Kämpya: Difference between revisions
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It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although far from all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect. | It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although far from all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect. | ||
==Brief Description== | ==Brief Description== | ||
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It is usually written using a script based on the Burmese alphabet. | It is usually written using a script based on the Burmese alphabet. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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The vowel system is quite simple, with 5 monophthongs and 4 diphthongs. | The vowel system is quite simple, with 5 monophthongs and 4 diphthongs. | ||
====Monophthongs==== | ====Monophthongs==== | ||
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| Low || || /a/ || | | Low || || /a/ || | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Diphthongs==== | ====Diphthongs==== | ||
The following diphthongs are found /ai/, /au/, /ei/ and /ou/. | The following diphthongs are found /ai/, /au/, /ei/ and /ou/. | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
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# [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/. | # [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/. | ||
# [ⱱ] and [ʋ] are in free variation. | # [ⱱ] and [ʋ] are in free variation. | ||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
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In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong. | In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong. | ||
===Consonant Neutralisations=== | ===Consonant Neutralisations=== | ||
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If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is simply pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everyone" is pronounced [áˈlòṳⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /áˈlòṳnjà/ - "everyone's (alienable)", which is pronounced [áˈlòṳnjà]. | If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is simply pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everyone" is pronounced [áˈlòṳⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /áˈlòṳnjà/ - "everyone's (alienable)", which is pronounced [áˈlòṳnjà]. | ||
===Stress and Phonation=== | ===Stress and Phonation=== | ||
One syllable in each word bears stress. Vowel phonation is phonemic on stressed syllables but not elsewhere. The phonations are harsh <â> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_voice], breathy <ä> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathy_voice], and glottalised <á>. Harsh and breathy vowels are pronounced long, glottalised vowels are pronounced short, and with glottalisation of the following consonant (or with a glottal stop [ʔ] in the case of word final syllables). | One syllable in each word bears stress. Vowel phonation is phonemic on stressed syllables but not elsewhere. The phonations are harsh <â> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_voice], breathy <ä> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathy_voice], and glottalised <á>. Harsh and breathy vowels are pronounced long, glottalised vowels are pronounced short, and with glottalisation of the following consonant (or with a glottal stop [ʔ] in the case of word final syllables). | ||
===Allophones of /h/=== | ===Allophones of /h/=== | ||
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/ˈbóhsòut/ - "bauxite", can be pronounced either [ˈbóʡsòut] or [ˈbósʰòut]. | /ˈbóhsòut/ - "bauxite", can be pronounced either [ˈbóʡsòut] or [ˈbósʰòut]. | ||
===Tone Patterns=== | ===Tone Patterns=== | ||
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'''Class 3''' | '''Class 3''' | ||
This is used for adverbs and non-restrictive adjectives. | This is used for adverbs and non-restrictive adjectives. | ||
====Stressed Syllables==== | ====Stressed Syllables==== | ||
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| Class 3 || High Pitch + Tense Voice || Rising Pitch + Faucalised Voice || High Pitch + Glottal Stop | | Class 3 || High Pitch + Tense Voice || Rising Pitch + Faucalised Voice || High Pitch + Glottal Stop | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Unstressed Syllables==== | ====Unstressed Syllables==== | ||
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| all + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà | | all + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà | ||
|} | |} | ||
== Morphology== | == Morphology== | ||
Being an isolating language, Kämpya only has a few morphological processes. | Being an isolating language, Kämpya only has a few morphological processes. | ||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
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As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation). | As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation). | ||
===Transitivity=== | ===Transitivity=== | ||
There is also a morphological process to derive transitive verbs from intransitive ones. It affects the onset of the stressed syllable. What exactly happens depends on the first consonant of the stressed syllable. | There is also a morphological process to derive transitive verbs from intransitive ones. It affects the onset of the stressed syllable. What exactly happens depends on the first consonant of the stressed syllable. | ||
