@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).
-It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. Many of the fonuders were from a number of East Asian countries, and used English as a common language while bringing their own languages with them. However the community was isolated, and within a few generations their English had developed into a creole, influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.
+It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. Many of the founders were from a number of East Asian countries, and used English as a common language while bringing their own languages with them. However the community was isolated, and within a few generations their English had developed into a creole, influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.
 It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
+==Typological Influences==
+The contrast between alienable and inalienable possession was not present in any of the major languages of the initial settlers. However it has developed into an areal feature and is now found in most of the languages on the continent.
+A similar situation happened with evidentiality, although its spread is much more restricted, only being found in the languages spoken along the Ross Sea coast. In this area, high mountains and long fjords meant that people lived in small, isolated communities. In such communities, where everyone knew one another, gossip could be highly destructive. This context favoured the development of evidentiality.
+The lack of marking for number and tense / aspect  is common in Antarctican languages from areas where a large portion of the founding population spoke Mainland East / SE Asian languages (which lack these features).
+Topic-comment and wh-in-situ word order came into Kämpya through similar means (it is very common in East and SE Asia).
+Ergativity came into Antarctica from speakers of Austronesian languages from Eastern Indonesia, the Pacific and the Philippines, three areas which were among the first to be severely affected by climate change, and therefore among the first migrants to the south. some degree of ergativity is a continent-wide areal feature. In the case of Kämpya, the English possessive 's began to be used to mark ergative subjects. By analogy, possessive pronouns then began to be used as ergative pronouns e.g. /jó/ - 2PS.ERG from English "your". Later, a different suffix /ji/ began to be used to mark possession.
+Clusivity also spread throughout Antarctica by similar means, although many languages (including Kämpya) ended up conflating the first person singular and the first person exclusive plural.
+Applicative constructions also entered Kämpya through influence from Austronesian languages such as Tagalog. However they did not spread as widely throughout the continent.
+Marking pronouns with pre-verbal clitics originated in Spanish (indeed Kämpya's accusative pronouns are borrowed from Spanish). This has spread across Antarctica as an areal feature (except that in some languages, they are prefixes rather than clitics).
+The vast majority of the founders spoke pro-drop languages (Burmese, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese etc.) so it is perhaps no surprise that Kämpya has become pro-drop (apart from the pre-verbal clitics).
+Kämpya borrowed a number of its postpositions from Burmese e.g. locative /ka/. Other postpositions were originally English prepositions, but switched to be postpositions under the influence of languages such as Burmese and Japanese.
+Placing postpositional phrases before the verb was borrowed from Chinese (perhaps also helped by the fact that many other founders spoke verb-final languages such as Burmese and Japanese).
+Anti-logophoricity is an areal feature that developed along the Ross Sea coast after settlement.
+Marking restrictiveness on adjectives by word order originated in Spanish, but became more extensive after settlement. Marking restrictiveness on adjectives (in some way, not necessarily by word order) is an Antarctic areal feature.
+The complicated demonstrative system (depending on whether the object is uphill or downhill from the speaker) is an areal feature of the Ross Sea coast. Like most of the areas where such a system has developed, this area is very mountainous.
+Using a separate verb for locational predication (in the case of Kämpya /éʔ/, which is cognate to English "at") is an areal feature of East and SE Asia.
+Using a postposition to form a comparative construction is another areal feature of Asia which has found its way into Kämpya.
@@ Line 81: / Line 116: @@
 In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong.
+/ŋ/ cannot occur word-initially.
@@ Line 87: / Line 124: @@
 In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ].
-If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the dative clitic /àuŋ/ to form /nâḭm=àuŋ/ - "to the name", which is pronounced [nâḭmàuⁿ].
+If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the alienable genitive clitic /jì/ to form /nâḭm=jì/ - "of the name", which is pronounced [nâḭmjì].
 ===Stress and Phonation===
@@ Line 105: / Line 142: @@
 If /h/ occurs after vowels with harsh phonation, it is pronounced as a voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] e.g. /zwéˈmâ̰h/ - "to report", is pronounced [zwéˈmâ̰ʢ].
-Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the dative clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.
+Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /ji/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.
-/à̤h=jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
+/à̤h=jì/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çì] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
-/dáʔh=jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].
+/dáʔh=jì/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçì].
-/à̤h=àuŋ/ - "to the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].
-/dáʔh=àuŋ/ - "to the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].
@@ Line 173: / Line 206: @@
 | Kämpya || ˈkà̤mpjà || ˈkà̤mpjá || ˈkǎ̤mpjà
 |-
-| guardian || ˈsíʔtà || ˈsìʔtá || ˈsíʔtà
+| guardian || ˈsʰíʔtà || ˈsʰìʔtá || ˈsʰíʔtà
 |-
-| sister || ˈsì̤tà || ˈsì̤tá || ˈsǐ̤tà
+| sister || ˈsʰì̤tà || ˈsʰì̤tá || ˈsʰǐ̤tà
 |-
 | alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn
 |-
-| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà
+| alone + Genitive clitic /ji/ || áˈlâṵn=jì || áˈlàṵn=jí || àˈláṵn=jì
 |-
 | question || à̤h || à̤h || ǎ̤h
 |-
-| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà
+| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jì || à̤h=jí || ǎ̤h=jì
 |}
 ===Sound Correspondences with English===
@@ Line 191: / Line 223: @@
 ====Phonation====
-Contrastive phonation developed on stressed vowels depending on the following consonants. Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel e.g. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister". Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel e.g. /áʔp/ - "rise" (from English "up". In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation.
