Linguifex

North-East Antarctican: Difference between revisions

← Older edit
m →Verbs: Categories.
 
(14 intermediate revisions by one other user not shown)
Line 9: Line 9:
However, it differs from English in many other ways. Syntactically, it prefers SVO, but is less strict than English, often allowing words to be fronted as topics, or elided if they are obvious from context. This does not create ambiguities, since verbs have hierarchical person marking. The language also marks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inalienable_possession alienable and inalienable possession]. Phonologically, the language uses secondary articulation to contrast a very large number of consonant phonemes, however the phonotactics are extremely restrictive, and most dialects have a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_vowel_system Vertical Vowel System] (the ones that do not still preserve an older system with vowel harmony).
However, it differs from English in many other ways. Syntactically, it prefers SVO, but is less strict than English, often allowing words to be fronted as topics, or elided if they are obvious from context. This does not create ambiguities, since verbs have hierarchical person marking. The language also marks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inalienable_possession alienable and inalienable possession]. Phonologically, the language uses secondary articulation to contrast a very large number of consonant phonemes, however the phonotactics are extremely restrictive, and most dialects have a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_vowel_system Vertical Vowel System] (the ones that do not still preserve an older system with vowel harmony).


Even though the dialects are easily mutually intelligible, there is no one name for the dialect cluster. The most commonly used one is /ˈʀɨ̤ŋːasɨ̤/ [ˈʁɤ̤ŋːa̤sɨ]. However, some communities strongly prefer to refer to it as /kɨˈʎə̰ɴbə/ [kiˈʎḛɴbə]. A third, neutral term is /ʔaʔɨʈaˈʔɨ̤ːwamaɴɻahɨ/ [ʔaʔɤʈɑˈʔṳːwa̤mɑ̤ɳɻɑ̤hɨ], however this has an extremely stilted, formal flavour and is rarely used.
Even though the dialects are easily mutually intelligible, there is no one name for the dialect cluster. The most commonly used one is /ˈʀɨ̤ŋːasɨ̤/ [ˈʁɤ̤ŋːa̤sɨ]. However, some communities strongly prefer to refer to it as /kɨˈʎə̰ɴbə/ [kiˈʎḛɴbə].


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Vowels===
Vowel frontness / backness is not phonemic. There are 3 phonemic oral monophthongs /a ə ɨ/.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Line 48: Line 43:
* /ɾʲ/ is normally pronounced as a flap, except when geminated when it becomes a trill. /ʀ/ and /ʀʷ/ are usually pronounced as approximants, except when geminated when they become trills.
* /ɾʲ/ is normally pronounced as a flap, except when geminated when it becomes a trill. /ʀ/ and /ʀʷ/ are usually pronounced as approximants, except when geminated when they become trills.


===Suprasegmentals===


====Stress====
===Vowels===


In each word, one syllable has stress. Stress can occur on any syllable, indeed the location is phonemic. There are many minimal pairs that contrast only in the location of the stress e.g. /ˈqɨ̰ɫɨ/ [ˈqɤ̰ːɫɤ̰] - "giant" vs. /qɨˈɫɨ̰/ [qɤˈɫɤ̰ː] - "evidence", /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short" vs. /kəˈtə̰/ [kəˈtə̰ː] - "concept".
Vowel frontness / backness is not phonemic. There are 3 phonemic oral monophthongs /a ə ɨ/.


====Gemination====


If a stressed vowel is followed by a consonant, then sometimes the consonant is doubled. This is phonemic, and there are minimal pairs distinguished by the presence of gemination e.g. /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" vs. /bɨˈhə̤kːɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤kːɨ] - "duty". Geminate consonants cannot occur after the nasal coda /ɴ/
====Vowel Allophony====


Even though there is no phonemic contrast between front and back vowels, this does not mean that sounds such as [i], [u] and [e] are absent from the language. Front and back vowels occur as allophones of their corresponding central vowels e.g. /ˈhɨ̰mːʲɨ/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈhḭmːʲḭ], and /ˈtʷɨ̤pːasɨ/ - "digestion" is pronounced [ˈtʷṳpːasɨ].


====Timing====
There is no difference between how consonants influence the preceding vowel and the following vowel. So if /ɨ/ is between /j/ and /w/, in both cases it will be pronounced /y/, no matter whether the sequence is /jɨw/ or /wɨj/.
 
