṃša lāma (+ diocese name-GEN).
• lallaflušamelīs (voc.: lallaflušamelī) — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (flušamaili eṇāh, the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as taili aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] lallaflušamelī(s) lāma.
• lallamurkadhāna — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (murkadhānumi lanedāmeh, the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] lallamurkadhāna lāma.
• ñæltryam — monk.
• ṭommīn (voc.: ṭommī) — Eparch (head of an Eparchy).

Note that the full titles are used generally at the first mention only. For example, Martayināvi yamei murkadhāna Læhimausa lāma becomes afterwards either yamei murkadhāna or yamei Læhimausa lāma. With the Great Inquisitor, this does not usually get shorter than nanū aveṣyotārire yamei lallāmaha ([Her] Respectable Most Excellent Highness) or nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmaha camimurkadhāna ([Her] Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor).

Honorific particles

There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific:

• īvai makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too.
• nami denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb. It was common in the past alongside the honorific verb tilah, but today it rarely used.
• yo- is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with nami.
• dau- is a prefix that makes nouns honorific.

Numerals (māltsāk)

Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other Lahob languages and a few ones of the southern hemisphere, as well as others like Qualdomelic or vernaculars of the Inquisition which have had considerable Chlouvānem influence - with a pure duodecimal number system.

Numbers (sg māltsām, pl. māltsāk) have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. 1-4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and 'adjectival' multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

Digit12	Base 10	Cardinal	Ordinal	Collective	Distributive	Adv./Multiplicative	Fractionary
0	0	ajrā	(ajrāyende)	—	(ajrehaicē)	(māgajrā)	—
1	1	emibe emi	lahīla		emibhaicē	māgemibe (adv.) emibarvīm	lahīlvāṭ
2	2	dani	hælinaika	danyatām	danihaicē	māgdani (adv.) danirvīm	hælinaivāṭ
3	3	pāmvi	pāmvende	pāmvyatām	pāmvihaicē	māmpāmvi (adv.) pāmvirvīm	pāmvendvāṭ
4	4	nęlte	nęltende	nęltitām	nęltehaicē	māgnęlte (adv.) nęltarvīm	nęltendvāṭ
5	5	šulka	šulkende	šulkatām	šulkhaicē	šulkarvīm	šulkendvāṭ
6	6	tulūɂa	tulūɂende	tulūɂatām	tulūɂihaicē	tulūrvīm	tulūɂendvāṭ
7	7	chīka	chīcænde	chīcætām	chīcihaicē	chīkarvīm	chīcændvāṭ
8	8	tītya	tītyende	tītyatām	tītihaicē	tītyarvīm	tītyendvāṭ
9	9	moja	mojende	mojatām	mojihaicē	mojarvīm	mojendvāṭ
ᘔ	10	tålda	tåldende	tåldatām	tåldihaicē	tåldarvīm	tåldendvāṭ
Ɛ	11	vælden	vældinde	vælditām	vældihaicē	vældirvīm	vældindvāṭ
10	12	māmei	māminde	māmintām	māmeihaicē	māmairvīm	māmindvāṭ
11	13	emibumaye	emibumayinde	emibumaintām	emibumaihaicē	emibumairvīm	emibumayindvāṭ
12	14	danimaye	danimayinde	danimaintām	danimaihaicē	danimairvim	danimayindvāṭ
13	15	pamihælī	pamihælīnde	pamihælītām	pamihælīhaicē	pamihælīrvīm	pamihælīndvāṭ
14	16	māminęlte	māminęltende	māminęltitām	māminęltehaicē	māminęltarvīm	māmiynęltendvāṭ
15	17	māmišulka	māmišulkende	māmišulkatām	māmišulkhaicē	māmišulkarvīm	māmišulkendvāṭ
16	18	māmivælka	māmivælkende	māmivælkatām	māmivælkihaicē	māmivælkarvīm	māmivælkendvāṭ
17	19	māmichīka	māmichīcænde	māmichīcætām	māmichīcihaicē	māmichīkarvīm	māmichīcændvāṭ
18	20	māmitītya	māmitītyende	māmitītyatām	māmitītihaicē	māmitītyarvīm	māmitītyendvāṭ
19	21	māmimoja	māmimojende	māmimojatām	māmimojihaicē	māmimojarvīm	māmimojendvāṭ
1ᘔ	22	māmitålda	māmitåldende	māmitåldatām	māmitåldihaicē	māmitåldarvīm	māmitåldendvāṭ
1Ɛ	23	māmivælden	māmivældinde	māmivælditām	māmivældihaicē	māmivældirvīm	māmivældindvāṭ
20	24	hælmāmei	hælmāminde	hælmāmintām	hælmāmeihaicē	hælmāmairvīm	hælmāmindvāṭ

As for the two forms for one, emi is used in disjunctive counting (e.g. count-ins or countdowns) while emibe is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hælmāmyemi do not exist.
Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lällshag morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): mån- 1, yūn- 2, lyāš- 3, alan- 4, tamb- 5, jiruṇ- or ciruṇ- 6, tulyæn- 7, neim- 8, šid- 9, abar- ᘔ.

Numbers from 20₁₂ above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21₁₂ (25₁₀) hælmāmyemibe, and then hælmāmidani, hælmāmipāmvi, and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūɂa and not -vælka as in 16₁₂.
The other dozens are:

30 (36₁₀) pāmvimāmei

40 (48₁₀) nęltemāmei

50 (60₁₀) šulkmāmei

60 (72₁₀) vælknihæla

70 (84₁₀) māmyāvælka (regionally chīcæmāmei, particularly in the East)

80 (96₁₀) tītimāmei

90 (108₁₀) mojemāmei

ᘔ0 (120₁₀) tåldimāmei

Ɛ0 (132₁₀) māmimīram

and 100 (144₁₀) nihæla.

The apparent irregularities in the words for 60₁₂, 70₁₂, and Ɛ0₁₂ are explained by etymology: vælka is the reflex of PLB *wewənko, which meant “half”, thus vælknihæla is “half hundred” and māmyāvælka is “twelve on half”; māmimīram is literally “twelve [less] from ahead”. 13₁₂ originally meant "one finger/three (pāmvi, the word for three, also meant "finger" in PLB (*pāmwəj) - whence also the Chlouvānem word for "finger", pamuvis (< PLB *pamwəjis)) in the second [dozen]", where the -hælī part is a worn form of hælinaika.