+Contrastive phonation developed on stressed vowels depending on the following consonants. Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel e.g. /ˈsʰì̤tà/ - "sister". Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel e.g. /áʔp/ - "rise" (from English "up". In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation.
 ====Consonants====
-Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰóʔp/ - "summit" (from English "top")
+Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰáp/ - "above" (from English "top")
-/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /áˈsʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable).
+/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /sʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable).
 Clusters of /s/ + Nasal became voiceless nasals e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow", /m̥òṵ/ - "small.RESTR".
@@ Line 206: / Line 238: @@
 /ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
-English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord".
+English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". The exception to this was when it was clustered with /r/, in which case it became /hw/ e.g. /hwám/ - "from".
 English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley"
-English /r/ became either /w/ or /zw/ e.g. /zwéʔpìd/ - quickly (from English "rapid"), /pʰò̤wèt/ - "forest".
+English /r/ became either /w/ or /zw/ e.g. /ˈzwéʔp/ - quickly (from English "rapid"), /ˈpʰò̤wè/ - "forest".
 English post-alveolar consonants became sequences of alveolar consonants + /j/ e.g. /báˈsjàʔp/- "beat" (from English "bash up")
 Lenition occurred of obstruents after historically long vowels (Kämpya lost its phonemic vowel length contrast). Labial obstruents lenited to /ⱱ/ e.g. /pʰ/, /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/ became /ⱱ/ e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "laugh". Coronal consonants lenited to /ɾ/ e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". Dorsal consonants lenited to /h/ e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness".
+Clusters of Stop + /t/ were simplified to /t/ e.g. /ˈdóʔtà/ - "doctor".
+Except in the above cases, /t/ was lost word finally e.g. /béiʔ/ - "belt".
+Word final alveolar affricates became stops e.g. /ˈbwḭ̂d/ - "bridge".
 /l/ was lost when not before a vowel e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool".
@@ Line 224: / Line 262: @@
 The vowel system derives from Australian English, although in many cases spelling pronunciations are used rather than the actual Australian English pronunciation. Since colonisation of Antarctica, it has undergone a number of sound changes:
-# The vowel in TRAP and MARRY underwent a three-way split. In untressed syllables, it became /a/. In stressed syllables, it underwent the bad-lad split, with the long version becoming /ai/ and causing lenition of the following consonant e.g. /bàḭɾ/ - "bad.REST", while the short version became /e/ e.g. /éʔt/ - "to be at".
+# The vowel in TRAP and MARRY underwent a three-way split. In untressed syllables, it became /a/. In stressed syllables, it underwent the bad-lad split, with the long version becoming /ai/ and causing lenition of the following consonant e.g. /bàḭɾ/ - "bad.REST", while the short version became /e/ e.g. /éʔ/ - "to be at".
 # The vowel in BATH, PALM and START (Australian English is non-rhotic) became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /aː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /a/ (Kämpya lost phonemic vowel length) e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart".
 # The vowel in NURSE merged into the above vowel e.g. /nà̤ɾ/ - "nurse".
-# The vowel in LOT, CLOTH and HOT became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /o/ in stressed syllables e.g. /óʔpàsìt/ - "opposite". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /bôṵ/ - "bowl".
+# The vowel in LOT, CLOTH and HOT became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /o/ in stressed syllables e.g. /ˈóʔpà/ - "opposite". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /bôṵ/ - "bowl".
 # The vowel in THOUGHT and NORTH became /o/ in unstressed syllables, and /oː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /o/ e.g. /pʰò̰/ - "four". However, before /u/ it became /ou/ e.g. /m̥óṵ/ - "small.DESC".
-# The vowel in KIT became /i/ e.g. /ˈbíʔtèn/ - "bite" (from English "bitten"). However, before /l/ it became /ju/ e.g. /hjṵ̂/ - "hill".
+# The vowel in KIT became /i/ e.g. /ˈbíʔ/ - "bite" (from English "bit"). However, before /l/ it became /ju/ e.g. /hjṵ̂/ - "hill".
 # The vowel in HEAT usually became /ei/ e.g. /déiʔp/ - "deeply". However, before /j/ it became /e/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". And before /l/, it became /i/ e.g. /pʰḭ̂lìŋ/ - "display of emotions" (from English "feeling").
-# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béuʔt/ - "belt".
+# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béiʔ/ - "belt".
 # The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care")
-# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /wà̰n/ - "one". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull".
+# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /sʰâ̰n/ - "son". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull".
-# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔt/ - "foot".
+# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔ/ - "foot".
-# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose", /tʰêḭ/ - "two". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool"
+# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool"
 # The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
-# The vowel in PRICE became /ou/ in stressed syllables, and /ai/ in unstressed syllables e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price", /ˈḭ̂mwàit/ - "invitation" (from an initial stressed derived form of "invite"). However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile", /ˈè̤kàjù/ - "exile".
+# The vowel in PRICE became /ou/ in stressed syllables, and /ai/ in unstressed syllables e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price", /ˈḭ̂mwài/ - "invitation" (from an initial stressed derived form of "invite"). However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile".
-# The vowel in CHOICE became /ou/ e.g. /tʰjòi̤/ - "choice", except before /l/ when it became /oju/ e.g. /ˈbô̰jù/ - "boil".
+# The vowel in CHOICE became /ou/ e.g. /tʰjòi̤/ - "choice", except before /l/ when it became /oju/ e.g. /ˈbô̰jù/ - "hot spring" (from English "boil").
-# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, in a stressed syllable before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /káukákʰôṵlà/ - "Coca-Cola".
+# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, in a stressed syllable before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /kʰôṵlà/ - "(Coca-)Cola".
 # The vowel in MOUTH became /ei/ in a stressed syllable, and /au/ in an unstressed syllable e.g. /mèi̤/ - "mouth".
 # The vowel in NEAR became /i/ in unstressed syllables, and /iː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /i/ e.g. /pʰì̤ɾ/ - "fierce".
-# As a very general rule, schwa became /a/, however in a lot of cases it developed into another vowel, being influenced by spelling e.g. /ˈbíʔtèn/ - "bite" (from English "bitten").
+# As a very general rule, schwa became /a/, however in a lot of cases it developed into another vowel, being influenced by spelling e.g. /éˈléʔt/ - "to vote" (from English "elect").
 ==Pronouns==
@@ Line 276: / Line 314: @@
 ! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person !! 3PS !! Reflexive !! Interrogative
 |-
-| Before a consonant || mí || lán || ŋí || swí || sé || ké
+| Before a consonant || mí || lé || té || swí || sé || ké
 |-
-| Before a vowel || mj- || lán- || íŋ- || síw- || és- || ék-
+| Before a vowel || mj- || lés- || ét- || síw- || és- || ék-
 |-
-| Emphatic || mḭ̀ || là̰n || ḭ̀ŋ || swḭ̀ || sḛ̀  || kḛ̀
+| Emphatic || mḭ̀ || lè̤ || tḛ̀ || swḭ̀ || sḛ̀  || kḛ̀
 |}
-The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀=m̥á/ - "from me".
+The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀=hwám/ - "from me".
 ===Genitive / Ergative Pronouns===
@@ Line 295: / Line 333: @@
 ! !! 1PS Excl. !! 1PS Incl. !! 2PS !! 3PS Prox. !! 3PS Obv. !! Interrogative
 |-
-| Before a consonant (Inalienable) || mái || áu || jó || dé || ðí || zwé
+| Before a consonant (Inalienable) || mái || áu || jó || ðé || ðí || héi
 |-
-| Before a vowel (Inalienable) || máj- || áw- || jólw- || délw- || ðj- || ézw-
+| Before a vowel (Inalienable) || máj- || áw- || józw- || ðézw- || ðj- || héw-
 |-
-| Alienable || môṵ || ˈḛ̂wà || jô̰ || dḛ̂- || ðjíʔ || N/A
+| Alienable / Ergative || môṵ || ˈḛ̂wà || jô̰ || ðḛ̂- || ðjíʔ || hèi̤
 |-
-| Ergative || môṵ || ˈḛ̂wà || jô̰ || N/A || ðjíʔ || hêḭ
+| Emphatic || mòṵ || ˈḛ̀wá || bwò̤ || swḭ̀ || ðjìʔ || hèi̤
-|-
-| Emphatic || mòṵ || ˈḛ̀wá || bwò̤ || swḭ̀ || sḛ̀ || kjḛ̀n
 |}
@@ Line 316: / Line 352: @@
-/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèm/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèm/
 guardian enemy
@@ Line 323: / Line 359: @@
-/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]
+/jéi ˈsʰíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsʰíʔtà]
 PS.INTR guardian
@@ Line 384: / Line 420: @@
 ====With Postpositional Phrases====
-If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:
+If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:
-/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/
+/ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/
 valley=from depart enemy
@@ Line 395: / Line 431: @@
 or
-/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 enemy valley=from depart
@@ Line 402: / Line 438: @@
-To say "A is located at / in / on etc. B", Kämpya uses the verb /éʔt/ e.g.
+To say "A is located at / in / on etc. B", Kämpya uses the verb /éʔ/ and the locative clitic /ká/ e.g.
-/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=ká éʔt/
+/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=ká éʔ/
 enemy valley=LOC be.at
@@ Line 411: / Line 447: @@
-Note that /éʔt/ cannot be used as a copula (to say something is something else). As discussed previously, in such a case, no verb is used at all.
+Note that /éʔ/ cannot be used as a copula (to say something is something else). As discussed previously, in such a case, no verb is used at all.
 ====With Adverbs====
@@ Line 418: / Line 453: @@
 Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g.
-/déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈzwéʔpìd ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/
+/déˈpʰáʔɾ zwéʔp ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/
 depart fast yesterday enemy
 The enemy departed quickly yesterday.
 ====With Pronouns====
@@ Line 436: / Line 470: @@
-However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=mà déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:
+However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=hwám déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:
-/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 valley=from 2PS depart
 You are setting off from the valley.
 ===Transitive Sentences===
@@ Line 449: / Line 482: @@
 In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.
-/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 458: / Line 491: @@
 However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.
-/kʰjâṵ=ɾù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/kʰjâṵ=ɾù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 cow=ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 469: / Line 502: @@
 The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g.
-/dô̰k=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù pʰò̤wé=ká ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
 It was the dog that bit the lizard in the forest.
 ====Topicalisation====
@@ Line 480: / Line 512: @@
 However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/
 lizard dog=ERG bite
@@ Line 489: / Line 521: @@
 The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.
-/dô̰k ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog bite lizard
@@ Line 496: / Line 528: @@
-The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
+The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
-Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k ˈbíʔtèn/ or anything like that.
+Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k ˈbíʔ/ or anything like that.
@@ Line 506: / Line 538: @@
 The (alienable) genitive pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs e.g.