====Aspirated Consonants==== | ====Aspirated Consonants==== | ||
For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and <Vh> (where V is a high toned reduplication of the next vowel, except that only the first element of a diphthong is copied) is infixed immediately after it (and before any second consonant in the cluster). So from /pʰláuʔt/ - "float (intransitive)", we can derive /páˈhláuʔt/ - "to float (transitive)". | For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and <Vh> (where V is a high toned reduplication of the next vowel, except that only the first element of a diphthong is copied) is infixed immediately after it (and before any second consonant in the cluster). So from /pʰláuʔt/ - "float (intransitive)", we can derive /páˈhláuʔt/ - "to float (transitive)". | ||
====Voiceless Nasals==== | ====Voiceless Nasals==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix /Vh/ immediately after them e.g. /m̥â̰n/ - "to be correct" -> /máˈhâ̰n/ - "to make something correct". | If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix /Vh/ immediately after them e.g. /m̥â̰n/ - "to be correct" -> /máˈhâ̰n/ - "to make something correct". | ||
====Unaspirated Obstruents==== | ====Unaspirated Obstruents==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with unaspirated /p/, /t/, /k/ or /s/, then it is aspirated e.g. /sjáuʔk/ - "to walk (intransitive)" -> /sʰjáuʔk/ - "to walk (transitive)", or /pjḛ̂/ - "to come loose" -> /pʰjḛ̂/ - "to loosen". | If the stressed syllable begins with unaspirated /p/, /t/, /k/ or /s/, then it is aspirated e.g. /sjáuʔk/ - "to walk (intransitive)" -> /sʰjáuʔk/ - "to walk (transitive)", or /pjḛ̂/ - "to come loose" -> /pʰjḛ̂/ - "to loosen". | ||
====Voiced Nasals and Approximants==== | ====Voiced Nasals and Approximants==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiced nasal, then the transitive form is derived by making it voiceless e.g. /ˈnwḛ̂bò/ - "to be new" -> /ˈn̥wḛ̂bò/ - "to make new, to refresh", or /mjíʔŋ/ - "to rise" -> /m̥jíʔŋ/ - "to raise". | If the stressed syllable begins with a voiced nasal, then the transitive form is derived by making it voiceless e.g. /ˈnwḛ̂bò/ - "to be new" -> /ˈn̥wḛ̂bò/ - "to make new, to refresh", or /mjíʔŋ/ - "to rise" -> /m̥jíʔŋ/ - "to raise". | ||
====Clusters of /h/ + Approximant==== | ====Clusters of /h/ + Approximant==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + /Vh/ e.g. /hwéʔg/ - "to be fun" -> /wéˈhéʔg/ - "to make fun", or /hljḭ̂ŋ/ - "to be possible" -> /líˈhjḭ̂ŋ/ - "to make possible". | If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + /Vh/ e.g. /hwéʔg/ - "to be fun" -> /wéˈhéʔg/ - "to make fun", or /hljḭ̂ŋ/ - "to be possible" -> /líˈhjḭ̂ŋ/ - "to make possible". | ||
====Approximants==== | ====Approximants==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with an approximant (or sequence of /l/ + another approximant, then /h/ is inserted immediately before the approximant(s) e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "to laugh" -> /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh". | If the stressed syllable begins with an approximant (or sequence of /l/ + another approximant, then /h/ is inserted immediately before the approximant(s) e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "to laugh" -> /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh". | ||
====Plain /h/==== | ====Plain /h/==== | ||
If the stressed syllable begins with plain /h/, /á/ is inserted immediately before the /h/ e.g. /hàṳŋ/ - "to be old" -> /áˈhàṳŋ/ - "to age (transitive)". | If the stressed syllable begins with plain /h/, /á/ is inserted immediately before the /h/ e.g. /hàṳŋ/ - "to be old" -> /áˈhàṳŋ/ - "to age (transitive)". | ||
====No Onset==== | ====No Onset==== | ||
If there are no onset consonants in the stressed syllable, then /h/ is inserted e.g. /è̤/ - "to be cold" -> /hè̤/ - "to chill (transitive)". | If there are no onset consonants in the stressed syllable, then /h/ is inserted e.g. /è̤/ - "to be cold" -> /hè̤/ - "to chill (transitive)". | ||
====Other cases==== | ====Other cases==== | ||
In other cases, /Vh/ is infixed immediately after the first consonant of the stressed syllable e.g. /ˈdò̤mì/ - "to rest (intransitive)" -> /dóˈhò̤mì/ - "to rest (transitive)". | In other cases, /Vh/ is infixed immediately after the first consonant of the stressed syllable e.g. /ˈdò̤mì/ - "to rest (intransitive)" -> /dóˈhò̤mì/ - "to rest (transitive)". | ||
===Reciprocal Voice=== | ===Reciprocal Voice=== | ||
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If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. /ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill" -> /méˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh" -> /lá ˈhlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make each other laugh". | If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. /ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill" -> /méˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh" -> /lá ˈhlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make each other laugh". | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
Kämpya has topic comment syntax [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic-prominent_language], and is also syntactically ergative [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_ergativity#Syntactic_ergativity] and secundative [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundative_language]. | Kämpya has topic comment syntax [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic-prominent_language], and is also syntactically ergative [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_ergativity#Syntactic_ergativity] and secundative [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundative_language]. | ||
