Kämpya: Difference between revisions

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==Brief Description==
==Brief Description==


Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. It belongs to category 4 in Milewski's typology [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milewski's_typology] i.e. it uses the same marker (the clitic -ja) to mark both possessors and ergative subjects. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness].
Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The syntactic alignment is split ergative, with pronouns having nominative accusative alignment, and the rest of the language being ergative. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness].


In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
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/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation.
/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation.


Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àkjàuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g.
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g.


/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
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/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].
/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].


/à̤h àkjàuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàkjàuⁿ].
/à̤h àuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].


/dáʔh àkjàuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàkjàuⁿ].
/dáʔh àuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].




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| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
|-
|-
| alone + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ || áˈlôṵnjà || áˈlòṵnjá || àˈlóṵnjà
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlôṵnjà || áˈlòṵnjá || àˈlóṵnjà
|-
|-
| all || áˈlòṳn || áˈlòṳn || àˈlǒṳn
| all || áˈlòṳn || áˈlòṳn || àˈlǒṳn
|-
|-
| all + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà
| all + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà
|}
|}




== Morphology==
==Pronouns==


Being an isolating language, Kämpya only has a few morphological processes.
Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".


In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:


===Pronouns===
Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".
Tenses and aspects are marked on the (subject) pronoun rather than the verb (like Hausa). A sentence without a pronoun can thus be ambiguous as to when it happened. The 4 tenses are: Present Progressive (used for actions that are happening right now), Past Imperfect (also used for present habitual actions, or that are true in general), Perfect, and Future.


In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:
===Nominative Pronouns===


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person
! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person
|-
|-
| Present Progressive || áim / ámj- / òṵm || wé / wézw- / wḛ̀ || jó / józw- / jò̰
| Before a consonant || ái || wéi || jéi
|-
|-
| Past Imperfect || áu / ój- / ò̰ji || wéi / wéj- / wèḭ || jéi / jéw- / jèḭ
| Before a vowel || ój- || wéj- || jéw-  
|-
|-
| Perfect || áb / ábw- / ò̰b || wíb / wíbw- / wḭ̀b || jéb / jébw- / jṵ̀ⱱ
| Emphatic || òṵ || wèḭ || jèḭ
|-
| Future || óu / ál- / òṵ || wú / wúl- / wṵ̀ || jú / júl- / jṵ̀
|}
|}


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===Transitivity===
====Accusative Pronouns====


There is also a morphological process to derive transitive verbs from intransitive ones. It affects the onset of the stressed syllable. What exactly happens depends on the first consonant of the stressed syllable.
There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, and are not marked for number. Here is a list of them:


1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


====Aspirated Consonants====
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/


For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and <Vh> (where V is a high toned reduplication of the next vowel, except that only the first element of a diphthong is copied) is infixed immediately after it (and before any second consonant in the cluster). So from /pʰláuʔt/ - "float (intransitive)", we can derive /páˈhláuʔt/ - "to float (transitive)".
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


====Voiceless Nasals====
Reflexive: /se-/
 
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix /Vh/ immediately after them e.g. /m̥â̰n/ - "to be correct" -> /máˈhâ̰n/ - "to make something correct".
 
 
====Unaspirated Obstruents====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with unaspirated /p/, /t/, /k/ or /s/, then it is aspirated e.g. /sjáuʔk/ - "to walk (intransitive)" -> /sʰjáuʔk/ - "to walk (transitive)", or /pjḛ̂/ - "to come loose" -> /pʰjḛ̂/ - "to loosen".
 
 
====Voiced Nasals and Approximants====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiced nasal, then the transitive form is derived by making it voiceless e.g. /ˈnwḛ̂bò/ - "to be new" -> /ˈn̥wḛ̂bò/ - "to make new, to refresh", or /mjíʔŋ/ - "to rise" -> /m̥jíʔŋ/ - "to raise".
 
 
====Clusters of /h/ + Approximant====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + /Vh/ e.g. /hwéʔg/ - "to be fun" -> /wéˈhéʔg/ - "to make fun", or /hljḭ̂ŋ/ - "to be possible" -> /líˈhjḭ̂ŋ/ - "to make possible".
 