-/jô̰ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/jô̰ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 PS.ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 516: / Line 548: @@
 As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd jô̰ ˈbíʔtèn/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd jô̰ ˈbíʔ/
 lizard 2PS.ERG bite
@@ Line 529: / Line 561: @@
-/pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/pʰò̤wé=ká jô̰ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 forest=LOC 2PS.ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 539: / Line 571: @@
-/dô̰k ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/
+/dô̰k té=ˈbíʔ/
 dog 2PS.ACC=bite
@@ Line 548: / Line 580: @@
 or
-/ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰k/
+/té=ˈbíʔ dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite dog
@@ Line 560: / Line 592: @@
-jéi=swí=ˈbíʔtèn
+/jéi=swí=ˈbíʔ/
 PS.INTR=3PS.ACC=bite
@@ Line 567: / Line 599: @@
-It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí=bíʔtèn/.
+It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí=bíʔ/.
 ====Reciprocal Voice====
-This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈbíʔtèn/ - "to bite" -> /bíˈbíʔtèn/ - "to bite each other".
+This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈbíʔ/ - "to bite" -> /bíˈbíʔ/ - "to bite each other".
 However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /péiʔk/ - "to speak" -> /péiˈpéiʔk/ - "to speak to each other".
@@ Line 585: / Line 616: @@
 It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g.
-/ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 bite lizard
@@ Line 592: / Line 623: @@
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd ˈbíʔtèn/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd ˈbíʔ/
 lizard bite
@@ Line 605: / Line 636: @@
 To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.
-/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn/
+/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ/
 dog ANTIP=bite
@@ Line 621: / Line 652: @@
-The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.
+The deleted object can be re-introduced using the dative postposition, /-gó/ (which changes the noun into Tone Class 2). These nouns are re-introduced into the same syntactic "slot" as postpositional objects e.g.
-/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
+/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ /
-dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT
+dog lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite
 The dog bit the lizard.
@@ Line 632: / Line 663: @@
 At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said:
-/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 641: / Line 672: @@
 However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:
-/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/
+/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ áˈwâḭ/
-dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee
+dog lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite flee
 The dog bit the lizard and (the dog) ran away.
@@ Line 649: / Line 680: @@
 vs.
-/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/
 dog=ERG bite lizard flee
 The dog bit the lizard and the lizard ran away.
-Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔtèn kʰjâṵ=jàuŋ/
-lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT
-The lizard bit the cow.
 ===Ditransitive Sentences===
-For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.
+For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ta/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.
-/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
@@ Line 678: / Line 699: @@
 or
-/dô̰k ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p/
+/dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p/
 dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
@@ Line 687: / Line 708: @@
 The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.
-/ˈsíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
@@ Line 696: / Line 717: @@
 It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.
-/ˈsíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂p dô̰k=àuŋ/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà bàṵn=tá dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/
-guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
+guardian bone=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give
 The guardian gave the bone to the dog.
 ===With Postpositional Phrases===
@@ Line 707: / Line 727: @@
 Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.
-/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
@@ Line 718: / Line 738: @@
 =====Clitics beginning with /t/ and /p/=====
-Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.
+Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ta/ becomes /ɾa/ e.g.
-/ˈsíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà gwà̤=ɾá gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 guardian grass=SEC give dog
@@ Line 727: / Line 747: @@
-Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥èʔ=ɾí/, as in:
+Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥èʔ=ɾá/, as in:
-/ˈsíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾí θú=gḭ̂p dô̰k=àuŋ/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾá dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/
-guardian snare=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
+guardian snare=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give
 Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch".
@@ Line 762: / Line 782: @@
 The /k/ here lenits to /h/ and triggers deaspiration in exactly the same way as /g/. However, if the monophthong had harsh voice, it changes to be glottalised e.g. from /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", if we add the locative clitic /-ka/, the result is /nèʔ=há/ - "at the snare".
 ====With Pronouns====
@@ Line 771: / Line 790: @@
-/bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká jô̰ gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
@@ Line 781: / Line 800: @@
-/jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/jô̰ bàṵn=tá pʰò̤wé=ká gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
@@ Line 788: / Line 807: @@
-This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn=tí/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".
+This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn=tá/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".
 =====With Postpositions=====
-The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative /tí/). However, some of these pronouns trigger the sandhi rules discussed before (changing the phonation on the vowel to glottalised), and leniting the postposition to. Here is a list of the pronouns when used with the secundative postposition:
+The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative /tá/). However, these pronouns trigger the same sandhi rules discussed before (changing the phonation on the vowel to glottalised), and leniting the postposition to. Here is a list of the pronouns when used with the secundative postposition:
-st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ=ɾí/
+st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ=ɾá/
-st Person Inclusive - /là̰n=tí/
+st Person Inclusive - /lè̤=ɾá/
-nd Person - /ḭ̀ŋ=tí/
+nd Person - /tèʔ=ɾá/
-rd Person - /swìʔ=ɾí/
+rd Person - /swìʔ=ɾá/
-Reflexive - /sèʔ=ɾí/
+Reflexive - /sèʔ=ɾá/
 ===Applicative Voice===
-To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:
+To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the postpositonal object "slot" in the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /=gó/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:
-/ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wé=ká ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
@@ Line 818: / Line 836: @@
 we can apply an applicative transformation to get:
-/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
+/pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù lḭ̀zád=góˈbíʔ=kà/
-forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT
+forest dog=ERG lizard=DAT bite=LOC
 In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.