NE Antarctican is mora-timed. Each syllable counts as one mora, except stressed syllables and syllables containing the nasal coda /ɴ/ count for two, and therefore take twice as long to pronounce. If a stressed syllable has an oral vowel, but is not followed by /ɴ/ or a geminate consonant, then the vowel is pronounced long.
 
 
====Phonation====
 
There is a phonemic phonation contrast on stressed syllables, between breathy voice and tense voice. There are many minimal pairs that contrast this e.g. /baˈhɨ̤ɴdɨ/ - "liver" vs. /baˈhɨ̰ɴdɨ/ - "to tie together".
 
Vowels with tense voice are pronounced with high or rising pitch. Vowels with breathy voice are pronounced with low or falling pitch.
 
 
===Phonotactics===
 
====Syllable Structures====
 
The only possible syllable structures are CV(ɴ).
 
 
====Glottal Consonants====
 
There are a few restrictions on the glottal consonants /ʔ/ and /h/. They cannot occur between two identical vowel phonemes (so sequences such as */aha/ are forbidden). Nor can they occur after /ɴ/. Also they cannot immediately follow a stressed vowel. As such, they cannot occur geminated.
 
 
====Strong and Weak Consonants====
 
A number of consonants are classed as "strong". These are all the fricatives except /s/ (i.e. all the non-sibilant fricatives), the labialised alveolar stops /tʷ/ and /dʷ/, the uvular consonants /q/ and /ʀ/, and their labialised equivalents /qʷ/ and /ʀʷ/. The labialised velar stops /kʷ/ and /gʷ/, and the labialised palatal stops /cʷ/ and /ɟʷ/ also usually pattern as strong consonants, but there are some irregularities here (each of these four phonemes are the result of mergers between a historically strong consonant, and a historically weak consonant).
 
Historically, these were aspirated / velarised stops, which were subject to a rule similar to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law Grassman's Law]. The result of this law is that, in the modern language, words cannot contain more than one "strong" consonant. If a process such as affixation would create a violation of this rule, all strong consonants except the last are mutated, by a regular process:
 
* /tʷ/ and /dʷ/ -> /t/ and /d/ respectively
* /ʃ/ -> /tʲ/
* /ʂ/ -> /ʈ/
* /ç/ and /x/ -> /c/
* /q/ and /ʀ/ -> /k/ and /g/ respectively
* /kʷ/ and /gʷ/ -> /p/ and /b/ respectively
* /çʷ/ and /xʷ/ -> /cʷ/ (in this case, the resulting /cʷ/ does not pattern as a strong consonant)
* /qʷ/ and /ʀʷ/ -> /kʷ/ and /gʷ/ respectively (likewise, in this case the resulting phonemes do not pattern as strong).
* /h/ -> /ʔ/
 
For example, the noun class proclitic for perennial plants is normally /gʷɨɴ-/. However, when it attaches to the root /ʀɨˈʔə̰ɻɨ/ [ʁɤˈʔʌ̰ːɻɤ̰] - "rose" (containing the strong consonant /ʀ/, the /gʷ/ changes to /b/, giving /bɨɴ=ʀɨˈʔə̰ɻɨ/ [bɤɴʁɤˈʔʌ̰ːɻɤ̰].
 
 
==Phonetic Processes==
 
===Phonation Spreading===
 
Both breathy and tense phonation tend to spread rightwards from the stressed syllable. Breathy voice spreads until it is blocked by a voiceless consonant (other than /h/). So /baˈhɨ̤ɴdɨ/ - "liver" is pronounced [baˈhɨ̤ɴdɨ̤], the breathy phonation spreading from the stressed syllable, through the /d/ onto the final syllable. However, in words such as /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ - "bake" and /bɨˈhə̤kːɨ/ - "duty", the voiceless /k/ blocks the spread of the breathy voice, no matter whether or not it is geminated. Therefore they are pronounced [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] and [bɨˈhə̤kːɨ] respectively.
 
The rules for tense phonation are slightly more complex. Tense phonation spreads through nasals, approximants, flaps / trills, and laterals, and also through voiceless stops. However, it is blocked by fricatives and voiced stops e.g. it spreads in both /ˈqɨ̰ɫɨ/ [ˈqɤ̰ːɫɤ̰] - "giant" and /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short", but not in /gʷɨˈkɨ̰da/ [gʷuˈkɨ̰ːda] - "to float" or /ˈkʷə̰sa/ [ˈkʷo̰ːsa] - "throwing spear".
 
