User:IlL/Knench/Ancient: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|nativename = κubrījā
|nativename = κubrījō
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = [[User:IlL/Lõis|Lõis]]
|setting = [[User:IlL/Lõis|Lõis]]
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}}
}}


'''Ancient Cubrite''' (natively 𐤄𐤋𐤔𐤅𐤍 𐤄𐤒𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤀 ''hal-lasōn haκ-κubrījā'' 'the Cubrite language' /ʔal'lasoːn ʔak'kʰubri:ja:/ or ''hal-lasōn hat-turūdījā'' 'the Druidic language') is the stage of [[Cubrite]] after the split from Pre-Exilic Biblical Hebrew. It was used as a literary language during this period and was the language of Near-East druidism, a form of Celtic druidism incorporating Semitic pagan elements, before the religion was supplanted by Henosis Ousias. It was then that the drastic changes that had occurred in the spoken language began to be reflected in writing, thus ushering in the era of modern Cubrite.  
'''Ancient Cubrite''' (natively 𐤄𐤋𐤔𐤅𐤍 𐤄𐤒𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤀 ''hal-lasūn haκ-κubrījō'' 'the Cubrite language' /ʔal'lasoːn ʔak'kʰubri:ja:/ or ''hal-lasūn hat-turȳdījō'' 'the Druidic language') is the stage of [[Cubrite]] after the split from Pre-Exilic Biblical Hebrew. It was used as a literary language during this period and was the language of Near-East druidism, a form of Celtic druidism incorporating Semitic pagan elements, before the religion was supplanted by Henosis Ousias. It was then that the drastic changes that had occurred in the spoken language began to be reflected in writing, thus ushering in the era of modern Cubrite.  


Ancient Cubrite developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Galatian. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Lõis.
Ancient Cubrite developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Galatian. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Lõis.


Surviving literature in Ancient Cubrite includes bardic poetry; one Beowulf-length heroic epic, ''Tabarē Harδūr'' (Tales of Arthur); incantations; and instructions for various rituals.
Surviving literature in Ancient Cubrite includes bardic poetry; one Beowulf-length heroic epic, ''Tabarē Harδȳr'' (Tales of Arthur); incantations; and instructions for various rituals.


==Todo==
==Todo==
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*Vowel reduction:  
*Vowel reduction:  
**final originally unstressed long > short
**final originally unstressed long > short
*ā > ō > ū > ȳ?
*ō > ū > ȳ > ȳ?


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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Ancient Cubrite retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels.
Ancient Cubrite retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels.


'''a e i u ā ē ī ō ū â ê î ô û''' /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː aːː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/
'''a e i u ō ē ī ū ȳ ô ê î û ŷ''' /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː aːː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/


Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: ''pû'' 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *būʔ < *buʔ,  Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)
Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: ''pû'' 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *bȳʔ < *buʔ,  Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
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There were major stress shifts away from final stress from Pre-Exilic Hebrew to Ancient Cubrite, eventually resulting in unconditional initial stress.
There were major stress shifts away from final stress from Pre-Exilic Hebrew to Ancient Cubrite, eventually resulting in unconditional initial stress.


# Stress shifted to penultimate for feminine singular nouns ending in ''-ā'' in adjectives, then nouns, by analogy with the unstressed 3SG.F perfect affix ''-ā''.
# Stress shifted to penultimate for feminine singular nouns ending in ''-ō'' in adjectives, then nouns, by analogy with the unstressed 3SG.F perfect affix ''-ō''.
# By analogy, stress shifted to penultimate for nouns ending in a plural suffix ''-īm'', ''-ē'', or ''-ōδ''.
# By analogy, stress shifted to penultimate for nouns ending in a plural suffix ''-īm'', ''-ē'', or ''-ūδ''.
# Stress became uniformly initial, ignoring proclitics such as the definite article ''haC-'', prepositions ''ka-'' 'and', ''li-'' 'dative', ''bi-'' 'locative/instrumental', ''miC-'' 'from', and the waw in waw-forms. Vowel reduction in surviving texts (missing matres lectionis, or changes in vowels) suggests that at first this was done deliberately as a stylized way to chant incantations.
# Stress became uniformly initial, ignoring proclitics such as the definite article ''haC-'', prepositions ''ka-'' 'and', ''li-'' 'dative', ''bi-'' 'locative/instrumental', ''miC-'' 'from', and the waw in waw-forms. Vowel reduction in surviving texts (missing matres lectionis, or changes in vowels) suggests that at first this was done deliberately as a stylized way to chant incantations.


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*1sg: ''hani, ni''
*1sg: ''hani, ni''
*2sg: ''haθθa, θa'' (m); ''haθθe, θe'' (f)
*2sg: ''haθθa, θa'' (m); ''haθθe, θe'' (f)
*3sg: ''hū'' (m); ''hī'' (f)
*3sg: ''hȳ'' (m); ''hī'' (f)
*1pl: ''haħnu''
*1pl: ''haħnu''
*2pl: ''haθθemma, θemma'' (m); ''haθθenna, θenna'' (f)
*2pl: ''haθθemma, θemma'' (m); ''haθθenna, θenna'' (f)
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===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Inflection====
====Inflection====
The definite article was ''ʔaC-'' (~ Biblical Hebrew ''*haC-''). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ''ʔā-''.
The definite article was ''ʔaC-'' (~ Biblical Hebrew ''*haC-''). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ''ʔō-''.


Unstressed ''-ā'' corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending ''*-ā́''. Other possible feminine endings are ''-t'', ''-θ'' or ''-δ''. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed ''-īm'' and unstressed ''-ōδ'', ~ Biblical Hebrew ''*-ī́m'' and ''*-ṓt''.  
Unstressed ''-ō'' corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending ''*-ṓ''. Other possible feminine endings are ''-t'', ''-θ'' or ''-δ''. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed ''-īm'' and unstressed ''-ūδ'', ~ Biblical Hebrew ''*-ī́m'' and ''*-ṓt''.  