===Copula=== | ===Copula=== | ||
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If there is no pronoun in the sentence, then tense is not marked e.g. | If there is no pronoun in the sentence, then tense is not marked e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì/ | /ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì/ | ||
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The guardian is / was / will be the enemy. | The guardian is / was / will be the enemy. | ||
===Intransitive Sentences=== | ===Intransitive Sentences=== | ||
Intransitive sentences generally have free word order. If the verb is in focus [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)], then it will come after the subject. If the subject is in focus, then it will come after the verb. So both of the following are grammatical: | Intransitive sentences generally have free word order. If the verb is in focus [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)], then it will come after the subject. If the subject is in focus, then it will come after the verb. So both of the following are grammatical: | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèmì áˈlôṵn/ | /ˈḛ̂nèmì áˈlôṵn/ | ||
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The enemy is / was / will be '''alone'''. | The enemy is / was / will be '''alone'''. | ||
as well as | as well as | ||
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The '''enemy''' is / was / will be alone. | The '''enemy''' is / was / will be alone. | ||
Note that intransitive sentences are not marked for TAM. | Note that intransitive sentences are not marked for TAM. | ||
====Constituent Deletion==== | ====Constituent Deletion==== | ||
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He / She / It / They is / are / was / were / will be alone. | He / She / It / They is / are / was / were / will be alone. | ||
====With Postpositional Phrases==== | ====With Postpositional Phrases==== | ||
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These all mean "The enemy set off / sets off / will set off from ˈkʰóʔnàt". However sentences like */kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì/ are ungrammatical i.e. Kämpya does not permit the word order Intransitive Verb - Postpositional Phrase - Subject. | These all mean "The enemy set off / sets off / will set off from ˈkʰóʔnàt". However sentences like */kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì/ are ungrammatical i.e. Kämpya does not permit the word order Intransitive Verb - Postpositional Phrase - Subject. | ||
====With Pronouns==== | ====With Pronouns==== | ||
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You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | ||
===Transitive Sentences=== | ===Transitive Sentences=== | ||
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In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-ja/ e.g. | In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-ja/ e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈkʰwèi̤=jà káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/ | ||
dog=ERG bite guardian | |||
enemy | It was the enemy that bit the guardians. | ||
====Topicalisation==== | ====Topicalisation==== | ||
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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà | /ˈsíʔtà kʰwèi̤=jà káiʔk/ | ||
guardian | guardian dog=ERG bite | ||
The guardians were | The guardians were bitten by the enemy. | ||
The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | ||
/ | /kʰwèi̤ káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/ | ||
dog bite guardian | |||
The dog bit the guardians. | |||
The enemy killed the guardians. | The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ jà káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the enemy that did the killing. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the enemy, and the new information is that they killed the guardians. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese. | ||
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */ˈsíʔtà kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that. | |||
====Subject Pronouns==== | ====Subject Pronouns==== | ||
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The tensed pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g. | The tensed pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g. | ||
/jó= | /jó=káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/ | ||
2PS.PROG.NOM= | 2PS.PROG.NOM=bite guardian | ||
You are | You are biting the guardian. | ||
As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà jó= | /ˈsíʔtà jó=káiʔk/ | ||
guardian 2PS.PROG.NOM=bite | |||
guardian | You are biting the guardian. | ||
However, the subject pronoun still come immediately before the verb, so sentences like */jó ˈsíʔtà | However, the subject pronoun still come immediately before the verb, so sentences like */jó ˈsíʔtà káiʔk/ are ungrammatical. | ||
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However, using one of these pronouns makes the verb intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g. | However, using one of these pronouns makes the verb intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g. | ||
/ | /kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/ | ||
dog 2PS.ACC bite | |||
The | The dog will bite you. | ||