Numbers from 100₁₂ to ƐƐƐ₁₂ are still compounds, e.g. nihælaimibe, nihæladani, and so on. Note that 160₁₂ is most commonly nihæltulūɂa, but the more literary form nihælvælka may still be heard.
The other dozenal hundreds are:

200 (288₁₀) daninihæla

300 (432₁₀) pāmvinihæla

400 (576₁₀) nęltenihæla

500 (720₁₀) šulknihæla

600 (864₁₀) tulūnihæla

700 (1008₁₀) chīcænihæla

800 (1152₁₀) tītinihæla

900 (1296₁₀) mojanihæla

ᘔ00 (1440₁₀) tåldanihæla

Ɛ00 (1584₁₀) vældenihæla.

1.000 (1728₁₀) is tildhā and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. 1.001 tildhā emibe, 6.2ᘔ9 (10785₁₀) tulūɂa tildhā daninihælatåldimāmimoja.
Note that 2.000₁₂ may be either one of tildhāt, dani tildhā, or (only emphatically) dani tildhāt.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ₁₂ are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are 1.00.000 (248.832₁₀) - a raicē - and 1.00.00.000 (35.831.808₁₀) - a lallaraicē.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: 1.00.00.00.000 (12⁹) (5.159.780.352₁₀) is a taiskaucis and 1.00.00.00.00.000 (12¹¹) (743.008.370.688₁₀) a lallataiskaucis. The words khorādi (12⁷, i.e. synonym of lallaraicē), yaṣmūn (12¹¹, i.e. lallataiskaucis), iriakas (12¹³), mairān or lalleriakas (12¹⁵), nirāvah (12¹⁷), and sṝva or lallanirāvah (12¹⁹) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes.

Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with -ende (-inde after -m or for Ɛ₁₂) for ordinals, -tām for collectives, -haicē for distributives, -rvīm for adverbials/multiplicatives (prefixed māg- for the separate adverbial forms), and -endvāṭ/-indvāṭ for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. hælmāmilahīla 21₁₂st (25₁₀th); hælmāmihælinaika 22₁₂nd (26₁₀th).

Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: vālhælia 1½, vālpāmvya 2½, vālnęlca 3½, vālšulca 4½, and vāltulūya 5½. The forms vālchīca, vāltītiya, and vālmojya are used in telling the time only and obsolete otherwise, while other similar forms are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no (or, sometimes, - vælka no) are more commonly heard and used nowadays.

Use of fractionary numbers

Fractionary numbers (except vāl- ones) are used to express non-integers just like any other quantity. Simple ones such as 0,6 (½) are the basic fractionary number - in this case hælinaivāṭ (note that, outside mathematics, danyāmita is the preferred term for "half", both in metaphorical (lilyā viṣam danyāmita "my other half") and non-metaphorical uses (alāvi danyāmita "half of the bottle")); other examples are 0,3 (¼) nęltendvāṭ and 0,4 (⅓) pāmvendvāṭ.
With more complex fractions, the smallest part (negative power of twelve) is stated - the three commonly found are 1/12 (māmindvāṭ), 1/144 (nihælendvāṭ), and 1/1728 (tildhaindvāṭ). For example, 0,82 is tītimāmidani nihælendvāṭ and 0,7ᘔ6 is chīcænihælamāmimīraṃtulūɂa tildhaindvāṭ; sometimes, "0, then" (mīram) may be added: ajrā mīram tītimāmidani nihælendvāṭ.

With a non-fractionary portion that is not zero, instead of mīram, smurā (full, integer) is used - e.g. 2,307 is usually said as dani smurā pāmvinihælchīka tildhaindvāṭ.

Declensions of cardinal numbers

Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. In informal Chlouvānem, either only emibe is declined, or are all numerals up to vælden, plus nihæla. Compounds of these are usually not declined. The words tildhā, (lalla)raicē, and (lalla)taiskaucis are always declined, but they are fully nouns.

Case	emibe	i-paradigm	a-paradigm	en-paradigm
		dani, pāmvi, nęlte	5 to 10	vælden only
Direct Vocative	emibe	dani	šulka	vælden
Accusative	emiyu	danyu	šulku	vældu
Ergative	emeis	danyes	šulkes	vældes
Genitive	emibī	dani	šulki	vældi
Translative	emiban	danin	šulkan	vældanna
Exessive	emibat	danit	šulkat	vældanta
Essive	emibą	danyą	šulkąa	vældąs
Dative	emibå	danyå	šulkå	vældå
Ablative	emiyų	danyų	šulkų	vældų
Locative	emiye	danye	šulke	vælde
Instrumental	emīp	danip	šulkip	vældampa

Use of numerals

Cardinal numerals may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.

• In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put before the noun and the noun is always singular (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. emibe yujam (one lotus flower); dani māra (two mango fruits); pāmvi haloe (three names), vælden ñaiṭa (eleven stars), and so on.
• If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in genitive singular instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: yujami emibe (one lotus flower), māri dani (two mango fruits), halenyes pāmvi (three names), ñaiṭi vælden (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. marti pāmvi (three cities) but marte pāmvye (in the three cities).
  This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
• "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: dani māra or māri dani are both as correct as dani mārāt and māreva dani - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning. Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.

Ordinal numerals are regular attributive adjective-like words that precede nouns - e.g. hælinaika kita "second house". They do not decline if are used together with a noun, but they can also be used alone (e.g. hælinaika "the second one"), in which case they decline for case and number, as if they were -eh nouns (-a for 1st and 2nd), e.g. mojendesām ukulate "it has been told to those in ninth position".

Collective numerals (which decline as regular -ām nouns) are most commonly found with the meaning of "a group consisting of X ...", therefore implying greater cohesiveness than using the cardinal number implies. A common example of the subtle meaning change is between the sentences chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite (with a cardinal) and chīcætām lalāruṇa togāhaite (with a collective): both mean "seven lalāruṇai hit", but in the latter sentence the action is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). This is also the most common meaning with pluralia tantum, as commonly heard with ethnonyms (which are all plural only in Chlouvānem), e.g. šulkatām chlǣvānem "[a group of] five Chlouvānem people".
They can also be found, context-dependent, used with the meaning of "all X of..." - in a sentence such as e.g. tītyatām lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" - or with the meaning of "X sets of" with singularia tantum - e.g. pāmvyatām hærṣūs "three pairs of lips" (but note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. pāmvi hærṣūs).
The collective numerals for 0 and 1 (ajrāṇṭām and emibutām respectively) are not included in the table above because they do not exist in practical use; however, they are sporadically found in poetry and literature, referring to people and with the meaning of "a group where only one/no one is ...", e.g. ajrāṇṭām tadhusmausīn "a group where no one is honest". Similarly, collectives for vāl- numbers (e.g. vālpāmvyantām "a group consisting of 2½ ...") exist, but are virtually unused. danyatām, like dani, may be use together with either a singular or a dual noun.

In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; lili mæn nęltitām samin "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. dvārma vældąs lilęs virā).