@@ Line 827: / Line 845: @@
 As another example, the sentence
-/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 enemy valley=from depart
@@ Line 836: / Line 854: @@
 becomes the following:
-/ˈbwḛ̂lì déˈpʰáʔɾ=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèm=àuŋ/
+/ˈbwḛ̂lì ˈè̤ném=gó déˈpáʔɾ=hwàm/
-valley depart=from enemy=DAT
+valley enemy=DAT depart=from
 From the valley, the enemy departed.
-Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). The same thing happened with the word for "forest" changing from /pʰò̤wét/ to /pʰò̤wèt/.
+Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). The same thing happened with the word for "forest" changing from /pʰò̤wé/ to /pʰò̤wè/.
 Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.
-/dô̰k ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p/
+/dô̰k ˈsʰíʔtà=zù tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p/
 dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
@@ Line 857: / Line 875: @@
 becomes
-/bâṵn ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂p=tì ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/
+/bâṵn ˈsʰíʔtà=zù dò̰k=góˈgḭ̂p=tá/
-bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT
+bone guardian=ERG dog=DAT give=SEC
 The bone was given to the dog by the guardian.
@@ Line 866: / Line 884: @@
 When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to
-/dô̰k pʰò̤wét=ká ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/
+/dô̰k pʰò̤wé=ká té=ˈbíʔ/
 dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
@@ Line 875: / Line 893: @@
 we get
-/pʰò̤wèt ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn=kà dô̰k=àuŋ/
+/pʰò̤wè dò̰k=gó té=ˈbíʔ=kà/
-forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT
+forest dog=DAT 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC
 In the forest, the dog bit you.
-Notice that when the postpositions /mḁ/, /ka/ and /ti/ attach to a noun, they have High Tone, since postpositional phrases are in Tone Class 2. However, when they attach to a verb, they have has Low Tone, since verbs are in Tone Class 1.
+Notice that when the postpositions /hwam/, /ka/ and /ti/ attach to a noun, they have High Tone, since postpositional phrases are in Tone Class 2. However, when they attach to a verb, they have has Low Tone, since verbs are in Tone Class 1.
 This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.
-/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=zù bíʔtèn ˈˈjě̤tài=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
+/pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=zù lḭ̀zád=gó bíʔ ˈˈjě̤tài=kà/
-forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT
+forest dog=ERG lizard=DAT bite yesterday.ADV=LOC
 In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.
 ==Noun Phrases==
@@ Line 902: / Line 919: @@
 When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g.
-/ˈlwèʔpíd dô̰k/
+/ˈzwèʔp dô̰k/
 fast.REST dog
@@ Line 911: / Line 928: @@
 Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g.
-/dô̰k ˈlwéʔpìd/
+/dô̰k ˈzwéʔp/
 dog fast.DESC
@@ Line 920: / Line 937: @@
 or
-/sôṵlà ˈjḛ́làu/
+/sôṵlà àˈwá̰/
 sun yellow.DESC
@@ Line 927: / Line 944: @@
-In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /ˈjḛ̀láu sôṵlà/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.
+In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /áˈwà̰ sôṵlà/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.
 ===Articles===
-There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /wá-/ before a consonant and /wán-/ before a vowel e.g.
+There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /tí-/ before a consonant and /ít-/ before a vowel e.g.
-/wá=dô̰k/
+/tí=dô̰k/
 INDEF=dog
@@ Line 942: / Line 958: @@
-/wá=ˈḛ̂nèm/
+/ít=ˈḛ̂nèm/
 INDEF=enemy
@@ Line 951: / Line 967: @@
 Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some enemies".
-It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /wà̰n/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /wà̰n/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.
+It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /tìʔ/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /tìʔ/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.
 Compare:
-/wá=dô̰k/
+/tí=dô̰k/
 INDEF=dog
@@ Line 964: / Line 980: @@
 with
-/wà̰n dô̰k/
+/tìʔ dô̰k/
 one dog
@@ Line 971: / Line 987: @@
-The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */wá=wà̰n dô̰g/ is ungrammatical.
+The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */tí=tìʔ dô̰k/ is ungrammatical.
 However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g.
-/wá=ˈjḛ̀láu dô̰k/
+/ít=áˈwà̰ dô̰k/
 INDEF=yellow.REST dog
 a yellow dog
 ===Demonstratives===
@@ Line 989: / Line 1,004: @@
-It also uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place, or something else.
+It also uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "''This'' cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place (in which case they are clitics), or something else.
-For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place.
+For example "this mountain" is /dá=ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place.
@@ Line 1,008: / Line 1,023: @@
 |}
-*/hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu=pʰò̤wèt/ - "that forest", not */hóu=pʰò̤wèt/. Under similar conditions, the initial /h/ in /hlàn/ is lost, as well as the aspiration in /t(ʰ)ék/.
+*/hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu=pʰò̤wè/ - "that forest", not */hóu=pʰò̤wè/. Under similar conditions, the initial /h/ in /hlàn/ is lost, as well as the aspiration in /t(ʰ)ék/.
 ===Possession===
@@ Line 1,014: / Line 1,029: @@
 Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
-/dò̰k=já bâṵn/
+/dò̰k=jí bâṵn/
 dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
@@ Line 1,022: / Line 1,037: @@
 While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.
-/dô̰k=jà bâṵn/
+/dô̰k=jì bâṵn/
 dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
@@ Line 1,032: / Line 1,047: @@
-/dô̰k=jà dà̰ bâṵn/
+/dô̰k=jì dà̰ bâṵn/
 dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone
 This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone").
 ===Relative Clauses===
@@ Line 1,043: / Line 1,057: @@
 In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g.