or | or | ||
/bwó | /bwó=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite dog | |||
You will be bitten by the dog. | |||
Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=jà/ is ungrammatical here. | |||
When both the subject and the object of a verb are pronouns, the subject comes first e.g. | |||
jó=swí=káiʔk | |||
2PS.PROG.NOM=3PS.ACC=bite | |||
=====Emphatic Forms==== | |||
There are also emphatic forms of each object pronoun. These are the same as the pre-consonantal forms listed above, except that they are in Tone Class 2 e.g. | |||
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mḭ̂/ | |||
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lâ̰n-/ | |||
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwò̤/ | |||
3PS: /swḭ̂-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /sḭ̂w-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
Reflexive: /sḛ̂-/ | |||
====Subject Deletion==== | ====Subject Deletion==== | ||
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It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | ||
/ | /káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/ | ||
kill guardian | kill guardian | ||
He / She / It / They | He / She / It / They bit the guardian. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà | /ˈsíʔtà káiʔk/ | ||
guardian | guardian bite | ||
The guardian was | The guardian was bitten. | ||
This carries no ambiguity, because the guardian is always in the absolutive case. | This carries no ambiguity, because the guardian is always in the absolutive case. | ||
====Antipassive Voice==== | |||
To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | |||
/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk/ | |||
dog ANTPASS=bite | |||
The dog bit (someone). | |||
However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g. | |||
/kʰwèi̤ θw=áhlôṵn/ | |||
dog ANTPASS=abandon | |||
The dog abandoned (someone). | |||
Revision as of 08:10, 22 November 2013
Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).
It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders of the settlement were a mostly either Burmese, Australian or Taiwanese, and as such Kämpya is most heavily influenced by the languages of those countries (especially Burmese). However, a later wave of Spanish speaking migrants from South America also had a large impact on the language.
It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although far from all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
Brief Description
Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. It belongs to category 4 in Milewski's typology [1] i.e. it uses the same marker (the clitic -ja) to mark both possessors and ergative subjects. Possessors are marked for alienability [2] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [3].
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast stress and phonation e.g. /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" vs. /ˈsíʔtà/ - "guardian" vs. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister", or /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone" vs. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everything / everyone".
In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the nouns /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" and /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone", which both have High Tone on the first syllable and Low Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjectives /sìˈtá̰/ - "wing" and /àˈlóṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which both have Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
It is usually written using a script based on the Burmese alphabet.
Phonology
Vowels
The vowel system is quite simple, with 5 monophthongs and 4 diphthongs.
Monophthongs
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | /i/ | /u/ | |
| Mid | /e/ | /o/ | |
| Low | /a/ |
Diphthongs
The following diphthongs are found /ai/, /au/, /ei/ and /ou/.
Consonants
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Lateral | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | pʰ p b | tʰ t d | kʰ k g | ||||
| Nasal | m̥ m | n̥ n | ŋ | ||||
| Fricative | θ ð | sʰ s z | (ɬ) | (ç) | h | ||
| Semivowel | (ʍ) w | j | |||||
| Other Sonorants | ⱱ~ʋ | ɾ | l |
- /b/, /d/ and /g/ are often pronounced as slightly implosive.
- [ɬ] corresponds to Burmese */l̥/, and English */sl/. It is underlyingly /hl/.
- [ç] is underlyingly /hj/.
- [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/.
- [ⱱ] and [ʋ] are in free variation.
Phonotactics
In the standard dialect, only syllables of the form (C) (C) V (C) are permitted.
Initial consonant clusters can consist of any non-semivowel consonant followed by /w/ or /j/, except that /ŋj/ syllable onsets are forbidden.
In writing and formal speech, syllables can also begin with /pʰl/, /pl/, /bl/, /kʰl/, /kl/ and /gl/ (i.e. any non-alveolar stop + /l/). But outside formal speech, the /l/ is usually replaced with /j/.
In unstressed syllables, the coda consonant can only be a stop or a nasal.
In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong.
Consonant Neutralisations
Voicing and aspiration distinctions are neutralised in syllable codas, though they are still present underlyingly e.g. /sjúˈðâ̰d/ - "city" is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰t], but when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /sjúˈðâ̰djà/ - "of the city (alienable)", it is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰djà].
In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ].