Often ''-ā'' is found where Hebrew has ''-t''.
Often ''-ō'' is found where Hebrew has ''-t''.


The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.
The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.


Example with ''sūs'' 'horse' and ''sūsā'' 'female horse':
Example with ''sȳs'' 'horse' and ''sȳsō'' 'female horse':


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
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|-
|-
! indef.
! indef.
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sūs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sȳs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''sūsā'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''sȳsō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''sūsīm'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''sȳsīm'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sūsōδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sȳsūδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
|-
|-
! def.
! def.
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''has-sūs'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːs/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''has-sȳs'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːs/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''has-sūsā'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''has-sȳsō'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''has-sūsīm'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''has-sȳsīm'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''has-sūsōδ''  <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsoːð/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''has-sȳsūδ''  <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsoːð/
|-
|-
! const.
! const.
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sūs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sȳs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕 ''sūsaδ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsað/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕 ''sȳsaδ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsað/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sūsē'' <br/> /ˈsuːseː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sȳsē'' <br/> /ˈsuːseː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sūsōδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sȳsūδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
|-
|-
! "my"
! "my"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉 ''sūsī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉 ''sȳsī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉 ''sūsaδī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉 ''sȳsaδī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sūsajj'' <br/> /ˈsuːsai/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sȳsajj'' <br/> /ˈsuːsai/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉‎‎ ''sūsuδajj''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðai/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉‎‎ ''sȳsuδajj''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðai/
|-
|-
! "thy" (m)
! "thy" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sūsaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sȳsaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sūsaδaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sȳsaδaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sūsēγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sȳsēγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sūsuδēγa''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sȳsuδēγa''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣa/
|-
|-
! "thy" (f)
! "thy" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sūsaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sȳsaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sūsaδaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sȳsaδaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sūsēγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sȳsēγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sūsuδēγe''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sȳsuδēγe''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣɛ/
|-
|-
! "his"
! "his"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅 ''sūsō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅 ''sȳsū'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤅 ''sūsaδō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤅 ''sȳsaδū'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤅‎ ''sūsô'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤅‎ ''sȳsû'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤅‎‎ ''sūsuδô''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðoːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤅‎‎ ''sȳsuδû''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðoːː/
|-
|-
! "her"
! "her"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤀 ''sūsâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤀 ''sȳsô'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤀 ''sūsaδâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤀 ''sȳsaδô'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤀‎ ''sūseyâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsejaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤀‎ ''sȳseyô'' <br/> /ˈsuːsejaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤀‎‎ ''sūsuδēyâ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːjaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤀‎‎ ''sȳsuδēyô''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːjaːː/
|-
|-
! "our"
! "our"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤍 ''sūsinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤍 ''sȳsinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤍 ''sūsaδinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤍 ''sȳsaδinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤍‎ ''sūsēnu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːnu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤍‎ ''sȳsēnu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːnu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδēnu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːnu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤍‎‎ ''sȳsuδēnu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːnu/
|-
|-
! "y'all's" (m)
! "y'all's" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sūsaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sȳsaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤌 ''sūsaδaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤌 ''sȳsaδaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤌‎ ''sūsēγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤌‎ ''sȳsēγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sūsuδēγem''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sȳsuδēγem''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣem/
|-
|-
! "y'all's" (f)
! "y'all's" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤍 ''sūsaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤍 ''sȳsaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤍 ''sūsaδaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤍 ''sȳsaδaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤍‎ ''sūsēγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤍‎ ''sȳsēγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδēγen''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤍‎‎ ''sȳsuδēγen''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣen/
|-
|-
! "their" (m)
! "their" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤌 ''sūsām(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤌 ''sȳsōm(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤌 ''sūsaδām(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤌 ''sȳsaδōm(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎  ''sūsêm, sūsēmu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːm, ˈsuːseːmu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎  ''sȳsêm, sȳsēmu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːm, ˈsuːseːmu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎‎‎ ''sūsuδêm, sūsuδēmu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːm ˈsuːsuðeːmu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎‎‎ ''sȳsuδêm, sȳsuδēmu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːm ˈsuːsuðeːmu/
|-
|-
! "their" (f)
! "their" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤍 ''sūsān'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤍 ''sȳsōn'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤍 ''sūsaδān'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤍 ''sȳsaδōn'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤍‎ ''sūsên'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤍‎ ''sȳsên'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδên''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤍‎‎ ''sȳsuδên''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːn/
|}
|}


Line 194: Line 194:


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ''ħṓli hā́bā'' 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (''ħṓli'' is the construct of ''ħṓlē'' 'sick').
Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ''ħṓli hṓbō'' 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (''ħṓli'' is the construct of ''ħṓlē'' 'sick').


A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the prefix ''rō-'' (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic ''*ɸro-''; cognate to Irish ''ró-'', Welsh ''rhy'', both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).
A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the prefix ''rū-'' (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic ''*ɸro-''; cognate to Irish ''ró-'', Welsh ''rhy'', both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
todo: get rid of 3fp forms
todo: get rid of 3fp forms


Ancient Cubrite used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל ''pôlêl'' and ''pôlal'') remained fully productive in Ancient Cubrite.
Ancient Cubrite used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל ''pûlêl'' and ''pûlal'') remained fully productive in Ancient Cubrite.


Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:
Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:
Line 215: Line 215:
The following verb forms lost their productivity:
The following verb forms lost their productivity:
*emphatic m.sg. imperative ''-a''
*emphatic m.sg. imperative ''-a''
*jussive (only survives in ''hayā'' 'to be')
*jussive (only survives in ''hayō'' 'to be')
*infinitive absolute
*infinitive absolute


The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as ''lō'' 'not', ''him'' 'if; definitely not', ''ha-'' 'question particle', ''xī'' 'when', ''(wa)hinni'' 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.
The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as ''lū'' 'not', ''him'' 'if; definitely not', ''ha-'' 'question particle', ''xī'' 'when', ''(wa)hinni'' 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
Line 225: Line 225:
|-
|-
! preterite
! preterite
| waw-preterite: ''wayyōγal''<br/>'he ate' || perfect: ''lō haγal''<br/>'he did not eat'
| waw-preterite: ''wayyūγal''<br/>'he ate' || perfect: ''lū haγal''<br/>'he did not eat'
|-
|-
! present
! present
| waw-stative: ''wāhaγal''<br/>'he eats' || imperfect: ''lō yōγal''<br/>'he does not eat'  
| waw-stative: ''wōhaγal''<br/>'he eats' || imperfect: ''lū yūγal''<br/>'he does not eat'  
|}
|}


Line 254: Line 254:
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''wannesmur''
| ''wannesmur''
| ''waθθesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurȳ''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''wayyesmurū''
| ''wayyesmurȳ''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''waθθesmurna''
|-
|-
Line 264: Line 264:
| ''samarθe''
| ''samarθe''
| ''samar''
| ''samar''
| ''samarā''
| ''samarō''
| ''samarnu''
| ''samarnu''
| ''samarθem''
| ''samarθem''
| ''samarθen''
| ''samarθen''
|colspan=2| ''samarū''
|colspan=2| ''samarȳ''
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|present  
! rowspan=2|present  
Line 276: Line 276:
| ''wassamarθe''
| ''wassamarθe''
| ''wassamar''
| ''wassamar''
| ''wassamarā''
| ''wassamarō''
| ''wassamarnu''
| ''wassamarnu''
| ''wassamarθem''
| ''wassamarθem''
| ''wassamarθen''
| ''wassamarθen''
|colspan=2| ''wassamarū''
|colspan=2| ''wassamarȳ''
|-
|-
! <small>dep.</small>
! <small>dep.</small>
Line 289: Line 289:
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''nesmur''
| ''nesmur''
| ''θesmurū''
| ''θesmurȳ''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''yesmurū''
| ''yesmurȳ''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''θesmurna''
|-
|-
Line 301: Line 301:
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''simurū!''
| ''simurȳ!''
| ''simurna!''
| ''simurna!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
Line 307: Line 307:
|-
|-
!colspan=2|active participle
!colspan=2|active participle
|colspan=10| ''sōmḗr''
|colspan=10| ''sūmḗr''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|passive participle
!colspan=2|passive participle
|colspan=10| ''samū́r''
|colspan=10| ''samȳ́r''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|infinitive
!colspan=2|infinitive
Line 339: Line 339:
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''wannixxaδib''
| ''wannixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδibū''
| ''waθθixxaδibȳ''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''wayyixxaδibū''
| ''wayyixxaδibȳ''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
|-
|-
Line 349: Line 349:
| ''nixθabθe''
| ''nixθabθe''
| ''nixθab''
| ''nixθab''
| ''nixθabā''
| ''nixθabō''
| ''nixθabnu''
| ''nixθabnu''
| ''nixθabθem''
| ''nixθabθem''
| ''nixθabθen''
| ''nixθabθen''
|colspan=2| ''nixθabū''
|colspan=2| ''nixθabȳ''
|-
|-
! rowspan=2|present  
! rowspan=2|present  
Line 361: Line 361:
| ''wannixθabθe''
| ''wannixθabθe''
| ''wannixθab''
| ''wannixθab''
| ''wannixθabā''
| ''wannixθabō''
| ''wannixθabnu''
| ''wannixθabnu''
| ''wannixθabθem''
| ''wannixθabθem''
| ''wannixθabθen''
| ''wannixθabθen''
|colspan=2| ''wannixθabū''
|colspan=2| ''wannixθabȳ''
|-
|-
! <small>dep.</small>
! <small>dep.</small>
Line 374: Line 374:
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''nixxaδib''
| ''nixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδibū''
| ''θixxaδibȳ''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''yixxaδibū''
| ''yixxaδibȳ''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''θixxaδibna''
|-
|-
Line 386: Line 386:
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hixxaδibū!''
| ''hixxaδibȳ!''
| ''hixxaδibna!''
| ''hixxaδibna!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
Line 392: Line 392:
|-
|-
!colspan=2|participle
!colspan=2|participle
|colspan=10| ''nixθāb''
|colspan=10| ''nixθōb''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|infinitive
!colspan=2|infinitive
Line 415: Line 415:
!rowspan=2| preterite
!rowspan=2| preterite
!|indep.
!|indep.
| ''wâgattil''
| ''wôgattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattilī''
| ''waθθagattilī''
Line 421: Line 421:
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''wannagattil''
| ''wannagattil''
| ''waθθagattilū''
| ''waθθagattilȳ''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''wayyagattilū''
| ''wayyagattilȳ''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''waθθagattelna''
|-
|-
Line 431: Line 431:
| ''kittelθe''
| ''kittelθe''
| ''kittil''
| ''kittil''
| ''kittilā''
| ''kittilō''
| ''kittelnu''
| ''kittelnu''
| ''kittelθem''
| ''kittelθem''
| ''kittelθen''
| ''kittelθen''
|colspan=2| ''kittilū''
|colspan=2| ''kittilȳ''
|-
|-
!rowspan=2| present  
!rowspan=2| present  
Line 443: Line 443:
| ''wakkittelθe''
| ''wakkittelθe''
| ''wakkittil''
| ''wakkittil''
| ''wakkittilā''
| ''wakkittilō''
| ''wakkittelnu''
| ''wakkittelnu''
| ''wakkittelθem''
| ''wakkittelθem''
| ''wakkittelθen''
| ''wakkittelθen''
|colspan=2| ''wakkittilū''
|colspan=2| ''wakkittilȳ''
|-
|-
!|dep.
!|dep.
Line 456: Line 456:
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''nagattil''
| ''nagattil''
| ''θagattilū''
| ''θagattilȳ''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''yagattilū''
| ''yagattilȳ''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''θagattelna''
|-
|-
Line 468: Line 468:
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''kattilū!''
| ''kattilȳ!''
| ''kattelna!''
| ''kattelna!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
Line 497: Line 497:
|-
|-
! preterite indep.
! preterite indep.
| ''wâbdīl''
| ''wôbdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīlī''
| ''waθθabdīlī''
Line 503: Line 503:
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''wannabdīl''
| ''wannabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdīlȳ''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''wayyabdīlū''
| ''wayyabdīlȳ''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''waθθabdelna''
|-
|-
Line 513: Line 513:
| ''hibdelθe''
| ''hibdelθe''
| ''hibdīl''
| ''hibdīl''
| ''hibdīlā''
| ''hibdīlō''
| ''hibdelnu''
| ''hibdelnu''
| ''hibdelθem''
| ''hibdelθem''
| ''hibdelθen''
| ''hibdelθen''
|colspan=2|''hibdīlū''
|colspan=2|''hibdīlȳ''
|-
|-
! present indep.
! present indep.
Line 524: Line 524:
| ''wêbdelθe''
| ''wêbdelθe''
| ''wêbdel''
| ''wêbdel''
| ''wêbdelā''
| ''wêbdelō''
| ''wêbdelnu''
| ''wêbdelnu''
| ''wêbdelθem''
| ''wêbdelθem''
| ''wêbdelθen''
| ''wêbdelθen''
|colspan=2|''wêbdelū''
|colspan=2|''wêbdelȳ''
|-
|-
! present dep.
! present dep.
Line 537: Line 537:
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''nabdīl''
| ''nabdīl''
| ''θabdīlū''
| ''θabdīlȳ''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''yabdīlū''
| ''yabdīlȳ''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''θabdelna''
|-
|-
Line 549: Line 549:
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''habdelū!''
| ''habdelȳ!''
| ''habdelna!''
| ''habdelna!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
Line 578: Line 578:
|-
|-
! preterite indep.
! preterite indep.
| ''wâθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wôθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī''
Line 584: Line 584:
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wanniθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wanniθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimȳ''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''wayyiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''wayyiθnaᴋᴋimȳ''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
|-
|-
Line 594: Line 594:
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimā''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimō''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemnu''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemnu''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθen''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθen''
|colspan=2|''hiθnaᴋᴋimū''
|colspan=2|''hiθnaᴋᴋimȳ''
|-
|-
! present indep.
! present indep.
Line 605: Line 605:
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋimā''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋimō''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
|colspan=2|''wêθnaᴋᴋimū''
|colspan=2|''wêθnaᴋᴋimȳ''
|-
|-
! present dep.
! present dep.
Line 618: Line 618:
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''niθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''niθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimȳ''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimȳ''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋemna''
|-
|-
Line 630: Line 630:
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''-''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimū!''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimȳ!''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemna!''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemna!''
| ''-''
| ''-''
Line 645: Line 645:
*1sg: -ni
*1sg: -ni
*2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
*2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
*3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ū), -ō (after C) (m); -â, -hâ (f)
*3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ȳ), -ū (after C) (m); -ô, -hô (f)
*1pl: -nu
*1pl: -nu
*2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
*2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
Line 654: Line 654:


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
*yōδ = direct object marker
*yūδ = direct object marker
*li- = to, for, of
*li- = to, for, of
*pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
*pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
Line 671: Line 671:
===Tense constructions===
===Tense constructions===
Ancient Cubrite preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.
Ancient Cubrite preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.
*Pluperfect: ''hayā'' or ''wayyê'' + perfect
*Pluperfect: ''hayō'' or ''wayyê'' + perfect
*Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
*Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
*Past imperfect: ''hayā'' or ''wayyê'' ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
*Past imperfect: ''hayō'' or ''wayyê'' ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
*Present: imperfect or waw-stative
*Present: imperfect or waw-stative
*Future imperfective: ''yî'' or ''wāyā'' + imperfect  
*Future imperfective: ''yî'' or ''wōyō'' + imperfect  
*Future perfective: ''wāyā'' + perfect (~ BH ''*wahayā'', waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
*Future perfective: ''wōyō'' + perfect (~ BH ''*wahayō'', waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
*As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use ''hal'' + 2nd person present dependent.
*As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use ''hal'' + 2nd person present dependent.


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#there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
#there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
#ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
#ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
#more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": ''lō jōʕīl hiwwasivō laθ-θessuᴋā'' = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'
#more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": ''lū jūʕīl hiwwasivū laθ-θessuᴋō'' = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'


===Narratives===
===Narratives===
Line 690: Line 690:


Hypothetical example:  
Hypothetical example:  
:'''''wayyê vaȝm waθθê lāħamā, pōdīγā smâ. waθθê ȝazzaδ θessuᴋā, hinni hajāδā rō-ħōljaδ hābā.'''''  
:'''''wayyê vaȝm waθθê lōħamō, pūdīγō smô. waθθê ȝazzaδ θessuᴋō, hinni hajōδō rū-ħūljaδ hōbō.'''''  
:''Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.''
:''Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.''


===Wishes===
===Wishes===
Wishes and prayers use a form of ''ħajj'' 'alive' + subject + ''wa'' + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ''ħayy X...'' 'I swear by X'.
Wishes and prayers use a form of ''ħajj'' 'alive' + subject + ''wa'' + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ''ħayy X...'' 'I swear by X'.
:'''''ħajjōδ hā-hasirōδ wa jagallū niᴛavōδ ham-mumallihōδ bā-harc xullâ wa baθ-θōruκā bâ.'''''
:'''''ħajjūδ hō-hasirūδ wa jagallȳ niᴛavūδ ham-mumallihūδ bō-harc xullô wa baθ-θūruκō bô.'''''
:''May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.''
:''May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.''