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn dô̰k áˈwâḭ/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ dô̰k áˈwâḭ/
 lizard=ERG bite dog flee
@@ Line 1,052: / Line 1,066: @@
 Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause:
-/dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/
+/dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ áˈwâḭ/
 dog lizard=ERG bite flee
@@ Line 1,062: / Line 1,076: @@
-/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/
+/θú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/
 ANTIP=bite lizard flee
@@ Line 1,071: / Line 1,085: @@
 Or in a non-restrictive relative clause:
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=bíʔ áˈwâḭ/
 lizard ANTIP=bite flee
@@ Line 1,081: / Line 1,095: @@
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt m̥ôṵ/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà pʰò̤wè m̥ôṵ/
 lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small
@@ Line 1,091: / Line 1,105: @@
-/pʰò̤wèt ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà m̥ôṵ/
+/pʰò̤wè ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà m̥ôṵ/
 forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small
@@ Line 1,097: / Line 1,111: @@
 The forest, which the lizard bit it in, is small.
+==Mood/Evidentiality==
-====Internal Heads====
+While Kämpya does not mark tense or aspect, mood / evidentiality is very important (the grammar conflates the two). They are marked with a proclitic, that usually comes immediately before the verb, but can occur in many other positions.
-It must be noted that Kämpya restrictive relative clauses are strictly speaking internally headed [http://wals.info/chapter/90]. We can only see this in antipassives and applicatives where the noun (that used to be in the absolutive case) is re-introduced as a dative argument, it follows the head noun e.g.
+===Negative Mood===
-/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/
+The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence
-ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee
+/té=bíʔ dô̰k/
-The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú=bíʔtèn dô̰g=àuŋ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/)
+PS.ACC=bite dog.
+You were bitten by the dog.
-Or in an applicative construction:
+We can say
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt dô̰k=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/
+/té=ná=bíʔ dô̰k/
-lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small
+PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
-The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà dô̰g=àuŋ pʰò̤wèt m̥ôṵ/)
+You weren't bitten by the dog.
-==Mood/Evidentiality==
+as well as
-While Kämpya does not mark tense or aspect, mood / evidentiality is very important (the grammar conflates the two). They are marked with a proclitic, that usually comes immediately before the verb, but can occur in many other positions.
-===Negative Mood===
-The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/
-PS.ACC=bite dog.
+/ná=té=bíʔ dô̰k/
-You were bitten by the dog.
-We can say
-/ŋí=ná=bíʔtèn dô̰k/
-PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
-You weren't bitten by the dog.
-as well as
-/ná=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/
 NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
@@ Line 1,156: / Line 1,147: @@
 and
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ ná=dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
@@ Line 1,163: / Line 1,154: @@
-However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g ŋí=bíʔtèn/ is ungrammatical.
+However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g té=bíʔ/ is ungrammatical.
 As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
@@ Line 1,178: / Line 1,169: @@
 And adverbs e.g.
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn nà=déiʔp dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ nà=déiʔp dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
@@ Line 1,188: / Line 1,179: @@
 However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
-/ŋí=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/
+/té=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog
 You weren't abandoned by the dog.
 ===Necessitative Mood===
-This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic /let/ (from English "let's) e.g.
+This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic /ga/, or /gat/ before a vowel (from English "gotta") e.g.
-/ái=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ái=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
@@ Line 1,210: / Line 1,200: @@
-/wéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/wéi=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 PS.INCL=NEC=depart
@@ Line 1,220: / Line 1,210: @@
-/jéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/jéi=gá=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 PS=NEC=depart
@@ Line 1,227: / Line 1,217: @@
-Like other mood particles, /let/ does not need to attach to a verb. It can attach to other parts of speech depending on the focus of the speaker e.g.
+Like other mood particles, /ga/ does not need to attach to a verb. It can attach to other parts of speech depending on the focus of the speaker e.g.
-/jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/
+/jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ gà=ˈzwéʔp/
 PS=depart NEC=fast
@@ Line 1,241: / Line 1,231: @@
 Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g.
-/jéi=lét=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/
+/jéi=gát=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/
 PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH
@@ Line 1,250: / Line 1,240: @@
 This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs
-/jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰k/
+/jô̰ gá=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/
 PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
@@ Line 1,259: / Line 1,249: @@
 It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.
-/dô̰k jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰/
+/dô̰k jô̰ gá=bìʔ nâ̰/
 dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
@@ Line 1,268: / Line 1,258: @@
 Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.
-/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰k/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù gá=bìʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/
 guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
 The guardian must not bite the dog.
 ===Optative Mood===
@@ Line 1,287: / Line 1,276: @@
-/ŋí=wáná=bíʔtèn dô̰k/
+/té=wáná=bíʔ dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog
@@ Line 1,294: / Line 1,283: @@
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ wáná=dô̰k/
 PS.ACC bite OPT=dog
@@ Line 1,301: / Line 1,290: @@
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/
 PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog
@@ Line 1,310: / Line 1,299: @@
 ===Conditional Mood===
-This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel) e.g.
+This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel). The origin of this proclitic is the Thai particle /kɔ̂ː/ e.g.
@@ Line 1,320: / Line 1,309: @@
-/ái=déˈpʰáʔɾ kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/
+/ái=déˈpʰáʔɾ kò=ˈzwéʔpìd/
 PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast
@@ Line 1,339: / Line 1,328: @@
 ===Hypothetical Mood===
-The proclitic /nou/ (/now/ before a vowel) is used for hypothetical and counterfactual situations. It often corresponds to cases where English would use "if" e.g.