 
====Approximants====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with an approximant (or sequence of /l/ + another approximant, then /h/ is inserted immediately before the approximant(s) e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "to laugh" -> /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh".
 
 
====Plain /h/====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with plain /h/, /á/ is inserted immediately before the /h/ e.g. /hàṳŋ/ - "to be old" -> /áˈhàṳŋ/ - "to age (transitive)".
 
 
====No Onset====
 
If there are no onset consonants in the stressed syllable, then /h/ is inserted e.g. /è̤/ - "to be cold" -> /hè̤/ - "to chill (transitive)".
 
 
====Other cases====
 
In other cases, /Vh/ is infixed immediately after the first consonant of the stressed syllable e.g. /ˈdò̤mì/ - "to rest (intransitive)" -> /dóˈhò̤mì/ - "to rest (transitive)".
 
 
===Reciprocal Voice===
 
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".
 
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /kâḭŋ/ - "to hold" -> /ká kâḭŋ/ - "to hold each other".
 
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".
 
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. /ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill" -> /méˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh" -> /lá ˈhlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make each other laugh".




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===Copula===
===Copula===


Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_copula]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. If a pronoun is used, then tense can be marked on the pronoun e.g.
Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_copula]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. e.g.
 
 
/jó ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jóˈsíʔtà]
 
2PS.PROG guardian
 
You are the guardian(s) (right now).




/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]
/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]


2PS.PST guardian
2PS guardian


You are / were the guardian(s).
You are / were / will be the guardian(s).




/jò̰ ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jò̰ ˈsíʔtà]


2PS.PROG.EMP guardian
/jéw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂nèmì]


'''You''' are the guardian(s).
2PS enemy


You are / were / will be the enemy.


/józw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jóˈzwḛ̂nèmì]


2PS.PROG enemy
/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì]


You're the enemy (right now).
2PS.EMP enemy


 
'''You''' are the enemy.
/jò̰ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jò̰ ˈḛ̂nèmì]
 
2PS.PROG.EMP enemy
 
'''You''' are the enemy (right now).
 
If there is no pronoun in the sentence, then tense is not marked e.g.




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/ˈḛ̂nèmì áˈlôṵn/
/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/


enemy alone
dog alone


The enemy is / was / will be '''alone'''.
The dog is / was / will be '''alone'''.




as well as
as well as


/áˈlôṵn ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/


alone enemy
alone dog


The '''enemy''' is / was / will be alone.
The '''dog''' is / was / will be alone.




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====With Pronouns====
====With Pronouns====


The same tensed pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.
The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.


/kúʔn/
/jéi kúʔn/


2PS.PROG depart
2PS depart


You are setting off.
You are setting off.


Note that here TAM is marked (on the pronoun). So we can just as easily say:


/kúʔn/
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say:


2PS.FUT depart
/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jéi kúʔn/


You will set off
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS depart
 
And we can use the emphatic forms of the pronouns to say things like:
 
/jò̰ kúʔn/
 
2PS.PROG.EMP depart
 
'''You''' will set off.
 
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jó/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jó ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say:
 
/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jó kúʔn/
 
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS.PROG depart


You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
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or
or


/kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/
/jéi kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/


2PS.PROG depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from
2PS depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from


You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
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===Transitive Sentences===
===Transitive Sentences===


In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-ja/ e.g.
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/ˈkʰwèi̤=káiʔk gáʔɾ/


dog=ERG bite lizard
dog=ERG bite lizard


It was the dog that bit the lizard.
It was the dog that bit the lizard.
However, immediately after an open syllable with a stressed vowel, the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.
/ŋà̤=ɾu káiʔk gáʔɾ/
fish=ERG bite lizard
It was the fish that bit the lizard.




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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.


/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=káiʔk/
/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=káiʔk/


lizard dog=ERG bite
lizard dog=ERG bite
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The dog bit the lizard.
The dog bit the lizard.


The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.


Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.




====Subject Pronouns====
====With Pronouns====


The tensed pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g.
The nominative pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g.