Distributive numerals are indeclinable adjective-like words, and have the meaning of "X each": pāmvihaicē titē męlyāhai "three pens each are given"; lili lilyā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē kolecañi alau ulgutarate "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in titē (pencil) and alūs (acc. alau) "bottle", just like after cardinal and collective numerals.

Adverbial numerals are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and multiplicative numbers are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: pāmvirvīm yąloe "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; āsena māgdani "twice a month"; āsena tītyarvīm "eight times a month".
Zero only has an adverbial form (māgajrā), which is however only used in reading multiplications and powers, e.g. 3 * 0 māgajrā pāmvi, 9⁰ māgajrā demǣ moja.

Fractionary numerals are always used in the noun.GEN numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with -vaḍa in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + vaḍa, meaning Xth part, e.g. hælinaika vaḍa (the second part) → hælinaivāṭ). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: marti hælinaivāṭ "half of the city" ; alāvi nęltendvāṭ "one fourth of the bottle" ; babhrāmi tulūɂendvaḍe "in one sixth of the country".

Basic maths

• 1 + 2 = 3

emibe nanū dani pāmvyå lunade (1.DIR. more. 2.DIR. 3-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: A^DIR nanū B^DIR (nanū ...) C^DAT lunade (two addends) / lunāhai (3+ addends)

• 3 - 2 = 1

pāmvi isan dani emibå lunade (3.DIR. minus. 2.DIR. 1-DAT go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: A^DIR isan B^DIR (isan ...) C^DAT lunade (two addends) / lunāhai (3+ addends)

• 3 * 2 = 6

māgdani pāmvi tulūɂå liven (2.ADV.MULTIP. 3.DIR. 6-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-B A^DIR C^DAT liven

• 6 : 2 = 3

hælinaivadęs tulūɂa pāmvyå liven (2.FRACTION-ESS. 6.DIR 3-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: FRACTIONARY-B^ESS A^DIR C^DAT liven

• 6² = 30 (36₁₀)

māgdani demǣ tulūɂa pāmvimāmei liven (2.ADV.MULTIP. REFL.GEN-LOC. 6.DIR. 30₁₂. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-B demǣ A^DIR C^DAT liven

Reified numerals

Reified numerals, or numerals used as nouns, have a special form, which is actually the numeral with the common noun-forming suffix -as added (with regular saṃdhi). These numerals are used most notably for:

• In order to refer to the digits themselves (danyas "the digit 2");
• Things named with numbers (tulūɂās "[tram/bus/etc] number 6");
• (in the plural) Year dozens (vælknihælē "the 60₁₂s = the 3860₁₂s);
• (in the plural) Age ranges by the dozen (hælmāmeyē "20₁₂ies" = the age range from the start of one's 20₁₂th year to the end of one's 2Ɛth);
• School marks - note that there's no uniform system in the Inquisition (nęltayas "a grade 4" (passing grade in the most widespread system for non-higher education in the Inquisition, ranging from 1 (emibayas), worst, to 7 (chīkās), best));
• A group of X people - a reification of collective numerals (pāmvyas "a trio").

Note that there are some terms which use numerals as roots but aren't considered reified numbers (also because of their rather inconsistent meanings); the most common examples include danyāmita (half) and māmyāmita (dozen).

Units of Measurement

Chlouvānem units of measurement (lęlgīs, pl. lęlgais) are divided in popular units (leilausirena lęlgais) and scientific units (tarlausirena lęlgais). Scientific units, while understood, are rarely found outside of scientific contexts if corresponding popular units exist, while popular units are found in daily usage. Popular units follow however a measurement standard introduced in the year 36Ɛ7 (6187₁₀) and updated several times in the following two centuries, in order to give a single understood measure for all units whose names and definitions varied across the many countries of the Chlouvānem cultural space.
It is also to be noted that Calemerian scientific units have internationally unified definitions for their base units but are substantially different between the Western and the Eastern world as Western countries use them with a decimal system, while the Eastern countries (the Inquisition, most of the former Kaiṣamā, and Greater Skyrdagor) use them with a duodecimal system.

Length

Units in italics are popular divisions used in speech and not usually written. The nīnas has its own abbreviation but it is nowadays rarely used, and most often written as 2 vā even if spoken as nīnas.

Short	Name	Meaning/name origin	Equivalent to	Metric system (approx.)
lūj	lūjla (ABL)	Point, tip	1/12 liv	~1.20255 mm
liv	livuka	Short (dialectal)	⅙ de	~1.44305 cm
de	dera	Finger (in A.Kūṣṛmāṭhi)	⅓ vā	~8.65833 cm
vā	vāriṇa	Span	¼ pā	25.975 cm
nī	nīnas	Knee	½ pā	51.95 cm
pā	pājya	Leg	(base unit)	103.9 cm
bru	brujñya	Fathom	2+½ pā	2.5975 m
	vyaṣojrī nęltendvāṭ	Quarter of vyaṣojrā	¼ vya — 90 (10810) bru	280.53 m
	vyaṣojrī pāmvendvāṭ	Third of vyaṣojrā	⅓ vya — 100 (14410) bru	374.04 m
	vyaṣojrī hælinaivāṭ	Half vyaṣojrā	½ vya — 160 (21610) bru	561.06 m
vya	vyaṣojrā	Plough	300 (43210) bru	1122.12 m — 1.11212 km
gar	garaṇa	Hour	6+⅓ vya	7106.76 m — 7.10676 km

Area

The våṇṭa may or may not be written as a separate measure. A measure of 1 jāṇa and 700 dvāmāryai may be written as 1 jā.700 (dvā) (most commonly) or as 1 jā.1.100 (dvā).

Short	Name	Meaning/name origin	Equivalent to	Metric system (approx.)
sǣ	sǣca	Small, Piece (in A.Namaikehi)	1 nī * 1 nī	51.95 cm2
dar	daryā	unknown; name first used in the Near East	60 (7210) sǣ	3,740.4 cm2
re	relya	Carpet	3 dar	~1.12212 m2
dvā	dvāmārya	ultimately from dvārma (room)	4 re	~4.48848 m2
vå	våṇṭa	probably from a Tamukāyi word meaning "fence(d)"	600 (86410) dvā — ½ jā	~3,878.0467 m2
jā	jāṇa	Field	1,000 (1,72810) do — 2 vå	~7,756.0934 m2
e	ekram	Expanse (in A.Namaikehi)	100 (14410) jā	~1.1168 km2

Weight (and mass)