 
===Vowel Allophony===
 
Even though there is no phonemic contrast between front and back vowels, this does not mean that sounds such as [i], [u] and [e] are absent from the language. Front and back vowels occur as allophones of their corresponding central vowels e.g. /ˈhɨ̰mːʲɨ/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈhḭmːʲḭ], and /ˈtʷɨ̤pːasɨ/ - "digestion" is pronounced [ˈtʷṳpːasɨ].


The allophones of each vowel are given in the table below. Note that a "lowering" consonant is defined as a retroflex or uvular consonant (labialised or non-labialised, including /ɫ/):
The allophones of each vowel are given in the table below. Note that a "lowering" consonant is defined as a retroflex or uvular consonant (labialised or non-labialised, including /ɫ/):
Line 173: Line 113:
| /qɨˈɫɨ̰/ || [qɤˈɫɤ̰ː] || "evidence"
| /qɨˈɫɨ̰/ || [qɤˈɫɤ̰ː] || "evidence"
|}
|}
===Suprasegmentals===
====Stress====
In each word, one syllable has stress. Stress can occur on any syllable, indeed the location is phonemic. There are many minimal pairs that contrast only in the location of the stress e.g. /ˈqɨ̰ɫɨ/ [ˈqɤ̰ːɫɤ̰] - "giant" vs. /qɨˈɫɨ̰/ [qɤˈɫɤ̰ː] - "evidence", /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short" vs. /kəˈtə̰/ [kəˈtə̰ː] - "concept".
====Gemination====
If a stressed vowel is followed by a consonant, then sometimes the consonant is doubled. This is phonemic, and there are minimal pairs distinguished by the presence of gemination e.g. /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" vs. /bɨˈhə̤kːɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤kːɨ] - "duty". Geminate consonants cannot occur after the nasal coda /ɴ/
====Timing====
NE Antarctican is mora-timed. Each syllable counts as one mora, except stressed syllables and syllables containing the nasal coda /ɴ/ count for two, and therefore take twice as long to pronounce. If a stressed syllable has an oral vowel, but is not followed by /ɴ/ or a geminate consonant, then the vowel is pronounced long.
====Phonation====
There is a phonemic phonation contrast on stressed syllables, between breathy voice and tense voice. There are many minimal pairs that contrast this e.g. /baˈhɨ̤ɴdɨ/ - "liver" vs. /baˈhɨ̰ɴdɨ/ - "to tie together".
Vowels with tense voice are pronounced with high or rising pitch. Vowels with breathy voice are pronounced with low or falling pitch.
====Phonation Spreading====
Both breathy and tense phonation tend to spread rightwards from the stressed syllable. Breathy voice spreads until it is blocked by a voiceless consonant (other than /h/). So /baˈhɨ̤ɴdɨ/ - "liver" is pronounced [baˈhɨ̤ɴdɨ̤], the breathy phonation spreading from the stressed syllable, through the /d/ onto the final syllable. However, in words such as /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ - "bake" and /bɨˈhə̤kːɨ/ - "duty", the voiceless /k/ blocks the spread of the breathy voice, no matter whether or not it is geminated. Therefore they are pronounced [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] and [bɨˈhə̤kːɨ] respectively.
The rules for tense phonation are slightly more complex. Tense phonation spreads through nasals, approximants, flaps / trills, and laterals, and also through voiceless stops. However, it is blocked by fricatives and voiced stops e.g. it spreads in both /ˈqɨ̰ɫɨ/ [ˈqɤ̰ːɫɤ̰] - "giant" and /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short", but not in /gʷɨˈkɨ̰da/ [gʷuˈkɨ̰ːda] - "to float" or /ˈkʷə̰sa/ [ˈkʷo̰ːsa] - "throwing spear".
===Phonotactics===
====Syllable Structures====
The only possible syllable structures are CV(ɴ).
====Glottal Consonants====
There are a few restrictions on the glottal consonants /ʔ/ and /h/. They cannot occur between two identical vowel phonemes (so sequences such as */aha/ are forbidden). Nor can they occur after /ɴ/. Also they cannot immediately follow a stressed vowel. As such, they cannot occur geminated.
====Strong and Weak Consonants====
A number of consonants are classed as "strong". These are all the fricatives except /s/ (i.e. all the non-sibilant fricatives), the labialised alveolar stops /tʷ/ and /dʷ/, the uvular consonants /q/ and /ʀ/, and their labialised equivalents /qʷ/ and /ʀʷ/. The labialised velar stops /kʷ/ and /gʷ/, and the labialised palatal stops /cʷ/ and /ɟʷ/ also usually pattern as strong consonants, but there are some irregularities here (each of these four phonemes are the result of mergers between a historically strong consonant, and a historically weak consonant).
Historically, these were aspirated / velarised stops, which were subject to a rule similar to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law Grassman's Law]. The result of this law is that, in the modern language, words cannot contain more than one "strong" consonant. If a process such as affixation would create a violation of this rule, all strong consonants except the last are mutated, by a regular process:
* /tʷ/ and /dʷ/ -> /t/ and /d/ respectively
* /ʃ/ -> /tʲ/
* /ʂ/ -> /ʈ/
* /ç/ and /x/ -> /c/
* /q/ and /ʀ/ -> /k/ and /g/ respectively
* /kʷ/ and /gʷ/ -> /p/ and /b/ respectively
* /çʷ/ and /xʷ/ -> /cʷ/ (in this case, the resulting /cʷ/ does not pattern as a strong consonant)
* /qʷ/ and /ʀʷ/ -> /kʷ/ and /gʷ/ respectively (likewise, in this case the resulting phonemes do not pattern as strong).
* /h/ -> /ʔ/
For example, the noun class proclitic for perennial plants is normally /gʷɨɴ-/. However, when it attaches to the root /ʀɨˈʔə̰ɻɨ/ [ʁɤˈʔʌ̰ːɻɤ̰] - "rose" (containing the strong consonant /ʀ/, the /gʷ/ changes to /b/, giving /bɨɴ=ʀɨˈʔə̰ɻɨ/ [bɤɴʁɤˈʔʌ̰ːɻɤ̰].