/=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/jéi=káiʔk gáʔɾ/


2PS.PROG.NOM=bite lizard
2PS.NOM=bite lizard


You are biting the lizard.
You are biting the lizard.
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As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.
As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.


/gáʔɾ =káiʔk/
/gáʔɾ jéi=káiʔk/


lizard 2PS.PROG.NOM=bite
lizard 2PS.NOM=bite


You are biting the lizard.
You are biting the lizard.
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====Object Pronouns====
When a verb takes an accusative pronoun as its object, it becomes intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.
 
There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, but are not marked for tense or number. Here is a list of them:
 
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
 
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/
 
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
 
3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
 
Reflexive: /se-/
 
However, using one of these pronouns makes the verb intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/
/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/
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You will be bitten by the dog.
You will be bitten by the dog.


Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=/ is ungrammatical here.
Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=/ is ungrammatical here.




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=====Emphatic Forms====
====Reciprocal Voice====


There are also emphatic forms of each object pronoun. These are the same as the pre-consonantal forms listed above, except that they are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".


1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mḭ̂/
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /káiʔk/ - "to bite" -> /ká káiʔk/ - "to bite each other".


1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lâ̰n-/
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".
 
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwò̤/
 
3PS: /swḭ̂-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /sḭ̂w-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


Reflexive: /sḛ̂-/
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /m̥â̰n/ "to correct" -> /má m̥â̰n/ - "to correct each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hwêg/ - "to play" -> /wé hwêg/ - "to play with each other".





Revision as of 10:59, 22 November 2013

Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).

It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders of the settlement were a mostly either Burmese, Australian or Taiwanese, and as such Kämpya is most heavily influenced by the languages of those countries (especially Burmese). However, a later wave of Spanish speaking migrants from South America also had a large impact on the language.

It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although far from all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.


Brief Description

Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The syntactic alignment is split ergative, with pronouns having nominative accusative alignment, and the rest of the language being ergative. Possessors are marked for alienability [1] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [2].

In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.

There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast stress and phonation e.g. /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" vs. /ˈsíʔtà/ - "guardian" vs. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister", or /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone" vs. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everything / everyone".

In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the nouns /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" and /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone", which both have High Tone on the first syllable and Low Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjectives /sìˈtá̰/ - "wing" and /àˈlóṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which both have Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).

It is usually written using a script based on the Burmese alphabet.


Phonology

Vowels

The vowel system is quite simple, with 5 monophthongs and 4 diphthongs.


Monophthongs

Front Central Back
High /i/ /u/
Mid /e/ /o/
Low /a/


Diphthongs

The following diphthongs are found /ai/, /au/, /ei/ and /ou/.


Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Lateral Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop pʰ p b tʰ t d kʰ k g
Nasal m̥ m n̥ n ŋ
Fricative θ ð sʰ s z (ɬ) (ç) h
Semivowel (ʍ) w j
Other Sonorants ⱱ~ʋ ɾ l
  1. /b/, /d/ and /g/ are often pronounced as slightly implosive.
  2. [ɬ] corresponds to Burmese */l̥/, and English */sl/. It is underlyingly /hl/.
  3. [ç] is underlyingly /hj/.
  4. [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/.
  5. [ⱱ] and [ʋ] are in free variation.


Phonotactics

In the standard dialect, only syllables of the form (C) (C) V (C) are permitted.

Initial consonant clusters can consist of any non-semivowel consonant followed by /w/ or /j/, except that /ŋj/ syllable onsets are forbidden.

In writing and formal speech, syllables can also begin with /pʰl/, /pl/, /bl/, /kʰl/, /kl/ and /gl/ (i.e. any non-alveolar stop + /l/). But outside formal speech, the /l/ is usually replaced with /j/.

In unstressed syllables, the coda consonant can only be a stop or a nasal.

In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong.


Consonant Neutralisations

Voicing and aspiration distinctions are neutralised in syllable codas, though they are still present underlyingly e.g. /sjúˈðâ̰d/ - "city" is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰t], but when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /sjúˈðâ̰djà/ - "of the city (alienable)", it is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰djà].

In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ].

If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is simply pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everyone" is pronounced [áˈlòṳⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /áˈlòṳnjà/ - "everyone's (alienable)", which is pronounced [áˈlòṳnjà].