Line 704: Line 704:
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Mishkalim====
====Mishkalim====
*ᴋaᴛāl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛōl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
*ᴋaᴛōl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛūl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
*ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
*ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
*ᴋaᴛīlā = noun pattern
*ᴋaᴛīlō = noun pattern
*masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīm (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
*masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīm (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
*feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlā, ᴋiᴛlā, ᴋuᴛlā, pl. ᴋVᴛalōδ
*feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlō, ᴋiᴛlō, ᴋuᴛlō, pl. ᴋVᴛalūδ
*ᴋaᴛalā (''paraγā'' 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
*ᴋaᴛalō (''paraγō'' 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
*ᴋaᴛilā
*ᴋaᴛilō
*ᴋaᴛulā (''kadulā'' 'magnificence', ''zaruħā'' 'radiance')
*ᴋaᴛulō (''kadulō'' 'magnificence', ''zaruħō'' 'radiance')
*ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ā) = diminutive
*ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ō) = diminutive
*meᴋᴛal(ā) = often place
*meᴋᴛal(ō) = often place
*maᴋᴛel(ā) = instrument
*maᴋᴛel(ō) = instrument
*meᴋᴛōl
*meᴋᴛūl
*meᴋᴛul(ā)
*meᴋᴛul(ō)
*θaᴋᴛilā, θeᴋᴛulā
*θaᴋᴛilō, θeᴋᴛulō
*ᴋaᴛlōn
*ᴋaᴛlūn
*ᴋiᴛᴛalōn
*ᴋiᴛᴛalūn
*ᴋaᴛᴛal(ā) = agentive
*ᴋaᴛᴛal(ō) = agentive
*ᴋaᴛᴛelā = disease
*ᴋaᴛᴛelō = disease
*ᴋaᴛᴛulā
*ᴋaᴛᴛulō
*θaᴋᴛelā
*θaᴋᴛelō
*θeᴋᴛulā = system of, art of, study of
*θeᴋᴛulō = system of, art of, study of


====Affixes====
====Affixes====
*''-î'' (feminine ''-īyā''): adjective-forming affix
*''-î'' (feminine ''-īyō''): adjective-forming affix
*''-ūδ'': abstract noun suffix
*''-ȳδ'': abstract noun suffix
*''hī-'': un-, non-
*''hī-'': un-, non-


Line 746: Line 746:
==Lexicon==
==Lexicon==
===h===
===h===
*''hā́bā'' = love
*''hṓbō'' = love
*''hilô'' (pl. ''hilṓhīm'') = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese ''kami''
*''hilû'' (pl. ''hilṓhīm'') = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese ''kami''
*''hasírā'' = the spirit of a tree
*''hasírō'' = the spirit of a tree
*''hinni'' = but
*''hinni'' = but


Line 758: Line 758:
===w===
===w===
===z===
===z===
*''zadā'' = defect, crookedness (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
*''zadō'' = defect, crookedness (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
*''zīdā'' = wrongness, injustice
*''zīdō'' = wrongness, injustice
*''zaruħā'' = radiance
*''zaruħō'' = radiance
===ħ===
===ħ===
*''ħabab'' = to love (stative)
*''ħabab'' = to love (stative)
Line 771: Line 771:
**''xabed'' 'liver'
**''xabed'' 'liver'
**''xabid'' 'heavy'
**''xabid'' 'heavy'
**''xabōd'' 'honor'
**''xabūd'' 'honor'
**''xippid'' 'to honor'
**''xippid'' 'to honor'
**''xabudā'' 'esteemed position'  
**''xabudō'' 'esteemed position'  
***''hax-xabudā'' 'sir, ma'am'
***''hax-xabudō'' 'sir, ma'am'
**''maxped'' 'scale, balance'
**''maxped'' 'scale, balance'
*''xin'' 'and'
*''xin'' 'and'
Line 782: Line 782:
===n===
===n===
*n-ᴛ-f
*n-ᴛ-f
**''níᴛfā'' = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)
**''níᴛfō'' = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)
===s===
===s===
===ȝ===
===ȝ===
*''ȝarábā'' = willow
*''ȝarábō'' = willow
===f===
===f===
*''fárrā'' = cow
*''fárrō'' = cow


===c===
===c===

Revision as of 00:23, 7 April 2020

Ancient Cubrite
κubrījō
Pronunciation/'kʰubri:ja:/
Created byIlL
SettingLõis
Afro-Asiatic
  • Semitic
    • Central Semitic
      • Togarmo-Canaanite
        • Canaanite
          • Ancient Cubrite

Ancient Cubrite (natively 𐤄𐤋𐤔𐤅𐤍 𐤄𐤒𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤀 hal-lasūn haκ-κubrījō 'the Cubrite language' /ʔal'lasoːn ʔak'kʰubri:ja:/ or hal-lasūn hat-turȳdījō 'the Druidic language') is the stage of Cubrite after the split from Pre-Exilic Biblical Hebrew. It was used as a literary language during this period and was the language of Near-East druidism, a form of Celtic druidism incorporating Semitic pagan elements, before the religion was supplanted by Henosis Ousias. It was then that the drastic changes that had occurred in the spoken language began to be reflected in writing, thus ushering in the era of modern Cubrite.

Ancient Cubrite developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Galatian. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Lõis.

Surviving literature in Ancient Cubrite includes bardic poetry; one Beowulf-length heroic epic, Tabarē Harδȳr (Tales of Arthur); incantations; and instructions for various rituals.

Todo

  • When should matres lectionis be used?
  • some a-priori roots
  • Vowel reduction:
    • final originally unstressed long > short
  • ō > ū > ȳ > ȳ?

Phonology

Orthography

Ancient Cubrite was written in an abjad descended from the Proto-Hebrew script. Incantations were completely vocalized, other religious texts less so.

Since Ancient Cubrite merged /ʔ/ and /h/ completely, the letters aleph (half) and he (hê) are confused in earlier texts. Eventually the letter he was only used for a few function words and particles such as the definite article haC-.