+The proclitic /pʰí/ (/ípʰ/ before a vowel) is used for hypothetical and counterfactual situations. It often corresponds to cases where English would use "if" (which it is indeed cognate to) e.g.
-/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/jéi=pí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 PS.INTR=HYP=depart
@@ Line 1,352: / Line 1,341: @@
-/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/
+/jéi=pí=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/
 PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
 If you leave, I / we (not including you) will be alone.
+Notice in both of the above sentences, Grassman's law has resulted in a loss of aspiration on the prefix, so /pʰí/ becomes /pí/
@@ Line 1,373: / Line 1,365: @@
 ===Reportative Evidential===
-If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.
+If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /sʰái/ (/sʰáj/ before a vowel) is used. This is etymologically related to English "say" e.g.
-/dô̰k hízw=áˈlâṵn/
+/dô̰k sʰáj=áˈlâṵn/
 dog REP=alone
@@ Line 1,382: / Line 1,374: @@
-/áˈlâṵn hí=dô̰k/
+/áˈlâṵn sʰái=dô̰k/
 alone REP=dog
@@ Line 1,391: / Line 1,383: @@
 ===Inferential Evidential===
-If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.
+If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel). This is etymologically related to English "guess" e.g.
 /dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/
@@ Line 1,402: / Line 1,394: @@
 ===Assumptive Mood===
-This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /hle/ (/hel/ before a vowel) e.g.
+This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /mat/ (/mats/ before a vowel). This is etymologically related to English "does" e.g.
-/sôṵlà hél=áʔp/
+/sôṵlà máts=áʔp/
 sun ASS=rise
@@ Line 1,419: / Line 1,411: @@
 The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it).
 ===Interrogative Mood===
-This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ e.g.
+This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ (etymologically related to English "do") e.g.
-/ŋí=dú=bíʔtèn dô̰k/
+/té=dú=bíʔ dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
@@ Line 1,435: / Line 1,426: @@
 as well as
-/dú=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/
+/dú=té=bíʔ dô̰k/
 POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
@@ Line 1,444: / Line 1,435: @@
 and
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ dú=dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
@@ Line 1,453: / Line 1,444: @@
 Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
@@ Line 1,462: / Line 1,453: @@
 And adverbs e.g.
-/ŋí=bíʔtèn dù=déiʔp dô̰k/
+/té=bíʔ dù=déiʔp dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
@@ Line 1,471: / Line 1,462: @@
 However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
-/ŋí=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/
+/té=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/
 PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
@@ Line 1,483: / Line 1,474: @@
-A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
-PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
+dog POLQ=bite lizard
 Did the dog bite the lizard?
@@ Line 1,503: / Line 1,494: @@
-A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
-PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
+dog POLQ=bite lizard
 Did the dog bite the lizard?
-B) /bíʔtèn/
+B) /bíʔ/
 bite
@@ Line 1,520: / Line 1,511: @@
-A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
-PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
+dog POLQ=bite lizard
 Did the dog bite the lizard?
@@ Line 1,537: / Line 1,528: @@
-A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
-PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
+dog POLQ=bite lizard
 Did the dog bite the lizard?
@@ Line 1,551: / Line 1,542: @@
-If the speaker believes the answer to be yes because of their experience with similar situations, or because it is general knowledge, they use the particle /hlḛ̂/ e.g.
+If the speaker believes the answer to be yes because of their experience with similar situations, or because it is general knowledge, they use the particle /mà̤t/ e.g.
-A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
-PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
+dog POLQ=bite lizard
 Did the dog bite the lizard?
-B) /hlḛ̂/
+B) /mà̤t/
 ASS
@@ Line 1,568: / Line 1,559: @@
-If the question entails an assumption that the speaker wishes to deny the truth of, then a special particle /plàṳ/ is used e.g.
+If the question entails an assumption that the speaker wishes to deny the truth of, then a special particle /pàṳ/ is used e.g.
@@ Line 1,578: / Line 1,569: @@
-B) /plàṳ/
+B) /pàṳ/
 CHALLENGE.PRESUPPOSITION
@@ Line 1,588: / Line 1,579: @@
-A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
-PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
+dog POLQ=bite lizard
 Did the dog bite the lizard?
@@ Line 1,600: / Line 1,591: @@
 I don't know either.
 ==Wh-Questions==
@@ Line 1,616: / Line 1,605: @@
 or
-/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈbwḛ̀lí=hwám bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/
 Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart
@@ Line 1,623: / Line 1,612: @@
-/zwé=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/hwéi=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 Q.ERG=bite lizard
@@ Line 1,630: / Line 1,619: @@
-/ké=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/ké=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 Q.ACC=bite lizard
@@ Line 1,637: / Line 1,626: @@
-/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂p dô̰k=àuŋ/
+/ˈsʰíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí dò̰k=gó θú=gḭ̂p/
-guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
+guardian Q.ACC=SEC dog=DAT ANTIP=give
 Who / What did the guardian give to the dog?
@@ Line 1,646: / Line 1,635: @@
 When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.
-/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=hwám déˈpʰáʔɾ/
 enemy Q.ACC=from depart
@@ Line 1,653: / Line 1,642: @@
-/dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard
@@ Line 1,660: / Line 1,649: @@
-/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard
@@ Line 1,667: / Line 1,656: @@
-/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard
@@ Line 1,678: / Line 1,667: @@
 Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g.