==Sound Symbolism==
==Sound Symbolism==
Line 189: Line 190:
Compounds are head final. Stress, phonation and gemination are lost on all but the first member of the compound e.g. /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short", and /ˈkʷə̰sa/ [ˈkʷo̰ːsa] - "throwing spear" combine to make /ˈkə̰təkʷəsa/ [ˈkə̰ːto̰kʷo̰sa] - "dart" (literally "short spear").
Compounds are head final. Stress, phonation and gemination are lost on all but the first member of the compound e.g. /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short", and /ˈkʷə̰sa/ [ˈkʷo̰ːsa] - "throwing spear" combine to make /ˈkə̰təkʷəsa/ [ˈkə̰ːto̰kʷo̰sa] - "dart" (literally "short spear").


The restriction against more than one strong consonant in a word applies to compound words e.g. when /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" is combined with /ˈkʷɨ̤sːɨ/ [ˈkʷṳsːa] - "ocean fish", the result is /bɨˈʔə̤kɨkʷɨsɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkukʷusɨ] - "baked (ocean) fish". Because the /kʷ/ in the word for "fish" is strong, it causes the /h/ in the word for "bake" to shift to a glottal stop.
The restriction against more than one strong consonant in a word applies to compound words e.g. when /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" is combined with /ˈkʷɨ̤sːɨ/ [ˈkʷṳsːɨ] - "ocean fish", the result is /bɨˈʔə̤kɨkʷɨsɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkukʷusɨ] - "baked (ocean) fish". Because the /kʷ/ in the word for "fish" is strong, it causes the /h/ in the word for "bake" to shift to a glottal stop.