Stress and Phonation

One syllable in each word bears stress. Vowel phonation is phonemic on stressed syllables but not elsewhere. The phonations are harsh <â> [3], breathy <ä> [4], and glottalised <á>. Harsh and breathy vowels are pronounced long, glottalised vowels are pronounced short, and with glottalisation of the following consonant (or with a glottal stop [ʔ] in the case of word final syllables).


Allophones of /h/

Between two vowels, /h/ is voiced to [ɦ] e.g. /máháˈkáʔp/ - "eternity" is pronounced /máɦáˈkáʔp/

/h/ can occur in the coda of stressed syllables. It's realisation depends on the phonation of the previous vowel, but is always pharyngeal.

If the stressed vowel has breathy phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a pharyngeal fricative [ħ] e.g. /à̤h/ - "question" is pronounced [à̤ħ]. Compare /ŋà̤/ - "fish" which is pronounced [ŋà̤].

If the stressed vowel has glottalised phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a pharyngeal stop [ʡ] e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness" is pronounced [dáʡ]. Compare /táʔ/ - "a wish" (in a nostalgic context) which is pronounced with a glottal stop [táʔ].

/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation.

Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g.

/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).

/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].

/à̤h àuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].

/dáʔh àuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].


Also, if a coda [ʡ] (i.e. /h/ after a glottalised stressed vowel) is followed by a consonant that can be aspirated (i.e. /p/, /t/, /k/, or /s/), there is a tendency to manifest this as aspiration on the consonant instead e.g.

/ˈbóhsòut/ - "bauxite", can be pronounced either [ˈbóʡsòut] or [ˈbósʰòut].


Tone Patterns

There are 4 phonemic tones: High á, Falling â, Low à and Rising ǎ. While it may seem that the pitch of each syllable is random, actually it is not. It changes regularly depending on how the word is being used in a sentence (e.g. restrictive vs. non-restrictive, alienable vs. inalienable possessor etc.), in conjuction with the phonation on the syllable (for stressed syllables) or the location of the syllable relative to the stressed syllable (for unstressed syllables).

In terms of assigning tone, there are three parts of speech:

Class 1 This is the default, catch-all class. It is used for most nouns and verbs.

Class 2 This is used for inalienable possessors, nouns used attributively, restrictive adjectives, and verbs used in compounds.

Class 3 This is used for adverbs and non-restrictive adjectives.


Stressed Syllables

This table shows how the tone of a stressed syllable (for each of the three phonations) depends on the tone class.

Harsh Phonation a̰ Breathy Phonation a̤ Glottalised Phonation aʔ
Class 1 (High) Falling Pitch + Harsh Voice Low Pitch + Breathy Voice High Pitch + Glottal Stop
Class 2 Low Pitch + Harsh Voice Low Pitch + Breathy Voice Low Pitch + Glottal Stop
Class 3 High Pitch + Tense Voice Rising Pitch + Faucalised Voice High Pitch + Glottal Stop


Unstressed Syllables

Here the situation is simpler. For unstressed syllables, the tone can only be high or low, and does not depend on the phonation of the stressed syllable.

For Class 1 words, the tone is high before the stressed syllable, and low after it.

For Class 2 words, unstressed syllables always have high tone.

For Class 3 words, unstressed syllables always have low tone.


Examples

Here is a table with examples of how roots change classes depending on what part of speech they belong to:

English Translation Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Kämpya ˈkà̤mpjà ˈkà̤mpjá ˈkǎ̤mpjà
wing síˈtâ̰ síˈtà̰ sìˈtá̰
guardian áinˈsíʔtà ˈsìʔtá ˈsíʔtà
sister ˈsì̤tà ˈsì̤tá ˈsǐ̤tà
alone áˈlôṵn áˈlòṵn àˈlóṵn
alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ áˈlôṵnjà áˈlòṵnjá àˈlóṵnjà
all áˈlòṳn áˈlòṳn àˈlǒṳn
all + Genitive clitic /ja/ áˈlòṳnjà áˈlòṳnjá àˈlǒṳnjà


Pronouns

Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [5]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".