Short	Name	Meaning/name origin	Equivalent to	Metric system (approx.)
vaj	vaji	dimin. from vaḍa (part)	1/100 (1/14410) dū	~51.79398 mg
dū	dūdha	Seed	⅙ lit	~7.45833 g
lit	litveh	Cut (in A.Namaikehi)	¼ aut	44.75 g
aut	auṭikā	probably an augmentative from PLB *wutərus	(base unit)	179 g
tū	tulūɂendā	ultimately from tulūɂendes (sixth)	6 aut	1,074 g
pau	paurā	Rock (dialectal)	70 (8410) aut	12.53 kg
māp	māmipaurā	māmei (twelve) + paurā	10 (1210) pau	150.36 kg
lap	lallapaurā	lalla (high, further) + paurā	10 (1210) māp	1,804.32 kg

Volume

Short	Name	Meaning/name origin	Equivalent to	Metric system (approx.)
src	ṣærcañīh	dimin. from ṣarus (spoon)	½ ṣar	~5.78704 mL
ṣar	ṣarus	Spoon	⅓ cel	~11.57407 mL
cel	celya	Small glass	⅙ lun	~34.72222 mL
lun	luneyāvi	from lunai (tea)	⅓ val	~0.20833 L
val	valdhēna	Flagon	(base unit)	0.625 L
al	alūs	Bottle	2+ ⅓ val	~1.45833 L
då	dåṣṭis	Bucket	8 al	~11.66666 L
raš	rašah	Barrel	16 (1810) då	~210 L

There are also two further units for dry measures only:

• the purṣa ("pot", pur), equivalent to 1+½ val (~0.9375 L);
• the ręnah ("jar, urn", rę), equivalent to 6 pur (~5.625 L).

The egimbladuldāvi (egd) is a unit used for measuring engine displacement: 1 egd equals ⅙ val, that is ~0.10416667 L (~104.16667 cc).

Temperature

Temperature measuring in the Chlouvānem world uses the Jahārāṭha scale (shortened ºj; named after scientist Ṣastirāvi Jahārāṭha Nukthalin), which is fixed with a zero degree at water freezing temperature at sea level. 100 ºj is the rough boiling temperature of water, but, being a duodecimal scale, it is 100₁₂ (144₁₀), thus 1 ºj equals 25/36 of a degree Celsius, or 1 ºC = 1.44 ºj.
The median body temperature of a Calemerian human (which is slightly lower than for terrestrial humans) is of 41 ºj (49₁₀), thus ~34.0278 ºC.

Time

→ See also: Chlouvānem Calendar and time § the Chlouvānem calendar

English	Chlouvānem	Equivalent to	rough Earthly approximation
Year	heirah	418 Calemerian days	609.6 Earth days
Day	pārṇam	2812 (3210) hours	~35 hours
Hour	garaṇa	3 hælmāmyai 6012 (7210) railai	~65 min ~37 sec
group of "minutes"	hælmāmya	2012 (2410) railai	~21 min ~52 sec
"Minute"	raila	(base unit)	~54.6805 sec
"Second"	namišoe	1/4012 (1/4810) raila	~1.8986 sec
1/12 of a "second"	(namišeni) māmendvāṭ	1/1012 (1/1210) namišoe	~0.1582 sec
1/144 of a "second"	(namišeni) nihælendvāṭ	1/10012 (1/14410) namišoe	~0.0131 sec
1/1728 of a "second"	(namišeni) tildhaindvāṭ	1/100012 (1/172810) namišoe	~1.0987 ms

Other units

	Chlouvānem	Symbol	rough Earthly approximation
frequency	lūnaji	lnj	~0.526704 Hz
voltage	chulgān	chg	1 V

Particles (remīn)

Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (remīn, literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (natemālāhai remīn), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (ūtimāhai remīn), and "exclamatory particles" (pigdilanah nali remīn).

Conjunctive particles

Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.

• āk — on the other hand, whereas
• jahān — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)
• lai — inclusive or
• las — and (in incomplete listings, cf. no and sama); it follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except for the first. Not used to conjoin sentences.
• lenta — "together (with)", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage. When pospositive, it is more emphatic than lā. Adverbially, gimmālęe is more common.
• mailiven — so, thus, therefore (grammaticalized use of go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.)
• mbu — exclusive or
• najelai — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of najalle (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. yahatite najelai "maybe I'll read it".
• nānim — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.
• nanū — also, too (only between sentences, cf. tora). A different use of the adverb meaning "more".
• ni — but (in second position)
• no — and (in complete listings, cf. las); same placement as las. Also used to conjoin sentences, but sama is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).
• nyąu — because, for, as (cf. tī); amyąu in the Classical era, i.e. the ablative of the former demonstrative ami.

Used sentence-finally: aganą lā įstyāk nyąu yųlake pañcekte "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating." In lone sentences, e.g. answers, tī is preferred: aganą lā tī įstyāk "because (s)he was hungry."

• paṣe — furthermore
• pū — if (and pūmbu "whether") - see Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences
• sama (sam before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. las and no)
• tadye — despite that (between sentences), cf. tatta.
• tatta — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of tadye; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.
• tora — also, too; used adverbially and between sentences (where, however, nanū is more common).
• vivāmi — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.
• væse — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.

Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)

These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.

• bīs — between; from ... until, in expressions of time. Comes after both nouns in essive case: šurājęs nyūramyęs bīs "between Šurājah and Nyūramyah
• dam — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. daltah vi dam? "is it a fish?")
• e — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.
• ga — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or Tāllahārya ga maita "Tāllahārya river".
• gu(n) ~ ša — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. gu yuyųlsegde ša "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is gun before vowels; the ša element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
• lā — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. lilyąa ñæltęs lā "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was lapi.
• lut — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (nęlcų heirų lut "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (nęlcą heiręs lut "for four years").
• mboda — except for; requires subjunctive mood or essive case (e.g. nītedarāhai lailąs mboda nalunya upulsma "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only")
• mei and go — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. mei denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while go denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).
• mæn — marks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence.
• nali — benefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the benefited argument when the verb is not in benefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (the bare subjunctive already carries the "in order to" meaning).
• nin — after, with ablative or subjunctive (nęlcų heirų nin "after four years")
• pa — on, of, concerning, on the subject of, about. Requires a direct case noun (e.g. vāṇatarlā pa naviṣya "book about botany") or a subjunctive mood verb (e.g. šūñjulā drētte pa nīdhāḍirdya "the two of us are talking about what (s)he did down there").
• ras — antibenefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the anti-benefited argument when the verb is not in antibenefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "to avoid X".
• sām — different meanings depending on case:

ablative, in expressions of time: "in ... time" (at the end of a certain period), or "by": nęlcų heirų sām "in four years' time, four years for now"; šurājų sām "by Šurājah";

translative (rarely essive), in expressions of time: "in/for/until" (within, during a certain period): nęltin heiran sām "for the coming four years" (or nęlcą heiręs sām); ājvan sām "until dawn";

dative case, with places: "until, as far as": līlasuṃghāṇa kahērimaila ga keikom sām "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahērimaila Station")

subjunctive verb: "until": primęlirī sām "until he/she/it comes back".