There is a very strong preference to make endocentric compounds from words that have identical voicing on the stressed syllable. For example, the word /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ [ˈxæ̰ːɾʲḭ] - "freshwater fish", could, in theory, be compounded with /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake", to form /bɨˈʔə̤kɨxaɾʲɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkɨxæɾʲi] - "baked freshwater fish". However, since /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ has breathy voice, and /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ has tense voice, the resulting compound would strike native speakers as inelegant and clumsy.
There is a very strong preference to make endocentric compounds from words that have identical voicing on the stressed syllable. For example, the word /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ [ˈxæ̰ːɾʲḭ] - "freshwater fish", could, in theory, be compounded with /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake", to form /bɨˈʔə̤kɨxaɾʲɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkɨxæɾʲi] - "baked freshwater fish". However, since /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ has breathy voice, and /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ has tense voice, the resulting compound would strike native speakers as inelegant and clumsy.
Line 212: Line 213:


/ˈnə̰tʷɨ/ [ˈno̰ːtʷṵ] - "North", /gʷɨˈʔə̤/ [gʷuˈʔə̤ː] - "remain", /ˈnə̰tɨgʷɨʔə/ [ˈnə̰ːtṵgʷuʔə] - "person who did not migrate south to Antarctica, but rather stayed to take their chances on the northern continents" (literally "North remain").
/ˈnə̰tʷɨ/ [ˈno̰ːtʷṵ] - "North", /gʷɨˈʔə̤/ [gʷuˈʔə̤ː] - "remain", /ˈnə̰tɨgʷɨʔə/ [ˈnə̰ːtṵgʷuʔə] - "person who did not migrate south to Antarctica, but rather stayed to take their chances on the northern continents" (literally "North remain").


===Nominalisation===
===Nominalisation===
Line 228: Line 228:
===Verbalisation===
===Verbalisation===


Similarly, nouns / adjectives (they are not distinguished in the grammar) can become verbs meaning "to make X" by shifting the stress to the right e.g. /ˈkə̰dːəmə/ [ˈkə̰dːəmə] - "child" becomes /kəˈdə̰mːə/ [kəˈdə̰mːə̰] - "to have a child", and /ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑ̤ɫːɑ̤ʔudʷuʔa] - "warm" becomes /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm".
Similarly, nouns / adjectives (they are not distinguished in the grammar) can become verbs meaning "to make X" by shifting the stress to the right e.g. /ˈkə̰dːəmə/ [ˈkə̰dːəmə] - "child" becomes /kəˈdə̰mːə/ [kəˈdə̰mːə̰] - "to have a child", and /ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑ̤ɫːɑ̤ʔudʷuʔa] - "warm" becomes /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [kɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm".


There are also many irregular verbalisations e.g. /ˈkʷa̰jːa/ [ˈkʷœ̰jːæ̰] - "fire" becomes /ˈkʷaˈja̤/ [kʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn", and /maˈhɨ̤ɻːɨ/ [maˈhɤ̤ɻːɤ̤] - "goop / mush" becomes /mʲɨˈɾʲɨ̰/ [mʲiˈɾʲḭː] - "to mash up".
There are also many irregular verbalisations e.g. /ˈkʷa̰jːa/ [ˈkʷœ̰jːæ̰] - "fire" becomes /kʷaˈja̤/ [kʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn", and /maˈhɨ̤ɻːɨ/ [maˈhɤ̤ɻːɤ̤] - "goop / mush" becomes /mʲɨˈɾʲɨ̰/ [mʲiˈɾʲḭː] - "to mash up".




Line 353: Line 353:


Also, the honorific human prefix /hɨʔa-/ and the prefix for children /kɨʔa-/ labialise any following dorsal consonant (palatal, velar and uvular). The only exception to this is lateral consonants, which have no labialised equivalents.
Also, the honorific human prefix /hɨʔa-/ and the prefix for children /kɨʔa-/ labialise any following dorsal consonant (palatal, velar and uvular). The only exception to this is lateral consonants, which have no labialised equivalents.
===Possession===
====Possessive Pronouns====
Possessive pronouns occupy the same syntactic "slot" as adnominal demonstratives and noun class particles. They also cause replacement of any subsequent glottal consonant, and have different allomorphs depending on the stressed vowel phonation of the following word.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Class !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.
|-
| 1st Person Singular || mə- || mɨha- || mɨhəj- || mɨhaj-
|-
| 1st Person Plural || haɴsɨ- || haɴsɨ- || haɴs- || haɴs-
|-
| 2nd Person || jəhɨ- || jəhɨ- || jɨw- || jɨw-
|-
| 3rd Person Masculine Singular || qɨɻɨ- || qɨɾʲɨ- || qɨɻ- || qɨɾʲ-
|-
| 3rd Person Feminine Singular || qɨ- || qɨ- || kɨʀ- || kɨʀ-
|-
| 3rd Person Nonhuman|| hɨsɨ- || hɨsɨ- || hɨs- || hɨs-
|-
| 3rd Person Plural || dʷɨʔə- || dʷɨʔa- || dɨʔəʀ- || dɨʔaʀ-
|-
| 3rd Person Honorific || jɨɫɨ- || jɨɫɨ- || jɨɫ- || jɨɫ-
|-
| 3rd Person Topicalised Possessor || həɴ- || həʔɨɴ- || hən- || həʔɨn-
|}
====Alienable and Inalienable Possession====
If a noun is possessed by a pronoun, possessive grammar is relatively simple. But if the possessor is another noun in the sentence, then things get more complicated.
The same pronouns as above are used to mark the possessed noun, but the location of the possessor depends on whether or not the possession is alienable or inalienable.
In the case of inalienable possession, the word order is Possessed - Possessor e.g.
dɨʔa=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ    ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
3PS.POSS.PL=bone animal.PL=dog
Dogs' bones (in their bodies)
In the case of alienable possession, the word order is the opposite (i.e. Possessor - Possessed) e.g.
ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ dɨʔa=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ
animal.PL=dog 3PS.POSS.PL=bone
Dogs' bones (that they eat / play with / bury etc.)
==Verb Morphology==
Unlike nouns, verbs have a complex morphology. The verb template is: [Relativiser] [TAM Prefix] [Transitivity / Object Pronoun / Hierarchical Prefix] Stem [TAM Suffix]. Affixes have different allomorphs depending on whether the stressed syllable of the root has breathy or tense voice. Additionally, if a prefix is followed by a glottal consonant, then that consonant is deleted and replaced with another consonant that is determined by the prefix (like demonstrative clitics).
===Pronominal Objects===
If the direct object of a verb is a pronoun, it is marked by a prefix.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! TAM !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.
|-
| 1PS Singular || mɨhə- || mɨha- || mɨʔəh- || mɨʔəh-
|-
| 2PS || tɨhə- || tɨha- || tɨʔəh- || tɨʔəh-
|-
| 1PS Plural || nɨha- * || nə- || nɨhas- || nəs-
|-
| Reflexive || sɨhə- || sɨha- || sɨʔəh- || sɨʔəh-
|}
The prefix /nɨha-/ labialises the following consonant (if possible), for example when it attaches to /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [kɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm"., the result is /nɨʔa-kʷaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [nɨʔa-kʷɒɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make us warm".
===Inverse Marking===
If a transitive verb does not have a pronominal object prefix, then it must usually be marked as either direct (unmarked) or inverse (with the prefix gatɨ- / gat-). Direct marking is used when the subject has greater animacy than the object. The animacy hierarchy is Lords etc. > Men > Women (their culture is quite sexist) > Children > Animals > Plants > Anything else. Inverse marking is used when the object has greater animacy than the subject. Marking on the verb overrides word order when determining subject and object e.g. both the below sentences have direct marking.
/dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
human.PL.INDEF=man bite=PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
Some men bit a dog.
/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ/
animal.SG.INDEF=dog bite=PST.TEL  human.PL.INDEF=man
A dog was bitten by some men.