If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is simply pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everyone" is pronounced [áˈlòṳⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /áˈlòṳnjà/ - "everyone's (alienable)", which is pronounced [áˈlòṳnjà].
Stress and Phonation
One syllable in each word bears stress. Vowel phonation is phonemic on stressed syllables but not elsewhere. The phonations are harsh <â> [4], breathy <ä> [5], and glottalised <á>. Harsh and breathy vowels are pronounced long, glottalised vowels are pronounced short, and with glottalisation of the following consonant (or with a glottal stop [ʔ] in the case of word final syllables).
Allophones of /h/
Between two vowels, /h/ is voiced to [ɦ] e.g. /máháˈkáʔp/ - "eternity" is pronounced /máɦáˈkáʔp/
/h/ can occur in the coda of stressed syllables. It's realisation depends on the phonation of the previous vowel, but is always pharyngeal.
If the stressed vowel has breathy phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a pharyngeal fricative [ħ] e.g. /à̤h/ - "question" is pronounced [à̤ħ]. Compare /ŋà̤/ - "fish" which is pronounced [ŋà̤].
If the stressed vowel has glottalised phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a pharyngeal stop [ʡ] e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness" is pronounced [dáʡ]. Compare /táʔ/ - "a wish" (in a nostalgic context) which is pronounced with a glottal stop [táʔ].
/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation.
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àkjàuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g.
/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].
/à̤h àkjàuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàkjàuⁿ].
/dáʔh àkjàuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàkjàuⁿ].
Also, if a coda [ʡ] (i.e. /h/ after a glottalised stressed vowel) is followed by a consonant that can be aspirated (i.e. /p/, /t/, /k/, or /s/), there is a tendency to manifest this as aspiration on the consonant instead e.g.
/ˈbóhsòut/ - "bauxite", can be pronounced either [ˈbóʡsòut] or [ˈbósʰòut].
Tone Patterns
There are 4 phonemic tones: High á, Falling â, Low à and Rising ǎ. While it may seem that the pitch of each syllable is random, actually it is not. It changes regularly depending on how the word is being used in a sentence (e.g. restrictive vs. non-restrictive, alienable vs. inalienable possessor etc.), in conjuction with the phonation on the syllable (for stressed syllables) or the location of the syllable relative to the stressed syllable (for unstressed syllables).
In terms of assigning tone, there are three parts of speech:
Class 1 This is the default, catch-all class. It is used for most nouns and verbs.
Class 2 This is used for inalienable possessors, nouns used attributively, restrictive adjectives, and verbs used in compounds.
Class 3 This is used for adverbs and non-restrictive adjectives.
Stressed Syllables
This table shows how the tone of a stressed syllable (for each of the three phonations) depends on the tone class.
| Harsh Phonation a̰ | Breathy Phonation a̤ | Glottalised Phonation aʔ | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Class 1 | (High) Falling Pitch + Harsh Voice | Low Pitch + Breathy Voice | High Pitch + Glottal Stop |
| Class 2 | Low Pitch + Harsh Voice | Low Pitch + Breathy Voice | Low Pitch + Glottal Stop |
| Class 3 | High Pitch + Tense Voice | Rising Pitch + Faucalised Voice | High Pitch + Glottal Stop |
Unstressed Syllables
Here the situation is simpler. For unstressed syllables, the tone can only be high or low, and does not depend on the phonation of the stressed syllable.
For Class 1 words, the tone is high before the stressed syllable, and low after it.
For Class 2 words, unstressed syllables always have high tone.
For Class 3 words, unstressed syllables always have low tone.
Examples
Here is a table with examples of how roots change classes depending on what part of speech they belong to:
| English Translation | Class 1 | Class 2 | Class 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kämpya | ˈkà̤mpjà | ˈkà̤mpjá | ˈkǎ̤mpjà |
| wing | síˈtâ̰ | síˈtà̰ | sìˈtá̰ |
| guardian | áinˈsíʔtà | ˈsìʔtá | ˈsíʔtà |
| sister | ˈsì̤tà | ˈsì̤tá | ˈsǐ̤tà |
| alone | áˈlôṵn | áˈlòṵn | àˈlóṵn |
| alone + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ | áˈlôṵnjà | áˈlòṵnjá | àˈlóṵnjà |
| all | áˈlòṳn | áˈlòṳn | àˈlǒṳn |
| all + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ | áˈlòṳnjà | áˈlòṳnjá | àˈlǒṳnjà |
Morphology
Being an isolating language, Kämpya only has a few morphological processes.