• šut — before, with ablative or subjunctive (nęlcų heirų šut "four years before").
• vādį — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.

"Paired" particles

Chlouvānem does not have "paired" particles as English does, because they are translated in different ways:

• "both... and..." is translated by the adverb peimęe (the same), either in the form "X Y no peimęe" or in "X ..., Y peimęe":

jādāh lañekaica no peimęe nanau draikate – both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that.

nānyu uyųlaṃte : māru peimęe – I have eaten both the bread and the mango.

• "neither... nor..." requires the sentence to be built in a different way, namely "not X, and also not Y", where "also not" is translated in two different ways: 1) by the particle gūta (more formal); or 2) with the adverb peimęe - therefore building a sentence that is exactly like the "both X and Y" but negative.

jādāh nanau gu dṛkte ša : lañekaica gūta – neither Jādah nor Lañekaica did that. Literal translation: Jādāh didn't do it, and Lañekaica also [didn't].

nāniu gu uyųlaṃte ša : māru peimęe – I have eaten neither the bread nor the mango. Literally: I haven't eaten the bread, and the same for the mango.

• "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (mbu). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:

jādāh (mbu) lañekaica mbu nanau dṛkte – either Jādah or Lañekaica did it. (note the singular verb)

Emphatic particles

A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:

• anā is an introductory particle (e.g. "so")
• å expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. å viṣęe dadrāte "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / viṣęe dadrā å "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
• dā gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. najire nanau mešute dā "I'll just see what happens"; peithos dā "just calm down and take a walk around here."
• e is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
• eri means "even", marking a positive emphasis (e.g. hūnakumi dhāḍan eri dhāḍire "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi")
• gāri means "not even", being the opposite of eri, marking a negative emphasis (e.g. hulābdān chlǣvānumi dhāḍan gāri dhāḍire "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
• nā, a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with e. e.g. nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru! "I mean, I already know this!"
• nane is a tag question, e.g. camiyūs vi dam nane? "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
• nimā is an introductory particle, same as anā.
• naihā is a tag question much like nane, but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. lære draute dam naihā? "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
• pos is a filler with a meaning similar to tau, but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ālīce jeldegde pos "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
• sāṭ expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. tamye tamyu draukæ sāṭ "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
• tau emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. lārvājuṣe ēk tau "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; kitui vasau tau "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
• tva puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. nenēyu daudyute tati ukulaṃte tva! "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"

Derivational morphology (vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita)

Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.

Compounds

Chlouvānem, like Sanskrit, has four main types of compound words (tadmaiva, pl. tadmaivai), called in Chlouvānem grammar emibądanīs (dvandva), khladaradhausire tadmaiva (avyayībhāva), nīdhvakādhūs (tatpuruṣa), and kaudhvakādhūs (bahuvrīhi).

Dvandva (emibądanīs)

The first type of compounds is emibądanīs type (also called no ga tadmaiva), corresponding to dvandva compounds. In emibądanais, all words in the compound are taken with the concrete idea they represent. As hinted to by the alternative name, these compounds effectively substitute an "X Y no" (X and Y), compressing it into a single word.

tēneh ukyā no "a branch and a trunk" → tēnayukyāt "branch and trunk"

Dvandva compounds are formed by removing the direct case -s or -h marker from the word, lengthening all resulting final vowels (i.e. for all words not ending in -oe, -ai, -m, or -n), and joining with saṃdhi the second word; the second word is then inflected in the dual (if the word semantically refers to two things) or in the plural (if it refers to three or more things - see the next example).

tēneh nūlyai no "a branch and leaves" → tēnēnūlyai "branch(es) and leaves"

Note that, if the dvandva is plural, there is no indication of how many elements of each component are present:

lalāruṇāt voltām no "two lalāruṇai (DU) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)

lalāruṇai voltām no "lalāruṇai (PL) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)

lalāruṇa voltāk no "a lalāruṇa (SG) and sheep (PL)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)

The identification of how many individual lalāruṇai and sheep is lost in the compound, however, we know from the plural number that there must be at least three animals; otherwise, the dvandva would be dual:

lalāruṇa voltām no "a lalāruṇa (SG) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltīvā "lalāruṇai and sheep" (DU)

Dvandva made of three or more elements can, obviously, only be plural:

lalāruṇa voltām no jorai no "a lalāruṇa, a sheep, and a goat" → lalāruṇāvoltāñjorāye "lalārunai, sheep, and goats"

In the most formal registers of Chlouvānem, it is not uncommon to find dvandva compounds made of several elements:

lācāh kraṣṭāmita no lillāmita no demigretas no lelyēmita no "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family" → lācākraṣṭāmitālillāmitādemigretālelyēmitai "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family"

Avyayībhāva (khladaradhausire tadmaiva)

Avyayībhāva compounds, in Chlouvānem khladaradhausirāhe tadmaivai ("adverbial compounds"), are not as productive as the other types and, in fact, except for a few words they're mostly limited to Archaic and Classical Chlouvānem; despite being based on the latter, modern Chlouvānem does not use them productively.
These compounds generally have a first element which is a particle (or a verbal prefix), and the second element is a noun which is either left uninflected in the direct singular or, more commonly, in the two Archaic Chlouvānem adverbializing cases: the instrumental plural or the locative singular.

sam + jildas "after + act" → *sañjildas → sañjilde "consequently"

naš(e) + sṝva "full, complete + extent" → *nakṣṝva → nakṣṝve "as much as possible"

væse + vāyam "while + image, form" → væsvāyam → væsvāyam or væsvāyaṃrīka "thus, therefore"

paṣ(e) + vāyam "beyond + image, form" → paṣvāyam → paṣvāyam "in addition, furthermore"

maibu + jallas "enough + condition" → *maibujallas → maibujalle "as needed"

A particular kind of avyayībhāva is the -ṣati class, whose particularity derives from having a first element which is a declinable word (a possessive determiner); however, they're still adverbs and therefore uninflected:

lilyā ṣati "my way" → lilyāṣati "from my point of view; in my opinion; my way"

sāmyā ṣati "your way" → sāmyāṣati "from your point of view; in your opinion; your way"

Tatpuruṣa (nīdhvakādhūs)

Tatpuruṣa compounds (nīdhvakādhūs "with meaning inside", pl. nīdhvakādhaus) are likely the most common overall in Chlouvānem, and are the preferred way of crafting new words. These are endocentric compounds, the last element, the head of the compound, is modified by the previous element(s), which can be of any part of speech. Usually, the tatpuruṣa replaces genitive "X of Y", agentive "X which does Y", benefactive "X for Y", locative "X in Y", instrumental "X with Y", or sometimes copular structures "X which is (also) Y" (corresponding to Sanskrit karmadhāraya compounds) or "X made of Y".
The determining elements are generally uninflected.