While both the below sentences have inverse marking:
/dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
human.PL.INDEF=man INV-bite=PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
Some men were bitten by a dog.
/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ/
animal.SG.INDEF=dog INV-bite=PST.TEL  human.PL.INDEF=man
A dog bit some men.
If both the agent and the patient of a transitive verb are equal on the animacy hierarchy, whichever one is earlier in the sentence counts as more animate e.g.
/ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
animal.PL.INDEF=fish bite-PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
Some fish bit a dog.
/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ/
animal.SG.INDEF=dog bite-PST.TEL  animal.PL.INDEF=fish
A dog bit some fish.
/ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
animal.PL.INDEF=fish INV-bite-PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
Some fish were bitten by a dog.
/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ/
animal.SG.INDEF=dog INV-bite-PST.TEL  animal.PL.INDEF=fish
A dog was bitten by some fish.
===Reciprocal Voice===
To express the meaning of "each other" or "one another", the first syllable of the verb root is reduplicated e.g. from /ˈbə̤tɨ/ - "to bite", the verb /bəˈbə̤tɨ/ - "to bite each other" can be derived.
===Intransitivisation===
Many intransitive verbs are derived from transitive verbs with the prefix /ba-/ e.g. /cɨtanaˈhɨ̰/ [citanaˈhɨ̰ː] - "to make dirty" becomes /ba-cɨtanaˈhɨ̰/ [ba-citanaˈhɨ̰ː] - "to become dirty".
===Tense / Aspect / Mood===
TAM can be marked by prefixes, suffixes or circumfixes, that come before the previously mentioned prefixes.
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telicity Telicity] is very important in the TAM system. Except for future, negative and conditional forms, verbs are marked for telic vs. atelic aspect.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! TAM !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.
|-
| Present Atelic || ja- || ja- || jah- || jah-
|-
| Present Telic || gʷɨʔə- || gʷɨʔa- || bɨʔəʁ- || bɨʔaʁ-
|-
| Future || ɥɨha- || jə- || ɥɨʔah- || jəh-
|-
| Nonpast Conditional || ŋa- || ŋa- || ŋah- || ŋah-
|-
| Past Atelic || -ta || -ta || -ta || -ta
|-
| Past Telic || gʷɨʔə- -ta || gʷɨʔa- -ta || bɨʔəʁ- -ta || bɨʔaʁ- -ta
|-
| Past Conditional || ŋa- -ta || ŋa- -ta || ŋah- -ta || ŋah- -ta
|-
| Nonfuture Atelic Benefactive || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja  || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja
|-
| Nonfuture Telic Benefactive || gʷɨʔə- -kɨ / -ja || gʷɨʔa- -kɨ / -ja || bɨʔəʁ- -kɨ / -ja || bɨʔaʁ- -kɨ / -ja
|-
| Future Benefactive || ɥɨha- -kɨ / -ja || jə- -kɨ / -ja || ɥɨʔah- -kɨ / -ja || jəh- -kɨ / -ja
|-
| Conditional Benefactive || ŋa- -kɨ / -ja || ŋa- -kɨ / -ja || ŋah- -kɨ / -ja || ŋah- -kɨ / -ja
|-
| Nonfuture Atelic Applicative || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ
|-
| Nonfuture Telic Applicative || gʷɨʔə- -ŋɨ || gʷɨʔa- -ŋɨ || bɨʔəʁ- -ŋɨ || bɨʔaʁ- -ŋɨ
|-
| Future Applicative || ɥɨha- -ŋɨ || jə- -ŋɨ || ɥɨʔah- -ŋɨ || jəh- -ŋɨ
|-
| Conditional Applicative || ŋa- -ŋɨ || ŋa- -ŋɨ || ŋah- -ŋɨ || ŋah- -ŋɨ
|-
| Nonpast Negative || na- || na- || nat- || nat-
|-
| Conditional Negative || ŋa- -nakata || ŋa- -nakata || ŋah- -nakata || ŋah- -nakata
|-
| Past Negative || -nakata || -nakata || -nakata || -nakata
|-
| Atelic Nonfuture Irrealis || ja- -ʈa || ja- -ʈa || jah- -ʈa || jah- -ʈa
|-
| Telic Nonfuture Irrealis || gʷɨʔə- -ʈa || gʷɨʔa- -ʈa || bɨʔəʁ- -ʈa || bɨʔaʁ- -ʈa
|-
| Future Irrealis || ɥɨha- -ʈa || jə- -ʈa || ɥɨʔah- -ʈa || jəh- -ʈa
|-
| Conditional Irrealis || ŋa- -ʈa || ŋa- -ʈa || ŋah- -ʈa || ŋah- -ʈa
|-
| Atelic Nonfuture Optative || -tɨ || -tɨ || -tɨ || -tɨ
|-
| Telic Nonfuture Optative || gʷɨʔə- -tɨ || gʷɨʔa- -tɨ || bɨʔəʁ- -tɨ || bɨʔaʁ- -tɨ
|-
| Future Optative || ɥɨha- -tɨ || jə- -tɨ || ɥɨʔah- -tɨ || jəh- -tɨ
|-
| Conditional Optative || ŋa- -tɨ || ŋa- -tɨ || ŋah- -tɨ || ŋah- -tɨ
|-
| Negative Optative || na- -tɨ || na- -tɨ || nat- -tɨ || nat- -tɨ
|-
| Gerund || -ʈa || -ʈa || -ʈa || -ʈa
|}
The benefactive form is used for actions that are done for the benefit of the speaker (if suffixed with -kɨ), or for the listener (if suffixed with -ja). For example, the root /wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤/ [wudukʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn dried wood" can take the nonfuture telic benefective to become /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-kɨ/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ːkɨ] - "burnt up the dried wood for me", or /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-ja/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ːæ̤] - "burnt up the dried wood for you".