-/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd éi=ˈhḛ̂b/
 dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have
@@ Line 1,687: / Line 1,676: @@
 or
-/θú=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/
+/ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ dô̰k éi=ˈhḛ̂b/
-ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have
+lizard=DAT ANTIP=bite dog Q.ERG=have
 Whose dog bit the lizard? (literally "Who has the dog that bit the lizard?")
@@ Line 1,698: / Line 1,687: @@
 To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g.
-/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard
@@ Line 1,707: / Line 1,696: @@
 However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.
-/θú=ˈbíʔtèn bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
+/ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ bá=dô̰k/
 ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
@@ Line 1,714: / Line 1,703: @@
-Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/.
+Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=gó θú=ˈbíʔ/.
 To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.
-/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà bá=pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/
+/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù dò̰k=gó ˈbíʔ=kà bá=pʰò̤wè /
-lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which
+lizard=ERG dog=DAT bite=LOC which=forest
 Which forest did the lizard bite the dog in?
 ==Verb Subordination==
@@ Line 1,734: / Line 1,722: @@
 ! !! Accusative !! Ergative !! Intransitive
 |-
-| Before a consonant || nó || ŋá || sí
+| Before a consonant || nó || njá || sí
 |-
 | Before a vowel || ón- || áŋ- || íts-
 |-
-| Emphatic || nò̰ || ŋà̰ || ì̤t
+| Emphatic || nò̰ || njà̰ || ì̤t
 |}
 For example, from the sentence:
-/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù hí=ˈsâ̰pè míʔnà/
+/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè míʔnà/
 mother=ERG REP=know everyone
@@ Line 1,752: / Line 1,740: @@
 We can replace the object with a pronoun to get
-/múˈhḛ̂ lán=hí=ˈsâ̰pè/
+/múˈhḛ̂ lé=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè/
 mother 1PS.INCL.ACC=REP=know
@@ Line 1,761: / Line 1,749: @@
 If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.
-/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/múˈhḛ̂ nó=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 1,770: / Line 1,758: @@
 If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.
-/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn/
+/múˈhḛ̂ nó=sʰái=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/
 mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
@@ Line 1,777: / Line 1,765: @@
-It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn mùˈhḛ̂/.
+It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ mùˈhḛ̂/.
@@ Line 1,783: / Line 1,771: @@
 And another example using a postposition:
-/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
+/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/
 mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
@@ Line 1,792: / Line 1,780: @@
 And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.
-/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk kʰḭ̂d wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk kʰḭ̂d wá=bàṵn=tá gá=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
@@ Line 1,799: / Line 1,787: @@
-/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk wá=bàṵn=tá gá=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
-mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
+mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
 The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone.
@@ Line 1,809: / Line 1,797: @@
-/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/
-mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
+mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT  ANTIP=speak INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
 The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker saw the act of giving).
-/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=péiʔk tí=bàṵn=tá sʰái=gḭ̂p dô̰k/
-mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
+mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
-The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone (the speaker didn't see the act of giving, but heard about it).
+The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker didn't see the act of giving, but heard about it).
@@ Line 1,829: / Line 1,817: @@
 So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:
-/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾá péiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/
 mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
@@ Line 1,836: / Line 1,824: @@
-/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpéiʔk ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂p dô̰k/
+/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾá ˈkʰḭ̀d=gó θú=ˈpéiʔkðjíʔ tí=bàṵn=tá gḭ̂p dô̰k/
-mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
+mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC child=DAT ANTIP=speak 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
-The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) have the dog a bone.
+The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) gave the dog a bone.
+===Evidentials and Reported Speech===
-===Evidentials and Reported Speech===
+====Indirect Reported Speech====
-When reporting what someone else has said, both clauses need to marked for evidentiality, both from the point of view of the speaker e.g.
+In this case, when reporting what someone else has said, both clauses need to marked for evidentiality, both from the point of view of the speaker e.g.
-/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾá mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/
-child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
+child SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
-The child told me the enemy departed (and I saw it happen too).
+The child told me the enemy had departed (and I saw it happen too).
@@ Line 1,858: / Line 1,847: @@
-/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm hí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾá mí=ˈpéiʔk ˈḛ̂nèm sái=déˈpʰáʔɾ/
+child SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
+The child told me the enemy had departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it).
+====Direct Reported Speech====
+In this case, there is no superordinate verb marking. The quoted speech is places at the end of the sentence, preceded by the particle /ðéʔ/ and followed by the particle /tḛ̂/ e.g.
+/ˈkʰḭ̂d mí=ˈpéiʔk ðéʔ ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ tḛ̂/
+child 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak QUOTE enemy depart QUOTE
+The child told me that the enemy had departed
+In the above sentence, the speaker is saying the the child had used the direct evidential when reporting the enemy's departure, meaning that the speaker is reporting that the child implied that they had witnessed it themselves. This sentence conveys no information about whether or not the speaker had also seen the departure.
+Compare:
-child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
+/ˈkʰḭ̂d mí=ˈpéiʔk ðéʔ ˈḛ̂nèm sái=déˈpʰáʔɾ tḛ̂/
-The child told me the enemy departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it).
+child 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak QUOTE enemy REP=depart QUOTE
+The child told me that he had heard that the enemy had departed (and not witnessed it himself).
 ==Comparative Constructions==
-To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.
+To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /tʰáp/, where /tʰáp/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.
-/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=téŋ lwéʔpìd/
+/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=tʰáp zwéʔp/
 dog.TOP lizard=above fast
 Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
+[[Category:Languages]]
+[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]

Kämpya: Difference between revisions

Kämpya (view source)

Revision as of 14:20, 5 December 2019