vāṇumi tarlā "study of plants" → vāṇatarlā "botany"

vāṇatarlom kaminairīveyē lila "a person studying botany" (semantic agent) → vāṇatarlālila "botanist"

mordhē cūlla "carriage that flies" → mordhacūlla "airplane"

aṣṭre nali hatsunā "brush for teeth" → aṣṭṛhatsunā "toothbrush"

nanāye līlta "path in the jungle" → nanailīlta "jungle path"

nijogāp konanah "shooting with bow" → nijogākonanah "archery"

muliḍhyęs dunā "a telephone which is a computer" → muliḍhyāḍuṇā "smartphone"

javilenīs mayābi "wine made from apples" → javilmayābi "cider"

Bahuvrīhi (kaudhvakādhūs)

Bahuvrīhi compounds (kaudhvakādhūs "with meaning outside", pl. kaudhvakādhaus) are also quite common Chlouvānem words; they are exocentric compounds where none of the elements is the head of the compound, or, all elements are qualifiers. They replace structures like "[someone/something] with X which is/are Y" or "[sm/st] whose X is/are Y"; it could even be generalized to "[sm/st] whose [tatpuruṣa compound]":

murkire dhānęs lā lila "person with black hands" → murkadhāna "Inquisitor"

yųlgis nali javyęs lā dvārma "room with fire for food" → yųljavyāh "kitchen"

Noun-forming morphemes

-a (unstressed) or -ā (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. ṛ in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.

• dṛ (to do, to make) → dara (activity)
  
• lil (to live) → lila (person; living thing)
  
• tṛl (to know) → tarlā (science)

-as is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.

• tug (to beat) → tugas (beat)
  
• jlityā (jlitim-) (be to the right of) → jlitimas (right)
  
• āntyā (āntim-) (be above, be on) → āntimas (part above)

-ūm is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with -as.
With a few roots whose vowel is -o-, -un is used instead.

• lgut (to buy) → lgutūm (something bought)
• peith (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → peithūm (walk)
• yālv (to be sweet (taste)) → yālvūm (sweet taste)
• storg (offices, factories: to be open, to work) → storgun (working hours)

-(u)kāram is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.

• lun (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → lulkāram (step)
  
• lil (to live) (or liloe (life)) → lilukāram (moment, instant)
  
• daša (rain) → dašukāram (raindrop)

-anah, with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.

• dig (to pour) → deganah ((act of) pouring)
  
• miš (to see) → mešanah (sight)
  
• lgut (to buy) → lgotanah (shopping)

-na (-ra after t or d; -iyāna after Cy, -uvāna after Cv) with lengthening denotes a quality.

• māl (to keep together) → mālna (union)
  
• hælvē (fruit) → šaulviyāna (fertility) (morphemically //hyaulviyāna//)
  
• åbdv (to swell, blow up) → åbduvāna (swollenness, bloatiness)
• blut (to clean) → blūtra (cleanliness)
• Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an -aus- adjectival verb (e.g. chlæraus- ((to be) easy) → chlærausna (easiness)) and in a few exceptions.
• Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix (e.g. vald (to (be) open) → uvaldra (opening, state of being open)).

-išam has the same meaning as -na, but it's rarer.

• yųlniltas (edible) → yųlniltešam (edibility)
•  yālv (to be sweet (taste)) → yālvišam (sweetness)
• ñailūh (ice) → ñailūvišam (coldness)
• nevy (to model, to give a form) → nevīšam (plastic) (This word underwent a meaning shift from "modellability" to a common material with that quality, replacing the derived form nevīšandhūs previously used. "Modellability" is nyaviyāna in contemporary Chlouvānem.)

-āmita (-yāmita when used with nouns with thematic e or i), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English -ism.

• lalteh (friend (female)) → laltyāmita (friendship)
  
•  ēmīla (tiger) → ēmīlāmita (nobility (quality); most important people in society)
  
• ñæltah (sister (male's)) → ñæltāmita (brotherhood)

-tsām (-utsām after ñ, š, and voiced stops except d(h)), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.

•  māl (to keep together) → māltsām (number)
•  lij (to sing) → lejutsām (choir)
•  dhāḍ (to speak) → dhāḍutsām (voice)
• kul (to say) → kultsām (word) (irregular lack of middle-grade ablaut)

-rṣūs (-ṛṣūs after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.

• yaud (to catch) → yaudṛṣūs (trap)
• miš (to see) → meširṣūs (eye (literary, rare))
• hær (to kiss) → hærṣūs (lips (pair of))

-gis denotes something used for doing an action, not always synonymous with -rṣūs. -t-gis becomes -ñjis.

•  mešīn (eye) → mešīlgis (glasses (pair of))
•  tug (to beat) → tulgis (drumstick)
•  lgut (to buy) → lguñjis (money, currency)

-oe (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.

•  hal (to call) → haloe (name, noun)
•  peith (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → peithoe (development; the way something is carried out)
• yųl (to eat) → yąloe (meal)

-īn plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English -er); usually it is a person, but not always.

• bhi (to take care of; to care for) → bhayīn (someone who takes care; guardian)
• tug (to beat) → togīn (heart)
•  lgut (to buy) → lgotīn (buyer)

-āvi denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.

•  lameṣa (coconut palm) → laṃṣāvi (coconut)
•  mešanah (sight) → mešanąvi (knowledge)
• yųl (to eat) → yųlāvi (strength (literary, rare))

-āmis, with lengthening, means "made of X".

• tāmira (rock, stone) → tāmirāmis (stone tool)
•  tarlā (knowledge, science) → tārlāmis (wisdom)
•  lil (to live) → līlāmis (a blissful place)
• Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either h, s, or m) do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ñaryāh (mountain) → ñaryāmis (mountainous area)).

-ikā has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.

•  daša (rain) → dāšikā (monsoon) (irregular lengthening)
•  hær (to kiss) → hærikā (love (literary, rare))
• lalāruṇa (giant domestic lizard) → lalārauṇikā (knight mounting a lalāruṇa)

-dhūs means "having X".

• dara (activity) → daradhūs (verb)
• šaṇṭrās (field, soil) → šaṇṭrādhūs (countryside)
• hælvē (fruit) → hælvidhūs (fruiting tree; literary: pregnant woman)

-bān and -ūrah are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule.