Consonants

Out of the 25 consonants of Proto-Canaanite, Ancient Cubrite merged:

  • /x/ with /ħ/ into /ħ/
  • /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ into /ɣ̃/
  • /h/ and /ʔ/ into /ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ ([h] was an allophone used for emphasis.)
  • /s/ and /š/ into /s/

On the other hand, it gained consonants allophonically (see #Mutations).

/m p b f v n t d tʰ θ ð ts s tsʰ ɬ ɣ̃ ħ k g kʰ x ɣ l w j r ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ ⟨m p b f v n t d ᴛ θ δ z s c ś ȝ ħ k g ᴋ x γ l w y r h⟩

Vowels

Ancient Cubrite retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels.

a e i u ō ē ī ū ȳ ô ê î û ŷ /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː aːː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/

Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: pû 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *bȳʔ < *buʔ, Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)

Prosody

Stress

There were major stress shifts away from final stress from Pre-Exilic Hebrew to Ancient Cubrite, eventually resulting in unconditional initial stress.

  1. Stress shifted to penultimate for feminine singular nouns ending in -ō in adjectives, then nouns, by analogy with the unstressed 3SG.F perfect affix -ō.
  2. By analogy, stress shifted to penultimate for nouns ending in a plural suffix -īm, -ē, or -ūδ.
  3. Stress became uniformly initial, ignoring proclitics such as the definite article haC-, prepositions ka- 'and', li- 'dative', bi- 'locative/instrumental', miC- 'from', and the waw in waw-forms. Vowel reduction in surviving texts (missing matres lectionis, or changes in vowels) suggests that at first this was done deliberately as a stylized way to chant incantations.

Intonation

Finnish-like or Hungarian-like

Morphophonology

Mutations

Words can undergo initial mutation but the mutations are different from the begadkefat spirantization in Tiberian Hebrew. The following mutations occur after a vowel:

  • beth /p/ → /b/
  • pe /f/ → /v/
  • daleth /t/ → /d/
  • taw /θ/ → /ð/
  • gimel /k/ → /g/
  • kaph /x/ → /ɣ/
  • zayin /ts/ → /dz/
  • samekh /s/ → /z/

Morphology

Pronouns

Independent

  • 1sg: hani, ni
  • 2sg: haθθa, θa (m); haθθe, θe (f)
  • 3sg: hȳ (m); hī (f)
  • 1pl: haħnu
  • 2pl: haθθemma, θemma (m); haθθenna, θenna (f)
  • 3pl: hemma (m), henna (f)

Nouns

Inflection

The definite article was ʔaC- (~ Biblical Hebrew *haC-). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ʔō-.

Unstressed -ō corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending *-ṓ. Other possible feminine endings are -t, -θ or -δ. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed -īm and unstressed -ūδ, ~ Biblical Hebrew *-ī́m and *-ṓt.

Often -ō is found where Hebrew has -t.

The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.

Example with sȳs 'horse' and sȳsō 'female horse':

Noun declension
number singular plural
gender m. f. m. f.
indef. 𐤎𐤅𐤎 sȳs
/suːs/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 sȳsō
/ˈsuːsaː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ sȳsīm
/ˈsuːsiːm/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ sȳsūδ
/ˈsuːsoːð/
def. 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎 has-sȳs
/ʔasˈsuːs/ 		𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 has-sȳsō
/ʔasˈsuːsaː/ 		𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ has-sȳsīm
/ʔasˈsuːsiːm/ 		𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ has-sȳsūδ
/ʔasˈsuːsoːð/
const. 𐤎𐤅𐤎 sȳs
/suːs/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕 sȳsaδ
/ˈsuːsað/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ sȳsē
/ˈsuːseː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ sȳsūδ
/ˈsuːsoːð/
"my" 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉 sȳsī
/ˈsuːsiː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉 sȳsaδī
/ˈsuːsaðiː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ sȳsajj
/ˈsuːsai/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉‎‎ sȳsuδajj
/ˈsuːsuðai/
"thy" (m) 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 sȳsaγa
/ˈsuːsaɣa/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 sȳsaδaγa
/ˈsuːsaðaɣa/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ sȳsēγa
/ˈsuːseːɣa/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ sȳsuδēγa
/ˈsuːsuðeːɣa/
"thy" (f) 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 sȳsaγe
/ˈsuːsaɣɛ/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 sȳsaδaγe
/ˈsuːsaðaɣɛ/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ sȳsēγe
/ˈsuːseːɣɛ/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ sȳsuδēγe
/ˈsuːsuðeːɣɛ/
"his" 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅 sȳsū
/ˈsuːsoː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤅 sȳsaδū
/ˈsuːsaðoː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤅‎ sȳsû
/ˈsuːsoːː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤅‎‎ sȳsuδû
/ˈsuːsuðoːː/
"her" 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤀 sȳsô
/ˈsuːsaːː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤀 sȳsaδô
/ˈsuːsaðaːː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤀‎ sȳseyô
/ˈsuːsejaːː/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤀‎‎ sȳsuδēyô
/ˈsuːsuðeːjaːː/
"our" 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤍 sȳsinu
/ˈsuːsinu/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤍 sȳsaδinu
/ˈsuːsaðinu/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤍‎ sȳsēnu
/ˈsuːseːnu/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤍‎‎ sȳsuδēnu
/ˈsuːsuðeːnu/
"y'all's" (m) 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤌‎‎ sȳsaγem
/ˈsuːsaɣem/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤌 sȳsaδaγem
/ˈsuːsaðaɣem/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤌‎ sȳsēγem
/ˈsuːseːɣem/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤌‎‎ sȳsuδēγem
/ˈsuːsuðeːɣem/
"y'all's" (f) 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤍 sȳsaγen
/ˈsuːsaɣen/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤍 sȳsaδaγen
/ˈsuːsaðaɣen/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤍‎ sȳsēγen
/ˈsuːseːɣen/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤍‎‎ sȳsuδēγen
/ˈsuːsuðeːɣen/
"their" (m) 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤌 sȳsōm(u)
/ˈsuːsaːm(u)/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤌 sȳsaδōm(u)
/ˈsuːsaðaːm(u)/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎ sȳsêm, sȳsēmu
/ˈsuːseːːm, ˈsuːseːmu/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎‎‎ sȳsuδêm, sȳsuδēmu
/ˈsuːsuðeːːm ˈsuːsuðeːmu/
"their" (f) 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤍 sȳsōn
/ˈsuːsaːn/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤍 sȳsaδōn
/ˈsuːsaðaːn/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤍‎ sȳsên
/ˈsuːseːːn/ 		𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤍‎‎ sȳsuδên
/ˈsuːsuðeːːn/

TODO: Principal parts for segolates and other specific patterns

Other inflections

The directive he reflects as -a.