Pronouns
Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [6]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".
Tenses and aspects are marked on the (subject) pronoun rather than the verb (like Hausa). A sentence without a pronoun can thus be ambiguous as to when it happened. The 4 tenses are: Present Progressive (used for actions that are happening right now), Past Imperfect (also used for present habitual actions, or that are true in general), Perfect, and Future.
In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:
| 1st Person Exclusive | 1st Person Inclusive | 2nd Person | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present Progressive | áim / ámj- / òṵm | wé / wézw- / wḛ̀ | jó / józw- / jò̰ |
| Past Imperfect | áu / ój- / ò̰ji | wéi / wéj- / wèḭ | jéi / jéw- / jèḭ |
| Perfect | áb / ábw- / ò̰b | wíb / wíbw- / wḭ̀b | jéb / jébw- / jṵ̀ⱱ |
| Future | óu / ál- / òṵ | wú / wúl- / wṵ̀ | jú / júl- / jṵ̀ |
As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation).
Transitivity
There is also a morphological process to derive transitive verbs from intransitive ones. It affects the onset of the stressed syllable. What exactly happens depends on the first consonant of the stressed syllable.
Aspirated Consonants
For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and <Vh> (where V is a high toned reduplication of the next vowel, except that only the first element of a diphthong is copied) is infixed immediately after it (and before any second consonant in the cluster). So from /pʰláuʔt/ - "float (intransitive)", we can derive /páˈhláuʔt/ - "to float (transitive)".
Voiceless Nasals
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix /Vh/ immediately after them e.g. /m̥â̰n/ - "to be correct" -> /máˈhâ̰n/ - "to make something correct".
Unaspirated Obstruents
If the stressed syllable begins with unaspirated /p/, /t/, /k/ or /s/, then it is aspirated e.g. /sjáuʔk/ - "to walk (intransitive)" -> /sʰjáuʔk/ - "to walk (transitive)", or /pjḛ̂/ - "to come loose" -> /pʰjḛ̂/ - "to loosen".
Voiced Nasals and Approximants
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiced nasal, then the transitive form is derived by making it voiceless e.g. /ˈnwḛ̂bò/ - "to be new" -> /ˈn̥wḛ̂bò/ - "to make new, to refresh", or /mjíʔŋ/ - "to rise" -> /m̥jíʔŋ/ - "to raise".
Clusters of /h/ + Approximant
If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + /Vh/ e.g. /hwéʔg/ - "to be fun" -> /wéˈhéʔg/ - "to make fun", or /hljḭ̂ŋ/ - "to be possible" -> /líˈhjḭ̂ŋ/ - "to make possible".
Approximants
If the stressed syllable begins with an approximant (or sequence of /l/ + another approximant, then /h/ is inserted immediately before the approximant(s) e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "to laugh" -> /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh".
Plain /h/
If the stressed syllable begins with plain /h/, /á/ is inserted immediately before the /h/ e.g. /hàṳŋ/ - "to be old" -> /áˈhàṳŋ/ - "to age (transitive)".
No Onset
If there are no onset consonants in the stressed syllable, then /h/ is inserted e.g. /è̤/ - "to be cold" -> /hè̤/ - "to chill (transitive)".
Other cases
In other cases, /Vh/ is infixed immediately after the first consonant of the stressed syllable e.g. /ˈdò̤mì/ - "to rest (intransitive)" -> /dóˈhò̤mì/ - "to rest (transitive)".
Reciprocal Voice
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /kâḭŋ/ - "to hold" -> /ká kâḭŋ/ - "to hold each other".
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. /ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill" -> /méˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh" -> /lá ˈhlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make each other laugh".
Syntax
Kämpya has topic comment syntax [7], and is also syntactically ergative [8] and secundative [9].
Copula
Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [10]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. If a pronoun is used, then tense can be marked on the pronoun e.g.
/jó ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jóˈsíʔtà]
2PS.PROG guardian
You are the guardian(s) (right now).
/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]
2PS.PST guardian
You are / were the guardian(s).
/jò̰ ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jò̰ ˈsíʔtà]
2PS.PROG.EMP guardian
You are the guardian(s).