The irrealis forms are used for events that the speaker considers hypothetical, or at least unlikely e.g. the telic nonfuture irrealis /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-ʈa/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjɐ̤ːʈɑ] - "would have burnt up the dried wood".
The optative is used to express commands and hopes e.g. /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ː-tɨ] - "hopefully burnt up the dried wood".
The future optative is used for things that need to be done sometime in the future, as opposed to now e.g. /ɥɨʔa-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [ɥyʔawudukʷœˈjæ̤ːtɨ] - "should burn the dried wood" (but not now, sometime in the future, perhaps when winter comes).
The conditional optative is a conditional form that is used for things that are / were supposed to have been done (e.g. as a duty). For example /ŋa-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [ŋawudukʷœˈjæ̤ːtɨ] - "if ... had burned the dried wood" (which ... was supposed to do).
===Relativisation===
Verbs in relative clauses are marked by the prefix /gʷa-/ e.g.
dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨmɨ=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ
this=dog REL-bite-PST.TEL bodypart.SG.INDEF=bone
This dog that bit a bone.
Transitive verbs in relative clauses must still take direct and inverse marking e.g. compare
dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ
this=dog REL-INV-bite-PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man
This dog that bit some men.
and
dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ
this=dog REL-bite-PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man
This dog that some men bit.
==Sentence Level Syntax==
The word order is quite strict, but is not connected with subjects and objects. The word order is as follows: [Topicalised / Proximate Noun] [Wh-Phrase] [Verb] [Obviate Nouns] [Adverbs].
==Copula==
In North-East Antarctican, the copula is the particle /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/. This can be used for nominal predication e.g.
dʷaˈʔɨ̤ːɻɨ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
these COP animal.PL.INDEF=dog
These are dogs.
It can also be used for locational predication (with a locative noun class marker) e.g.
mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ kɨwaˈn=ɨ̰mːʲɨ
1PS.SG.POSS=dog COP LOC.SG.INDEF=fjord
My dog is at a fjord.
Finally, it can also be used for adjectival predication e.g.
mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa
1PS.SG.POSS=dog COP warm
My dog is warm.
However, it is important to note that, unlike English, the copula /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/ is a particle and not a verb, and does not take TAM or other inflections.
==Predicative Possession==
Like English, there is a transitive verb meaning "to have", /ˈka̤gːʷɨ/ e.g.
dʷəɻɨ=ˈma̤ɴ ja-ˈka̤gːʷɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
those=man PRES.ATEL-have animal.PL.INDEF=dog
Those men have dogs.
Normally, /ˈka̤gːʷɨ/ is used with atelic prefixes. With telic prefixes, it means "get" or "obtain" e.g.
dʷəɻɨ=ˈma̤ɴ bɨʔa-ˈka̤gːʷɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
those=man PRES.TEL-have animal.PL.INDEF=dog
Those men got dogs.
==Comparative Constructions==
North-East Antarctican has different comparative constructions depending on what the two things are being compared in terms of.
===Adjectives/Nouns===
To say "A is more X than B", where X is an adjective or noun, North-East Antarctican replaces the particle /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/ with the particle /ma̤sːɨ/. For example, from the following sentence:
mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa
1PS.SG.POSS=dog COP warm
My dog is warm.
we can derive a comparative sentence:
mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ma̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa jɨw=ɨˈɲɨ̰
1PS.SG.POSS=dog CMPR warm 2PS.POSS=dog
My dog is warmer than your dog.
===Verbs===
To say "A does X more than B", B takes the preposition /dʷa̤ɴ/ e.g.
mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ja-bə~ˈbə̤tɨ dʷa̤ɴ jɨw=ɨˈɲɨ̰
1PS.SG.POSS=dog PRES.ATEL-RECP-bite more.than 2PS.POSS=dog
My dogs bite each other more than your dogs.
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:North-East Antarctican]]
Retrieved from "https://duo.linguifex.com/wiki/North-East_Antarctican"