Adjectives

Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ħṓli hṓbō 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (ħṓli is the construct of ħṓlē 'sick').

A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the prefix rū- (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic *ɸro-; cognate to Irish ró-, Welsh rhy, both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).

Verbs

todo: get rid of 3fp forms

Ancient Cubrite used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל pûlêl and pûlal) remained fully productive in Ancient Cubrite.

Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:

  • preterite independent (~ BH waw-consecutive preterite)
  • present independent (~ BH waw-consecutive imperfect)
  • preterite dependent (~ BH perfect)
  • present dependent (~ BH imperfect)
  • imperative
  • cohortative -a
  • infinitive construct
  • participles

The following verb forms lost their productivity:

  • emphatic m.sg. imperative -a
  • jussive (only survives in hayō 'to be')
  • infinitive absolute

The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as lū 'not', him 'if; definitely not', ha- 'question particle', xī 'when', (wa)hinni 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.

Independent vs. dependent forms: example
independent dependent
preterite waw-preterite: wayyūγal
'he ate'		 perfect: lū haγal
'he did not eat'
present waw-stative: wōhaγal
'he eats'		 imperfect: lū yūγal
'he does not eat'

Binyan faȝal (paʕal)

samar 'he kept'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wêsmur waθθesmur waθθesmurī wayyesmur waθθesmur wannesmur waθθesmurȳ waθθesmurna wayyesmurȳ waθθesmurna
dep. samarθi samarθa samarθe samar samarō samarnu samarθem samarθen samarȳ
present indep. wassamarθi wassamarθa wassamarθe wassamar wassamarō wassamarnu wassamarθem wassamarθen wassamarȳ
dep. hesmur θesmur θesmurī yesmur θesmur nesmur θesmurȳ θesmurna yesmurȳ θesmurna
imperative - simur! simurī! - - - simurȳ! simurna! - -
active participle sūmḗr
passive participle samȳ́r
infinitive simṓr

Binyan nivȝal (nifʕal)

nixθab 'it was written'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wêxxaδib waθθixxaδib waθθixxaδibī wayyixxaδib waθθixxaδib wannixxaδib waθθixxaδibȳ waθθixxaδibna wayyixxaδibȳ waθθixxaδibna
dep. nixθabθi nixθabθa nixθabθe nixθab nixθabō nixθabnu nixθabθem nixθabθen nixθabȳ
present indep. wannixθabθi wannixθabθa wannixθabθe wannixθab wannixθabō wannixθabnu wannixθabθem wannixθabθen wannixθabȳ
dep. hixxaδib θixxaδib θixxaδibī yixxaδib θixxaδib nixxaδib θixxaδibȳ θixxaδibna yixxaδibȳ θixxaδibna
imperative - hixxaδib! hixxaδibī! - - - hixxaδibȳ! hixxaδibna! - -
participle nixθōb
infinitive hixxaδib

Binyan fiȝȝil (piʕʕel)

kittil 'he grew (sth)'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wôgattil waθθagattil waθθagattilī wayyagattil waθθagattil wannagattil waθθagattilȳ waθθagattelna wayyagattilȳ waθθagattelna
dep. kittelθi kittelθa kittelθe kittil kittilō kittelnu kittelθem kittelθen kittilȳ
present indep. wakkittelθi wakkittelθa wakkittelθe wakkittil wakkittilō wakkittelnu wakkittelθem wakkittelθen wakkittilȳ
dep. hagattil θagattil θagattilī yagattil θagattil nagattil θagattilȳ θagattelna yagattilȳ θagattelna
imperative - kattil! kattilī! - - - kattilȳ! kattelna! - -
participle mugattil
infinitive kattil

Binyan fuȝȝal (puʕal)

Binyan hivȝīl (hifʕil)

hibdīl 'he separated'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wôbdīl waθθabdīl waθθabdīlī wayyabdīl waθθabdīl wannabdīl waθθabdīlȳ waθθabdelna wayyabdīlȳ waθθabdelna
preterite dep. hibdelθi hibdelθa hibdelθe hibdīl hibdīlō hibdelnu hibdelθem hibdelθen hibdīlȳ
present indep. wêbdelθi wêbdelθa wêbdelθe wêbdel wêbdelō wêbdelnu wêbdelθem wêbdelθen wêbdelȳ
present dep. habdīl θabdīl θabdīlī yabdīl θabdīl nabdīl θabdīlȳ θabdelna yabdīlȳ θabdelna
imperative - habdel! habdelī! - - - habdelȳ! habdelna! - -
participle mabdīl
infinitive habdīl

Binyan huvȝal (hufʕal)