/józw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jóˈzwḛ̂nèmì]
2PS.PROG enemy
You're the enemy (right now).
/jò̰ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jò̰ ˈḛ̂nèmì]
2PS.PROG.EMP enemy
You are the enemy (right now).
If there is no pronoun in the sentence, then tense is not marked e.g.
/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì/
guardian enemy
The guardian is / was / will be the enemy.
Intransitive Sentences
Intransitive sentences generally have free word order. If the verb is in focus [11], then it will come after the subject. If the subject is in focus, then it will come after the verb. So both of the following are grammatical:
/ˈḛ̂nèmì áˈlôṵn/
enemy alone
The enemy is / was / will be alone.
as well as
/áˈlôṵn ˈḛ̂nèmì/
alone enemy
The enemy is / was / will be alone.
Note that intransitive sentences are not marked for TAM.
Constituent Deletion
However, constituents of phrases can be freely deleted, so it is perfectly possible to have one word sentences e.g.
/áˈlôṵn/
alone
He / She / It / They is / are / was / were / will be alone.
With Postpositional Phrases
Likewise, if we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, word order is fairly free e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/ - "from ˈkʰóʔnàt (a place name)", the verb /kúʔn/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèmì/ - "enemy", we can say:
/ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn/
/ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/
/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/
/kúʔn ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/
These all mean "The enemy set off / sets off / will set off from ˈkʰóʔnàt". However sentences like */kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì/ are ungrammatical i.e. Kämpya does not permit the word order Intransitive Verb - Postpositional Phrase - Subject.
With Pronouns
The same tensed pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.
/jó kúʔn/
2PS.PROG depart
You are setting off.
Note that here TAM is marked (on the pronoun). So we can just as easily say:
/jú kúʔn/
2PS.FUT depart
You will set off
And we can use the emphatic forms of the pronouns to say things like:
/jò̰ kúʔn/
2PS.PROG.EMP depart
You will set off.
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jó/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jó ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say:
/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jó kúʔn/
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS.PROG depart
You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
or
/jó kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/
2PS.PROG depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from
You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
Transitive Sentences
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-ja/ e.g.
/ˈkʰwèi̤=jà káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/
dog=ERG bite guardian
It was the enemy that bit the guardians.
Topicalisation
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.
/ˈsíʔtà kʰwèi̤=jà káiʔk/
guardian dog=ERG bite
The guardians were bitten by the enemy.
The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.
/kʰwèi̤ káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/
dog bite guardian
The dog bit the guardians.
The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ jà káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the enemy that did the killing. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the enemy, and the new information is that they killed the guardians. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */ˈsíʔtà kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.
Subject Pronouns
The tensed pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g.
/jó=káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/
2PS.PROG.NOM=bite guardian
You are biting the guardian.
As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.
/ˈsíʔtà jó=káiʔk/
guardian 2PS.PROG.NOM=bite
You are biting the guardian.
However, the subject pronoun still come immediately before the verb, so sentences like */jó ˈsíʔtà káiʔk/ are ungrammatical.
Object Pronouns
There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, but are not marked for tense or number. Here is a list of them:
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
Reflexive: /se-/
However, using one of these pronouns makes the verb intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.
/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/
dog 2PS.ACC bite
The dog will bite you.
or
/bwó=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
2PS.ACC=bite dog
You will be bitten by the dog.
Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=jà/ is ungrammatical here.
When both the subject and the object of a verb are pronouns, the subject comes first e.g.
jó=swí=káiʔk
2PS.PROG.NOM=3PS.ACC=bite
=Emphatic Forms
There are also emphatic forms of each object pronoun. These are the same as the pre-consonantal forms listed above, except that they are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mḭ̂/
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lâ̰n-/
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwò̤/
3PS: /swḭ̂-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /sḭ̂w-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
Reflexive: /sḛ̂-/
Subject Deletion
It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g.
/káiʔk ˈsíʔtà/
kill guardian
He / She / It / They bit the guardian.
/ˈsíʔtà káiʔk/
guardian bite
The guardian was bitten.
This carries no ambiguity, because the guardian is always in the absolutive case.
Antipassive Voice
To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [12]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.
/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk/
dog ANTPASS=bite
The dog bit (someone).
However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.
/kʰwèi̤ θw=áhlôṵn/
dog ANTPASS=abandon
The dog abandoned (someone).