• hælvē (fruit) → hælvēbān (orchard)
• lil (to live) → lilūrah (world)
• peith (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → peithūrah (passage)

-(l)āṇa forms a true collective noun:

• lalteh (friend (female)) → laltelāṇa (group of friends)
• jīma (character, symbol, letter) → jīmalāṇa (writing system)
• maiva (word) → maivalāṇa (lexicon)

-(l)ænah denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit.

•  haisah (pineapple) → haisænah (pineapple tree)
•  maɂika (uncooked rice) → maɂikænah (rice plant)
• šikālas (prickly pear) → šikālænah (prickly pear cactus)

-yūs is used with toponyms and is one of the most common ways to form demonyms. As many of the nouns these words are derived from are proper nouns and of non-Chlouvānem origin, there are often irregular formations, e.g. using only a part of the original word.

• Līlasuṃghāṇa → līlasuṃghāṇyūs
• Cami → camiyūs
• Ajāɂilbādhi → ajāɂilbādhyūs

-(g)arim is often found with the meaning of "that has to be X"; usually, a synonymous word may be formed by -s derivation from a necessitative stem, but some -(g)arim words have their own specialized meaning:

• vvlur- (to believe) → vvlurgarim (miracle)
• miš- (to see) → mišarim (attraction) (also memikṣūs)
• tṛl- (to know, understand) → tṛlgarim (rule) (not synonymous with tartṛlsūs, meaning "needed knowledge, prerequisite")

-yai (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.
It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.

• vīhatam (farm) → vīhātyai (farmer; farm's)
• svāṣṭa (armor) → svāṣṭyai (armored knight)
• bilumbida (sodium) + talyelīm (chlorine) → bilumbītalyelīyai (sodium chloride)

-ceh, -cænah, and -cañīh (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in -cæñ-cañīh:

• samin (child) → samiñcænah (little child)
• ēmīla (tiger) → ēmīlcañīh (cat)
• pǣka (taste) → pǣcicænah (hors d'œuvre, entrée)

Similarly, -rarā (a likely Laiputaši borrowing) is used as an augmentative, but is only found in informal styles.

• dårṣa (cool, nice) → dårṣararā (fantastic)
• jāmṝṣa (dam) → jāmṝṣararā (a huge dam)
• alūs (bottle) → alūrarā (a big bottle)

Verb-forming morphemes

Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially dṛke (to do, make), but also jilde (to do an action), jānake (to feel (physical)), and gyake (to be). Some examples:

• āmaya (collection) → āmayadṛke (to collect)
• språma (glue) → språñjilde (to glue)
• jålkha (cold (sensation)) → jålkhajānake (to be/feel cold)
• ñailūh (ice) → tæñailūgyake (to freeze) (note the tæ- dynamic prefix).

The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with a long vowel) and -ve(y)- (-vi(y)- in the past tense). -ṛ reduplicates as ṝ, but becomes a in the root.
Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that for motion verbs only multidirectional ones have a frequentative form (with iterative meaning); the multidirectionals already act as frequentative forms of the monodirectionals.

• dṛ- (to do) → dṝdave- (to repetitively do)
• na-jaly- (to happen) → najājlive- (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur) (jaly- reduplicates as jā-jli-, with the i from the root y).
• -jaly- (to be) + various prefixes → bījājlive- (to cease to be); galajājlive- (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
• tvorg- (to fear) → totvargve- (to fear over and over again) (tvo- reduplicates as to- instead of tva-).
• låvy- (to slip) → laulavive- (to slip around here and there) (-å- reduplicates as -au- and becomes a in the root).

Note that nairīveke conjugates as a frequentative verb, but is not frequentative and does not have frequentative forms.
Frequentative perfect stems have the ablauted vowel in the reduplication and a long one in the root (cf. miš-, bare frequentative mīmišve-, perfect frequentative memīšve-); both vowels are long for non-ablauted stems (cf. nāmv-, nānamve-, nānāmve-).
Inverse ablauting roots have similar rules: the bare frequentative uses the reduplication of the nonreduced root and the reduced vowel in the root itself (vald- → va-uld-ve- → voldve-); the frequentative perfect is like the normal frequentative of other verbs, with the long vowel in the reduplication only (vald- → vāvaldve-).

In many cases, frequentatives are used with an iterative meaning; the latter, if needed for disambiguation, may be specified by the particle dīdān.

Adjectival verbs

Adjectival verbs, however, do have some ways to be derived from other parts of speech.

-ūk-ke is the most common adjectival verb-forming suffix, denoting something strictly related to an object or a verb. Note that they are all thematic verbs, even if their infinitive is contracted (Archaic Chl. -ūkake → Classical and Modern -ūkke). Often they are interchangeable with the genitive form of the noun they derived from:

• avyāṣa (time) → avyāṣūkke ([to be] temporal)
• chlærūm (light) → chlærūkke (of the light)
• daša (rain) → dašūkke (rainy, concerning rain)


-uy-a-ke is a rarer variant of -ūk-ke, most commonly found for qualities related to people, but not exclusively (see third example):

• jāyim (girl) → jāyimuyake (girly, girlish)
• saṃhāram (boy) → saṃhāruyake (boyish)
• irūtākalam (atom) → irūtāruyake (atomic) (the -r is etymological from Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi)

-aus-a-ke (rarely -us-a-ke) forms adjectival verbs related to a quality that is applied to some object, but more abstractly related than those formed with -ūkke; sometimes they are only figurative:

• chlærūm (light) → chlærausake (easy)
• pāṇi (side) → pāṇyausake (peripheral, less important)
• namęlь (to make an effort, to apply oneself, to work harder) → namęliausake (Stakhanovite)
• Nouns ending in -ā typically only add -sь- (-si-ke):
  • laikā (innocence) → laikāsike (innocent)

-nilt-a-ke translates English -able, and the circumfix uṣ- -niltake translates to "un- -able" or, sometimes, "difficult to X". The rare ñǣ- -niltake translates as "easy to X".
The uṣ- prefix has the allomorphs ū- (before voiced stops), uš- (before c and ch), and u- (before l+consonant); uṣ- plus any sibilant becomes ukṣ-.

• tṛl (to know, understand) → tṛlniltake (understandable) → uṣṭṛlniltake (uncomprehensible; difficult to understand) / ñǣtṛlniltake (easy to understand)
• yųl (to eat) → yųlniltake (edible) → uṣyųlniltake (unedible)
• lgut (to buy) → lgutniltake (buyable) → ulgutniltake (not buyable)

-ṣeni-ke (morph. seny-ke, all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the -dhūs derivative. u- and i- stems (thus -uh, -ih, -us...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.