Binyan hiðvaȝȝil (hithpaʕʕel)

hiθnaᴋᴋim 'he resented'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wôθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī wayyiθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋim wanniθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋimȳ waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna wayyiθnaᴋᴋimȳ waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna
preterite dep. hiθnaᴋᴋemθi hiθnaᴋᴋemθa hiθnaᴋᴋemθe hiθnaᴋᴋim hiθnaᴋᴋimō hiθnaᴋᴋemnu hiθnaᴋᴋemθem hiθnaᴋᴋemθen hiθnaᴋᴋimȳ
present indep. wêθnaᴋᴋemθi wêθnaᴋᴋemθa wêθnaᴋᴋemθe wêθnaᴋᴋim wêθnaᴋᴋimō wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu wêθnaᴋᴋemθem wêθnaᴋᴋemθem wêθnaᴋᴋimȳ
present dep. haθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋimī yiθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋim niθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋimȳ θiθnaᴋᴋemna θiθnaᴋᴋimȳ θiθnaᴋᴋemna
imperative - hiθnaᴋᴋim! hiθnaᴋᴋimī! - - - hiθnaᴋᴋimȳ! hiθnaᴋᴋemna! - -
participle muθnaᴋᴋim
infinitive hiθnaᴋᴋim

Object suffixes

  • 1sg: -ni
  • 2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
  • 3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ȳ), -ū (after C) (m); -ô, -hô (f)
  • 1pl: -nu
  • 2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
  • 3pl: -hem, -m, -im, -mu, -imu (m); -hen, -n, -in (f)

Gzarot

Main article: Ancient Cubrite/Gzarot

Prepositions

  • yūδ = direct object marker
  • li- = to, for, of
  • pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
  • xamu- = like, as
  • miC- = from
  • ȝim, hiδ = with (comit.)
  • wēn = without
  • ya3n = because of

Conjunctions

  • xa- = and ('like' > 'and')
  • ya3n = because

Syntax

Ancient Cubrite syntax is similar to Bibical Hebrew, but more systematic and streamlined from an IE perspective. Basic word order was retained as VSO under the influence of Celtic (unlike in spoken Biblical Hebrew).

Tense constructions

Ancient Cubrite preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.

  • Pluperfect: hayō or wayyê + perfect
  • Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
  • Past imperfect: hayō or wayyê ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
  • Present: imperfect or waw-stative
  • Future imperfective: yî or wōyō + imperfect
  • Future perfective: wōyō + perfect (~ BH *wahayō, waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
  • As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use hal + 2nd person present dependent.

Uses of the infinitive construct

Many of the Biblical or quasi-Biblical uses of the infinitive construct were retained:

  1. la + IC may be used to indicate purpose
  2. there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
  3. ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
  4. more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": lū jūʕīl hiwwasivū laθ-θessuᴋō = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'

Narratives

As in Biblical Hebrew, narratives tend to use the waw-preterite. A narrative is commonly introduced by wayyê 'it was' (often to give background info).

Hypothetical example:

wayyê vaȝm waθθê lōħamō, pūdīγō smô. waθθê ȝazzaδ θessuᴋō, hinni hajōδō rū-ħūljaδ hōbō.
Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.

Wishes

Wishes and prayers use a form of ħajj 'alive' + subject + wa + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ħayy X... 'I swear by X'.

ħajjūδ hō-hasirūδ wa jagallȳ niᴛavūδ ham-mumallihūδ bō-harc xullô wa baθ-θūruκō bô.
May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.

A somewhat less common option is to use mī jeθθin wa + present dependent (lit. who will give that...).

Vocabulary

Ancient Cubrite vocabulary was mostly Semitic, but with some Celtic loans. The inherited Semitic vocabulary shows some semantic drift relative to Biblical Hebrew, as well as additional coinages.

Derivation

Mishkalim

  • ᴋaᴛōl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛūl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
  • ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
  • ᴋaᴛīlō = noun pattern
  • masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīm (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
  • feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlō, ᴋiᴛlō, ᴋuᴛlō, pl. ᴋVᴛalūδ
  • ᴋaᴛalō (paraγō 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
  • ᴋaᴛilō
  • ᴋaᴛulō (kadulō 'magnificence', zaruħō 'radiance')
  • ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ō) = diminutive
  • meᴋᴛal(ō) = often place
  • maᴋᴛel(ō) = instrument
  • meᴋᴛūl
  • meᴋᴛul(ō)
  • θaᴋᴛilō, θeᴋᴛulō
  • ᴋaᴛlūn
  • ᴋiᴛᴛalūn
  • ᴋaᴛᴛal(ō) = agentive
  • ᴋaᴛᴛelō = disease
  • ᴋaᴛᴛulō
  • θaᴋᴛelō
  • θeᴋᴛulō = system of, art of, study of

Affixes

  • -î (feminine -īyō): adjective-forming affix
  • -ȳδ: abstract noun suffix
  • hī-: un-, non-

Examples of Celtic vocabulary

Sample texts

An incantation

The following incantation has 4 stressed syllables per line (Prosody in Ancient Cubrite poetry is based on the number of stressed syllables per line):

[...]

A ritual

An excerpt

Modern uses

Modern adaptations of Proto-Azalic and Ancient Cubrite are used in certain New Age spiritual communities in Lõis, with ad hoc and often divergent pronunciation systems, as modern Levantine sprachbund languages do not have the phonation distinctions of the ancient languages.

Lexicon

h

  • hṓbō = love
  • hilû (pl. hilṓhīm) = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese kami
  • hasírō = the spirit of a tree
  • hinni = but

p

  • pēδ = house

k

t

w

z

  • zadō = defect, crookedness (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
  • zīdō = wrongness, injustice
  • zaruħō = radiance

ħ

  • ħabab = to love (stative)
  • ħabaK = to hug, to embrace

ᴛ

j

x

  • x-p-t
    • xabed 'liver'
    • xabid 'heavy'
    • xabūd 'honor'
    • xippid 'to honor'
    • xabudō 'esteemed position'
      • hax-xabudō 'sir, ma'am'
    • maxped 'scale, balance'
  • xin 'and'

l

m

n

  • n-ᴛ-f
    • níᴛfō = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)

s

ȝ

  • ȝarábō = willow

f

  • fárrō = cow

c

ᴋ

r

  • rimmṓn = pomegranate

θ

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