In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:


Nominative Pronouns

1st Person Exclusive 1st Person Inclusive 2nd Person
Before a consonant ái wéi jéi
Before a vowel ój- wéj- jéw-
Emphatic òṵ wèḭ jèḭ

As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation).


Accusative Pronouns

There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, and are not marked for number. Here is a list of them:

1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)

1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/

2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)

3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)

Reflexive: /se-/


Syntax

Kämpya has topic comment syntax [6], and is also syntactically ergative [7] and secundative [8].


Copula

Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [9]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. e.g.


/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]

2PS guardian

You are / were / will be the guardian(s).


/jéw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂nèmì]

2PS enemy

You are / were / will be the enemy.


/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì]

2PS.EMP enemy

You are the enemy.


/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì/

guardian enemy

The guardian is / was / will be the enemy.


Intransitive Sentences

Intransitive sentences generally have free word order. If the verb is in focus [10], then it will come after the subject. If the subject is in focus, then it will come after the verb. So both of the following are grammatical:


/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/

dog alone

The dog is / was / will be alone.


as well as

/áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/

alone dog

The dog is / was / will be alone.


Constituent Deletion

However, constituents of phrases can be freely deleted, so it is perfectly possible to have one word sentences e.g.

/áˈlôṵn/

alone

He / She / It / They is / are / was / were / will be alone.


With Postpositional Phrases

Likewise, if we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, word order is fairly free e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/ - "from ˈkʰóʔnàt (a place name)", the verb /kúʔn/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèmì/ - "enemy", we can say:

/ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn/

/ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn ˈḛ̂nèmì/

/ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/

/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/

/kúʔn ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à/

These all mean "The enemy set off / sets off / will set off from ˈkʰóʔnàt". However sentences like */kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì/ are ungrammatical i.e. Kämpya does not permit the word order Intransitive Verb - Postpositional Phrase - Subject.


With Pronouns

The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.

/jéi kúʔn/

2PS depart

You are setting off.


However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say:

/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jéi kúʔn/

ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS depart

You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.

or

/jéi kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/

2PS depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from

You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt.


Transitive Sentences

In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG bite lizard

It was the dog that bit the lizard.


However, immediately after an open syllable with a stressed vowel, the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.

/ŋà̤=ɾu káiʔk gáʔɾ/

fish=ERG bite lizard

It was the fish that bit the lizard.


Topicalisation

However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.

/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/

lizard dog=ERG bite

The lizard was bitten by the dog.

The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog bite lizard

The dog bit the lizard.

The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.

Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.


With Pronouns

The nominative pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g.

/jéi=káiʔk gáʔɾ/

2PS.NOM=bite lizard

You are biting the lizard.


As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.

/gáʔɾ jéi=káiʔk/

lizard 2PS.NOM=bite

You are biting the lizard.


However, the subject pronoun still come immediately before the verb, so sentences like */jó gáʔɾ káiʔk/ are ungrammatical.


When a verb takes an accusative pronoun as its object, it becomes intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/

dog 2PS.ACC bite

The dog will bite you.

or

/bwó=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite dog

You will be bitten by the dog.

Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=zù/ is ungrammatical here.


When both the subject and the object of a verb are pronouns, the subject comes first e.g.

jó=swí=káiʔk

2PS.PROG.NOM=3PS.ACC=bite


Reciprocal Voice

This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".

However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /káiʔk/ - "to bite" -> /ká káiʔk/ - "to bite each other".

Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".

If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /m̥â̰n/ "to correct" -> /má m̥â̰n/ - "to correct each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hwêg/ - "to play" -> /wé hwêg/ - "to play with each other".


Subject Deletion

It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g.

/káiʔk gáʔɾ/

bite lizard

He / She / It / They bit the lizard.


/gáʔɾ káiʔk/

lizard bite

The lizard was bitten.

This carries no ambiguity, because the word for lizard is always in the absolutive case.


Antipassive Voice

To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [11]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk/

dog ANTPASS=bite

The dog bit (someone / something).


However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ θw=áhlôṵn/

dog ANTPASS=abandon

The dog abandoned (someone / something).