• rahēlah (health) → rahēlṣenike (healthy)
• nakṣuma (music) → nakṣuṃṣenike (having a musical talent)
• meimairuh (emerald) → meimairūṣenike (emeraldine, emerald-like)

Compound verbs

Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:

• dṛke (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. bikṣurdṛke "to deodorize" < bikṣurga "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (yināṃdṛke "to protect" < yinām "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (āmayadṛke "to collect" < āmaya "collection").
• kitte (to put) is used for a meaning of addition of the nominal root or its characteristics to something (cf. nanūkkitte "to add salt" < nanūkah "salt).
• męlike (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as kitte (cf. junyāmęlike "to plant flowers" < junyā "flower").
• jilde (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. lāhajilde "to judge" < lāham "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (dhokajilde "to mean" < dhokam "meaning") or undergoing something (lañšijilde "to marry" < lañši (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena (dašajilde "to rain" < daša "rain").
• gyake (to be) is used, like in one meaning of dṛke, for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is pṛšcāṃgyake "to be pleasing" < pṛšcām "something pleasing").
• jānake (to feel) has a meaning partially overlapping with gyake (and dṛke), particularly marking the "feeling" of a (usually uncontrollable) condition (jålkhajānake "to be cold" < jålkha "cold").
• milke (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (vīrādhmilke "to adopt" < vīrādhen "orphan"; mailьlut(a)milke "to take advantage" < mailьluta "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. rantamilke "to peel (fruits)" < rantas "peel"), and also overlapping partially with kitte and męlike in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (prātamilke "to get windy; (figur.) to accelerate" < prātas "wind" - cf. prātajilde "to be windy").
• bismilke (to take away) and bīdṛke (to destroy) are used, more commonly than milke, for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (ssūbismilke "to calm down" < ssūgis "something that worries"; lilembīdṛke "(euphem.) to kill" < liloe "life").

Sometimes, the most meaningful element of a compound verb is not otherwise found as a standalone word in Chlouvānem, as in pṛšcāṃjalle (to like), or hārlājmęlike (to prefer).

Prefixes

Prefixes are a major part of Chlouvānem derivational morphology. Most of them are the same as for positional and motion verbs — for their formation and use, see the related section. Most prefixes are used with verbs, and are found with nouns only in derived forms; some of them, however, can be used also or exclusively with nouns and adjectives. Prefixes derive usually from Proto-Lahob, but a few chiefly nominal ones are from Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi words.
Here follows a complete list of all prefixes used in Chlouvānem and their meaning. When two prefixes are divided by a wave dash, the first is lative and the second is ablative; NOM marks meanings of nouns derived with that prefix.

Positional and motional prefixes

• ta- 〜 tų- - generic direction

• ān- 〜 yana- - on, above
• šu- 〜 šer- - under, below
• khl- 〜 kel- - between
• gin- 〜 ją- - among
• nī- 〜 ani- - within/from within inside
• ū(b)- 〜 yom- - close to
• bis- 〜 bara- - far, away
• tad- (tata- before l) 〜 tasi- - attached to; against
• įs- 〜 hos- - hanging
• na(ñ)- 〜 neni- - inside
• kau- 〜 kuvi- - outside
• viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa- - opposite; somewhere else
• kami- 〜 kįla- - around
• pri- 〜 paro- - behind
• mai- 〜 mīram- - in front of
• vai- 〜 vǣ- - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
• sāṭ- 〜 ṣlū- - next to; along; on the side of
• lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)- - in the center of
• vyā- 〜 veši- - left
• māha- 〜 mege- - right
• pid- - facing (positional only)
• nal- - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
• vād- - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement

Motional prefixes

• be- 〜 ter- - along the surface
• gala- 〜 hali- - through, across
• naš- - completely, until the end; NOM: omni-, pan-, entirely
• vod- - avoiding
• paṣ- - ahead, beyond; also NOM: further, again, re-
• sam- - movement to the following place/person/object in a set; NOM: after, post-

Verbal-only prefixes

• tæ(m)- - inceptive/inchoative
• raš- - to do something a bit more than needed (ral- or rar- before voiced consonants)
• yā- - too much
• iva- - completely, also intensive
• nare- - applicative (nar- before another prefix, cf. the common form narta- for "to reach"-verbs)
• min- - transitivizer of intransitive verbs

Other prefixes

• o- - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (os- before vowels)
• tail- - multi-, pluri-
• emib(u)- or tūt(u)- - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
• lani- - same, fellow
• vre- - bad
• demi- - self-

Specific terms

Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to a Lällshag root instead of a Chlouvānem one:

Used in politics and/or the arts:

• -nædani has two main meanings: -ism (as in a doctrine) in a political sense, and -esque in the arts, cf. yaivcārṇædani "communism" (< yaiva "all", cār- "to have"), or lanæmyainædani "in the style of writer Naryejūramāvi Lanæmyai Mæmihomah".
  • -nædǣnah is the term for a person that follows such a doctrine or style, cf. yaivcārṇædǣnah "communist"; lanæmyainædǣnah "someone whose writing is Lanæmyaiësque".
  • Note that lija and lejīn (lit. "song" and "singer") were formerly alternatives to these. They notably remain in nāɂahilūṃlija "politico-religious doctrine inspired by Great Inquisitor Kælahīmāvi Nāɂahilūma Martayinām; Yunyalīlti religious extremism" and nāɂahilūṃlejīn, as well as in arāmilija "pacifism".

Used for medical terminology:

• -gulas usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ryukagulas "masochism" from ryuka "pain".
  • -gulašålyē is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ryukagulašålyē "masochist".
• -ræṣka is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. nalekiræṣka "obesity" from Lällshag naleki "fat"; vrayegårlæṣka "dysphagia" (note dissimilation of -rr-) from vre- (bad) and egåram (stomach).
  • -ræṣkanis is the term for someone affected by a -ræṣka, e.g. nalekiræṣkanis "obese", vrayegårlæṣkanis "dysphagic".
• -ītsun is a rarer alternative to -ræṣka, e.g. vrayobulītsun "asplenia" (vre- (bad) + obula (spleen)), or lagukītsun "paralysis" (the latter with the root of Lällshag gahoke (still)).
  • -ītsunis is the corresponding term for affected organisms, e.g. vrayobulītsunis "aspleniac", lagukītsunis "paralyzed".
• -yūtan is used for inflammatory diseases, cf. "-itis", like ṇīṭyūtan (dermatitis) or āḍhyāsnūliyūtan (meningitis).

Compounding

• tarlā (knowledge) is used as the head element of compounds, with a meaning like -logy in English. Sometimes the meaning is only abstracted (see second example) or has changed with time (see third example):
  • babhrām (land) → babhrātarlā (geography)
  • smoḍ- (to count, to enumerate) → smoṇḍarlā (mathematics)
  • ladragyalah (inn) → ladragyaltarlā (economics)

See also

• Chlouvānem syntax
• Chlouvānem positional and motion verbs
• Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs