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===Vowels===
===Vowels===
===Prosody===
====Stress====


The term ''stress'' refers to an articulatory phenomenon that causes one syllable in one word to be spoken at a higher pitch than all other syllables in a word. In Volapȕük nulíik this syllable is in defined position in verbs and nouns. Verbs feature a main stress and, under certain conditions a second, less higher pitch. Nouns only have one stressed syllable. The main stress is marked by an acute accent (´) on a vowel, giving [á, é, í, ó, ú] and on vowels with a trema [··] [ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. The main stress is always set first. The second stress is uniformously marked by grave accent [`] giving [à, è, ì, ò, ù, ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. In handwriting, the main stress is also done with a double acute accent on [ä, ö, ü], yet due to technical restriction this has not been possible and thus the language board has decided to allow a grave accent to mark main stress on these three vowel letters.
Volapȕük nulíik has a quite large vowel inventory. Besides the quality of a vowel, the length of a vowel plays an important role as well. In the proto-language, the inventory was rather small:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|-
! Close-open
|| ä /ɛ/ || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || ||
|}


History
All vowels shared a closed quality and could be combined quite freely into combinations of two vowels which did not form a single syllable, thus dipthongs were unknown in the proto-language.


The main stress used to fall always on the last sylable in Volapük. This means that nouns used to have a main stress on its stem, e.g. dóm 'house', however when a case ending was added to the stem, it shifted from the stem to the last vowel, giving e.g domá 'of the house', domí 'the house (acc.)' This principle is still visible in the present noun declension: dóom : domá : domí : niđomé. In nouns this main stress on monosyllabical words led to a lengthening of the consonant and created finally the length distinction between nominative / vocative and all other oblique cases and nounforms with a reduced [unshortened] stem vowel. With verbs this principle gave the following pen'ön 'to write' : pen'ob 'I write' : epen'ob 'I have written'. Due to a reanalysis of the future forms, e.g. open'ob 'I will write', the second vowel before the personal pronoun suffix was reanalysed as the carrier of the tense information and thus changed analogically: epen'eb, open'ob, ipen'ib, etc. The first letter was abandoned leaving only the vowel before the personal pronoun suffix with the information concerning time. This gave rise to the present situation that the mains tress falls on the time slot and also explains why a tense has always to be stated in every verb. 


Over time this inventory underwent several changes. The first of those changes was that almost all highly articulated vowels were lowered when they occured in an open syllable. Later, this process took also place in closed syllables which had single vowels. Combinations of two vowels remained higher or kept a higher pronounciation. This devision broadened the vowel inventory:


Verbs


In conjugated verb forms falls the main stress on the first vowel after the stem and before the personal pronoun suffix: penáb 'I write', löfábaf 'I love her'. kabenbóleb. 'You will be able to write me.' In non-conjugated forms, however, not the tense marker is not stressed but the last suffix: pen'ön 'to write', pepen'öl 'written'. This main stress is however not marked on the last syllable as this rule dates back to the very beginning of the language.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || || u: /ʊ/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || || o: /ɔ/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ||
|-
! Open
||  || a /ä/ ||
|}


====Intonation====


===Phonotactics===
The next big change in the inventory was the lengthening of short vowels which occur in main-stressed syllables of the stem. Vowels of inflectional suffixes do not undergo this shift. Due to this change in pronounciation, the opposition between short and long vowels is established.
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
 
The syllabic structure of a language can be analysed from different perspectives. One perspective is to take a look at the maximum structure of a syllable. Another perspective is the question, which sounds are allowed on which position.  




{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || || || u /u/ ||
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || || || o /o/ ||
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| || || a /ä/ ||  aa /ä:/ ||  ||
|}


''Maximum syllable structure''


This system starts to develop further in this sense that those combinations of vowels containing an /i/ as the second part start to shift to /e/ (with the exception of /ui/, /üi/ and /ii/) and furthermore become long vowels. The quantity of these long vowels is slightly longer than the quantity of those close-mid and near-open long vowels with a roughly distinction of (short : long 'open' : long 'closed') 1 : 1,75 : 2. This means that now both "closed" and "open" vowels have an opposition of quantity between long vs. short. The vowel /ä/ splits into the vowels /a/, /a:/ for open vowel positions and /ɑ/, /ɑ:/ for closed vowel positions.


The maximum syllable structure in Volapȕük nulíik is:


(C(C(CV)(V)C))C).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || ii /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || u /u/ || uu /u:/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || ee /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || o /o/ || oo /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || a: /ɑ/  || aa: /ɑ:/
|}


A minimum syllable consists of CV, which indicates that no syllable may beginn with a vowel. Personal pronouns are an exception to this rule, since they favour a syllabic structure V:C. The maximum structure consisting of three consonants in the onset is mainly reserved for clusters like ''str-'', ''skr-''.
The latest development was the creation of the sound /ɒ:/ <åå> that evolved from the combination / later dipthong /o.a/ ~ /o‿a/. This vowel does not occur in every dialect, however it is recognised as in the standard language.


===Morphophonology===


===Lenition===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
|-
===Consonantal gemination===
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
 
|-
==Morphology==
! Close
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || ii /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || u /u/ || uu /u:/
The basic morphology of '''Volapȕük nulíik''' encompasses only three categories:
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || ee /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || o /o/ || oo /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || a: /ɑ/  || aa: /ɑ:/ åå /ɒ:/
|}


-Nouns


-Verbs
The last change occurred in the 1920s, when the orthographic representation was modified to represent current usages:


-Interjections
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
|-
'''Adjectives'''
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
 
|-
Adjectives are predominantly nouns - they have a fixed position within the noun phrase and may function as nouns on their own. However, they may also function as a verb in conjunction with the copula verb "binön":
! Close
 
| î /i/ ü /ü/ || îi/íî /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || û /u/ || ûu/úû /u:/
{|
|-
! Near-close
|| i /ɪ/ ü /ʏ/ || ii /ɪ:/ üü /ʏ:/ || || || u /ʊ/ || uu /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| ê /e/ ö /ö/ || êe/éê /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || ô /o/ || ôo/óô /o:/
|-
|-
|Binán             
! Near-open
||klotéedat                   
|| e /ɛ/ ö /œ/ || ee /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo /ɔ:/
||šerlíik.
|-
|-
|Bin-á-n
! Near-open
||klotéed-at
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
||šer-líik.
|-
|-
|BE-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
! Open
||LADYDRESS-demons.near       
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || â /ɑ/  || âa/áâ /ɑ:/ åå /ɒ:/
||EXPENSIVE-adj.
|}
|}


{|
===Prosody===
|-
====Stress====
|Šerlikán                             
 
||klotéedat.
The term ''stress'' refers to an articulatory phenomenon that causes one syllable in one word to be spoken at a higher pitch than all other syllables in a word. In Volapȕük nulíik this syllable is in defined position in verbs and nouns. Verbs feature a main stress and, under certain conditions a second, less higher pitch. Nouns only have one stressed syllable. The main stress is marked by an acute accent (´) on a vowel, giving [á, é, í, ó, ú] and on vowels with a trema [··] [ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. The main stress is always set first. The second stress is uniformously marked by grave accent [`] giving [à, è, ì, ò, ù, ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. In handwriting, the main stress is also done with a double acute accent on [ä, ö, ü], yet due to technical restriction this has not been possible and thus the language board has decided to allow a grave accent to mark main stress on these three vowel letters.  
|-
 
|Šer-lik-á-n 
 
||klotéed-at
History
|-
|[EXPENSIVE-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near
|}


"This dress is expensive."
The main stress used to fall always on the last sylable in Volapük. This means that nouns used to have a main stress on its stem, e.g. dóm 'house', however when a case ending was added to the stem, it shifted from the stem to the last vowel, giving e.g domá 'of the house', domí 'the house (acc.)' This principle is still visible in the present noun declension: dóom : domá : domí : niđomé. In nouns this main stress on monosyllabical words led to a lengthening of the consonant and created finally the length distinction between nominative / vocative and all other oblique cases and nounforms with a reduced [unshortened] stem vowel. With verbs this principle gave the following pen'ön 'to write' : pen'ob 'I write' : epen'ob 'I have written'. Due to a reanalysis of the future forms, e.g. open'ob 'I will write', the second vowel before the personal pronoun suffix was reanalysed as the carrier of the tense information and thus changed analogically: epen'eb, open'ob, ipen'ib, etc. The first letter was abandoned leaving only the vowel before the personal pronoun suffix with the information concerning time. This gave rise to the present situation that the mains tress falls on the time slot and also explains why a tense has always to be stated in every verb.


The first version is more common among speakers of a lower social status, whereas the second has a more official and literary style. The first version, however, may also be used by people of higher status, especially in situations when someone wants to emphasize that the dress really IS expensive. This is in contrast to languages like German or English, as Volapűük_nulíik expresses emphasis not on the intonational level but on the morphological.


'''Numerals'''
Verbs


Numerals also belong, just like adjectives, predominantly to the category of nouns, but can be used as verbs as well:
In conjugated verb forms falls the main stress on the first vowel after the stem and before the personal pronoun suffix: penáb 'I write', löfábaf 'I love her'. kabenbóleb. 'You will be able to write me.' In non-conjugated forms, however, not the tense marker is not stressed but the last suffix: pen'ön 'to write', pepen'öl 'written'. This main stress is however not marked on the last syllable as this rule dates back to the very beginning of the language.


{|
====Intonation====
|-
|Lödáps
||niđom
||žönlig
||giló
|-
|Löd-á-p-s
||ni-đom
||žön-lig
||gil-ó
|-
|RESIDE-pres.-m./f.pl.
||IN-HOUSE-abs.
||BEAUTIFUL-adj.abs.
||THREE-loc.
|}


"They live in three beautiful houses."
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->


{|
The syllabic structure of a language can be analysed from different perspectives. One perspective is to take a look at the maximum structure of a syllable. Another perspective is the question, which sounds are allowed on which position.  
|-
|Telđegänáms.
|-
|Telđeg-an-á-m-s.
|-
|[TWENTY]verb.copula-pers.n-pres.-m.pl.
|}


"We are twenty men."




'''Adverbs'''
''Maximum syllable structure''


This category does not appear as a category of itself but appears in different forms:


1. suffixes
The maximum syllable structure in Volapȕük nulíik is:


2. incorporated roots
(C(C(CV)(V)C))C).  


3. nouns in essive case
A minimum syllable consists of CV, which indicates that no syllable may beginn with a vowel. Personal pronouns are an exception to this rule, since they favour a syllabic structure V:C. The maximum structure consisting of three consonants in the onset is mainly reserved for clusters like ''str-'', ''skr-''.


4. nouns in a noun phrase starting with "mod".
===Morphophonology===


===Lenition===


===Consonantal gemination===


''Suffixes''
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
The basic morphology of '''Volapȕük nulíik''' encompasses only three categories:


This type of adverbs encompasses adverbs of time, place and degree. They are suffixed to verbal structures and nouns and thus cannot appear on their own. If one wants to emphasise these adverbal meanings, they have to use a similar meaning noun, add suffixes and place it before the verb, for example:
-Nouns


"Deedȁpšimokdȁäl." [no emphasis]
-Verbs


-Interjections


DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-ok-dȁäl.
'''Adjectives'''


KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-here-yesterday
Adjectives are predominantly nouns - they have a fixed position within the noun phrase and may function as nouns on their own. However, they may also function as a verb in conjunction with the copula verb "binön" or they may function as a verb on their own, which is considered a higher style.:


They killed him here yesterday.
{|
 
|-
 
|Binán             
 
||klotéedat                   
"Topakó deedȁpšimdȁäl." [place emphasised]
||šerlíik.
|-
|Bin-á-n
||klotéed-at
||šer-líik.
|-
|BE-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near       
||EXPENSIVE-adj.
|}


{|
|-
|Šerlikán                             
||klotéedat.
|-
|Šer-lik-á-n 
||klotéed-at
|-
|[EXPENSIVE-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near
|}


TOP-ak-ó | DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-dȁäl
"This dress is expensive."


PLACE-this-loc. | KIIL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-yesterday
The first version is more common among speakers of a lower social status, whereas the second has a more official and literary style. The first version, however, may also be used by people of higher status, especially in situations when someone wants to emphasize that the dress really IS expensive. This is in contrast to languages like German or English, as Volapűük_nulíik expresses emphasis not on the intonational level but on the morphological.  


'''Numerals'''


Numerals also belong, just like adjectives, predominantly to the category of nouns, but can be used as verbs as well:


Dȁälú topakó deeddȁpšim. [place and time emphasised, place a bit more important than time]
{|
 
|-
|Lödáps
||niđom
||žönlig
||giló
|-
|Löd-á-p-s
||ni-đom
||žön-lig
||gil-ó
|-
|RESIDE-pres.-m./f.pl.
||IN-HOUSE-abs.
||BEAUTIFUL-adj.abs.
||THREE-loc.
|}


DÄÄL-ú. | TOP-ak-ó | DEEL-ȁ-pš-i-m
"They live in three beautiful houses."


YESTERDAY-ess. | PLACE-this-loc. | KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.
{|
|-
|Telđegänáms.
|-
|Telđeg-an-á-m-s.
|-
|[TWENTY]verb.copula-pers.n-pres.-m.pl.
|}


"We are twenty men."


The word right before the verb structure receives the most emphasis and the farer away a word stands, it is less emphasised. This implies that normally only about three or four words are put separately before a verbal structure.




Nummerals will be discussed in detail in the section "Nummerals".


''Incorporated roots''


'''Adverbs'''


This adverbal structure is reserved for verb-nouns ending in -íik or -líik. The verb-noun appears in a lenited form, example:
This category does not appear as a category of itself but appears in different forms:  


1. suffixes


Penžönlikfáminemnù penöní.  
2. incorporated roots


PEN-ŠÖNLIK-f-á-m-i-n-e-m-nù |PENÖN-í
3. nouns in essive case


WRITE-BEAUTIFUL-bitr.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.inam.-dat.-3.sg.anim.masc.-now |LETTER-acc.
4. nouns in a noun phrase starting with "mod".




"He writes beautifully a letter to him."


''Suffixes''


This type of adverbal structure is reserved for single adverbs only. Adding several adverbs to a verb will need a noun structure.
This type of adverbs encompasses adverbs of time, place and degree. They are suffixed to verbal structures and nouns and thus cannot appear on their own. If one wants to emphasise these adverbal meanings, they have to use a similar meaning noun, add suffixes and place it before the verb, for example:


"Deedȁpšimokdȁäl." [no emphasis]




''Nouns in essive case''
DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-ok-dȁäl.


KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-here-yesterday


They killed him here yesterday.


''Nouns in a noun phrase with "mod"''




"Topakó deedȁpšimdȁäl." [place emphasised]


==='''Nouns/Nemavȍöds'''===


The category of nouns encompasses all words that denote concrete and abstract objects, persons, animals, plants, feelings, and concepts. Noun is the basic category of words, since each adjective, verb, and so on is based on a nominal root and derived from it. Nouns inflect for case, number, and possession and may receive further conjunctive/modal particles
TOP-ak-ó | DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-dȁäl


Each noun is built up according to a fixed scheme:
PLACE-this-loc. | KIIL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-yesterday


{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix !! Stem !! Determiner !! Case suffix !! Number suffix !! Possessiv suffix !! Modal particles
|}




''Numbers/Núums''
Dȁälú topakó deeddȁpšim.  [place and time emphasised, place a bit more important than time]
 
 
DÄÄL-ú. | TOP-ak-ó | DEEL-ȁ-pš-i-m
 
YESTERDAY-ess. | PLACE-this-loc. | KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.
 
 
The word right before the verb structure receives the most emphasis and the farer away a word stands, it is less emphasised. This implies that normally only about three or four words are put separately before a verbal structure.
 


Nouns inflect for number, meaning they indicate whether a noun appears as a single entity (singular), as a pair/in two (dual), or in more than one entity (plural). Each number has a specific marker:


{| class="wikitable"
''Incorporated roots''
! !!Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|Suffixes ||-ø-/-b- || -t-/-d- || -s-/-z- (-š-/-ž-)
|}


Since the singular is a category that almost any object, person, animal, idea, or anything else can appear in, it is considered the 'default' category and remains unmarked. This is also true for most natural languages, where there is no explicit suffix denoting a single unit of something. However, there are languages, such as Welsh, which provide a singular suffix for nouns that normally denominate entities that exist in conglomeration, e.g. the trees of a forest ''coed'', where a single tree is derived from the whole via the suffix -en, thus giving ''coeden'' 'a tree'. This system does not apply to Volapȕük nulíik. Every noun has the default numerical value 1, and thus is in the singular by default. The second suffix for the singular number is actually a suffix occasionally used, e.g. for poetic purposes or when a speaker wants to stress the singularity of a noun. The dual suffix has a correspondence with the number word for 'two' ''tel''. It can appear in a voiced alternative, which evolved as a result of voiced surrounding consonants. This applies also to the plural marker ''s'', which alternates with ''z''. In personal endings there is also the alternation -š-/-ž- which evolved due to phonological changes.


===''Cases/Nemavödamagéeds''===
This adverbal structure is reserved for verb-nouns ending in -íik or -líik. The verb-noun appears in a lenited form, example:


'''Volapȕük nulíik''' has a complex set of cases. The complexity arises from a set of nine primary cases, which exist independently but can also be combined with a set of prefixes of local, temporal, or abstract function. This combination creates more than seventy different cases, which can not all be named and are not all actually regarded as cases of their own.


The basic cases and their suffixes are:
Penžönlikfáminemnù penöní.


{| class="wikitable"
PEN-ŠÖNLIK-f-á-m-i-n-e-m-nù |PENÖN-í
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
 
|-
WRITE-BEAUTIFUL-bitr.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.inam.-dat.-3.sg.anim.masc.-now |LETTER-acc.
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
 
|-
 
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
"He writes beautifully a letter to him."
|-
 
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
 
|-
This type of adverbal structure is reserved for single adverbs only. Adding several adverbs to a verb will need a noun structure.
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs, locative: origin of movement
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) || Ending of a state
|}


The Northern dialect has retained a tenth case, which has collapsed in other dialects with the dative suffix -é(-), and thus adding its meaning to the dative case:


{| class="wikitable"
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Delative || falȁäk || -ȁ(-) || Origin of movement
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) ||  Ending of a state
|}


The '''Vocative''' provides two optional endings: a) a zero-ending, differing from the nominative only in this feature that the beginning of the word appears in its lenited form:
''Nouns in essive case''


{| class="wikitable"
!Nominative !! Historical vocative !! Modern vocative !! Meaning
|-
|dóom || o đóom! || đóom! || house
|-
|táal || o dáal! || dáal! || earth
|-
|góod || o ghóod! || ghóod! || god / God
|-
|píid || o bíid! || bíid || regret
|}


The particle ''-ö'' was traditionally used to express exclamations, e.g. seelȍ! "Quiet!" < ''seel'' "being quiet", moȍ! "Get out of here!" < ''mo'' "away". This usage has extended towards nouns and names of persons: ''Kal'' ("Charles") > Kalȍ!, ''Floor'' ("flower") > Floorȍ!, etc.


In the Northern dialect this principle has remained to the very day and developed in a manner that adding the suffix showed the person addressed a form of respect. Addressing a "normal" person was gradually done by simply using the nominative form. However, about two hundred years ago, the people speaking the northern dialect started to adopt a fashion of using the lenited nominative form as a normal form of address. Therefore, the dialect incorporated both forms, having a "normal" vocative form and a "special" vocative form, showing extra respect to the person addressed.:
''Nouns in a noun phrase with "mod"''


{| class="wikitable"
!Vocative !! Usage !! Meaning intended
|-
|o Gal! || Most dialects || normal form of adressing someone
|-
|Kal! || Northern dialect || normal form of adressing someone; other dialects: harsh adressing
|-
|Kalȍ! || Northern dialect || respectful manner of adressing someone
|}


The further development spread the ''-ȍ''-suffix to other dialects and within about 50 years the usage as a marker of respect evolved. Therefore, the language today has two forms of marking the vocative case: a) using the lenited nominative stem b) adding the suffix -ȍ to show more respect to the person addressed.


==='''Nouns/Nemavȍöds'''===


The category of nouns encompasses all words that denote concrete and abstract objects, persons, animals, plants, feelings, and concepts. Noun is the basic category of words, since each adjective, verb, and so on is based on a nominal root and derived from it. Nouns inflect for case, number, and possession and may receive further conjunctive/modal particles


'''Nominative'''
Each noun is built up according to a fixed scheme:


{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix !! Stem !! Determiner !! Case suffix !! Number suffix !! Possessiv suffix !! Modal particles
|}


'''Genitive'''


''Numbers/Núums''


'''Dative'''
Nouns inflect for number, meaning they indicate whether a noun appears as a single entity (singular), as a pair/in two (dual), or in more than one entity (plural). Each number has a specific marker:


{| class="wikitable"
! !!Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|Suffixes ||-ø-/-b- || -t-/-d- || -s-/-z- (-š-/-ž-)
|}


'''Accusative'''
Since the singular is a category that almost any object, person, animal, idea, or anything else can appear in, it is considered the 'default' category and remains unmarked. This is also true for most natural languages, where there is no explicit suffix denoting a single unit of something. However, there are languages, such as Welsh, which provide a singular suffix for nouns that normally denominate entities that exist in conglomeration, e.g. the trees of a forest ''coed'', where a single tree is derived from the whole via the suffix -en, thus giving ''coeden'' 'a tree'. This system does not apply to Volapȕük nulíik. Every noun has the default numerical value 1, and thus is in the singular by default. The second suffix for the singular number is actually a suffix occasionally used, e.g. for poetic purposes or when a speaker wants to stress the singularity of a noun. The dual suffix has a correspondence with the number word for 'two' ''tel''. It can appear in a voiced alternative, which evolved as a result of voiced surrounding consonants. This applies also to the plural marker ''s'', which alternates with ''z''. In personal endings there is also the alternation -š-/-ž- which evolved due to phonological changes.


===''Cases/Nemavödamagéeds''===


'''Locative'''
'''Volapȕük nulíik''' has a complex set of cases. The complexity arises from a set of nine primary cases, which exist independently but can also be combined with a set of prefixes of local, temporal, or abstract function. This combination creates more than seventy different cases, which can not all be named and are not all actually regarded as cases of their own.


The basic cases and their suffixes are:


'''Delative'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs, locative: origin of movement
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) ||  Ending of a state
|}


The Northern dialect has retained a tenth case, which has collapsed in other dialects with the dative suffix -é(-), and thus adding its meaning to the dative case:


'''Translative'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Delative || falȁäk || -ȁ(-) || Origin of movement
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) ||  Ending of a state
|}


The '''Vocative''' provides two optional endings: a) a zero-ending, differing from the nominative only in this feature that the beginning of the word appears in its lenited form:


'''Essive'''
{| class="wikitable"
 
!Nominative !! Historical vocative !! Modern vocative !! Meaning
 
|-
'''Exlative'''
|dóom || o đóom! || đóom! || house
|-
|táal || o dáal! || dáal! || earth
|-
|góod || o ghóod! || ghóod! || god / God
|-
|píid || o bíid! || bíid || regret
|}


===''Prefixes/Büyümóots''===
The particle ''-ö'' was traditionally used to express exclamations, e.g. seelȍ! "Quiet!" < ''seel'' "being quiet", moȍ! "Get out of here!" < ''mo'' "away". This usage has extended towards nouns and names of persons: ''Kal'' ("Charles") > Kalȍ!, ''Floor'' ("flower") > Floorȍ!, etc.


The category ''Prefix'' encompasses a wide range of lexical elements that have two things in common:  
In the Northern dialect this principle has remained to the very day and developed in a manner that adding the suffix showed the person addressed a form of respect. Addressing a "normal" person was gradually done by simply using the nominative form. However, about two hundred years ago, the people speaking the northern dialect started to adopt a fashion of using the lenited nominative form as a normal form of address. Therefore, the dialect incorporated both forms, having a "normal" vocative form and a "special" vocative form, showing extra respect to the person addressed.:


a) all of them were prepositions and became attached to the stem at some point in the history of the language.
{| class="wikitable"
!Vocative !! Usage !! Meaning intended
|-
|o Gal! || Most dialects || normal form of adressing someone
|-
|Kal! || Northern dialect || normal form of adressing someone; other dialects: harsh adressing
|-
|Kalȍ! || Northern dialect || respectful manner of adressing someone
|}


b) they change the beginning of the noun they are attached to by a process called lenition. This process is explained in detail in the section '''morphophonological processes'''.  
The further development spread the ''-ȍ''-suffix to other dialects and within about 50 years the usage as a marker of respect evolved. Therefore, the language today has two forms of marking the vocative case: a) using the lenited nominative stem b) adding the suffix -ȍ to show more respect to the person addressed.


c) they do occur alone but are always combined with a specific case suffix. In some cases a single prefix may be combined with more than one case suffix and thus giving a specific, different meaning with each case suffix.




Local prefixes
'''Nominative'''


These prefixes indicate spatial relations. In most natlangs and conlangs these relations are expressed via separate words. In Volapȕük nulíik this used to be done as well. However, about two thousand years ago, speakers started combining adverbs with prepositions, e.g. ''in domó'' 'at the house' > ''indomó''. These new expressions were very quickly recognized and analyzed as complete words and only about 100 years after the first appearance of such constructions were they written with the initial syllabic structure CV-, including a change of the initial consonant: ''niddomó'' ( ''dd'' representing a dental fricative [ð]).


Most of these prefixes kept the phonetic structure they had as prepositions.
'''Genitive'''


Since these prefixes inherit a local meaning they are combined with the locative case. They do this if they mean a place or a location ''where'' an action takes place. When they indicate the aim of a movement, they are combined - as e. g. in German or many Slavic languages with the accusative case. The third option is different depending on the style of language used. For indicating the origin of a movement, the Northern dialect employs the delative case (expressed by the suffix ''-ȁ-''), the other dialects and the standard language use the dative case (-é-) instead.


This table givs an overview of the local prefixes and their meaning:
'''Dative'''
 
 
'''Accusative'''
 
 
'''Locative'''
 
 
'''Delative'''
 
 
'''Translative'''
 


{| class="wikitable"
'''Essive'''
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example || Translation
 
|-
 
|ni- || nivalóok || inside of || locative (inessive) || niđomó || in the house
'''Exlative'''
|-
 
||ni- || nivalíik || into sth. || accusative (illative) || niđomí || into the house  
===''Prefixes/Büyümóots''===
|-
 
||ni- || nivaléek || out of sth.|| dative/delative (elative) || niđomé / niđomȁ || out of the house
The category ''Prefix'' encompasses a wide range of lexical elements that have two things in common:
|-
 
||fo- || fovalóok || in front of || locative (?) || fođomó || in front of the house
a) all of them were prepositions and became attached to the stem at some point in the history of the language.
|-
 
||fo- || fovalíik || into the front of || accusative (?) || fođomí || into the front of the house
b) they change the beginning of the noun they are attached to by a process called lenition. This process is explained in detail in the section '''morphophonological processes'''.
|-
 
||fo- || fovaléek || from the front of || dative/delative (?) || fođomé / fođomȁ || from the front of the house
c) they do occur alone but are always combined with a specific case suffix. In some cases a single prefix may be combined with more than one case suffix and thus giving a specific, different meaning with each case suffix.
 
 
Local prefixes
 
These prefixes indicate spatial relations. In most natlangs and conlangs these relations are expressed via separate words. In Volapȕük nulíik this used to be done as well. However, about two thousand years ago, speakers started combining adverbs with prepositions, e.g. ''in domó'' 'at the house' > ''indomó''. These new expressions were very quickly recognized and analyzed as complete words and only about 100 years after the first appearance of such constructions were they written with the initial syllabic structure CV-, including a change of the initial consonant: ''niddomó'' ( ''dd'' representing a dental fricative [ð]).
 
Most of these prefixes kept the phonetic structure they had as prepositions.
 
Since these prefixes inherit a local meaning they are combined with the locative case. They do this if they mean a place or a location ''where'' an action takes place. When they indicate the aim of a movement, they are combined - as e. g. in German or many Slavic languages with the accusative case. The third option is different depending on the style of language used. For indicating the origin of a movement, the Northern dialect employs the delative case (expressed by the suffix ''-ȁ-''), the other dialects and the standard language use the dative case (-é-) instead.
 
This table givs an overview of the local prefixes and their meaning:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example || Translation
|-
|-
||po- || povalóok || behind || locative (?) || pođomó || behind the house
|ni- || nivalóok || inside of || locative (inessive) || niđomó || in the house
|-
||ni- || nivalíik || into sth. || accusative (illative) || niđomí || into the house
|-
||ni- || nivaléek || out of sth.|| dative/delative (elative) || niđomé / niđomȁ || out of the house
|-
||fo- || fovalóok || in front of || locative (?) || fođomó || in front of the house
|-
||fo- || fovalíik || into the front of || accusative (?) || fođomí || into the front of the house
|-
||fo- || fovaléek || from the front of || dative/delative (?) || fođomé / fođomȁ || from the front of the house
|-
||po- || povalóok || behind || locative (?) || pođomó || behind the house
|-
|-
||po- || povalíik || into the backside of || accusative (?) || pođomí || into the backside of the house
||po- || povalíik || into the backside of || accusative (?) || pođomí || into the backside of the house
Line 1,055: Line 1,214:
||be- || bevalúuk || among [concrete, visible] || essive (?) || bemmenatús || among those people
||be- || bevalúuk || among [concrete, visible] || essive (?) || bemmenatús || among those people
|-
|-
||vü- || vüvalúuk ||among [abstract] || essive(?) || vünnetús || among nations, internationally. [vünnetulíik = international]
||vü- || vüvalúuk || among [abstract] || essive(?) || vünnetús || among nations, internationally [vünnetulíik = international]
|-
||se- || sevaláak || from, out of || genitive (?) || sellaná || out of wool, [made] from wool
|}
|}


Line 1,525: Line 1,686:
|}
|}


==='''Verbs/Dunavȍöds'''===


===''Examples / sáams''===
kozdudannotúbabagèe
ko-STUDAN-[n]ot-ú-bi-ba-èe
with-STUDENT-all-ess.-1.sg.-acc.-maybe-and


Verbs are the core of every sentence in Volapȕük nulíik. A sentence can be made without any noun but may not lack a verb, be it even an adjective used as a verb. This focus on verbal structures is expressed in that way that verbs normally open a sentence, except e. g. for emphasis. Verbs are so important because they bear a lot of information which allow them to function as single-word sentences. Each verb is built up in a strict manner and though a verb can have several suffixes following the stem and giving special information on space, time and point of view, they all follow the very same structure.
"and maybe with all my students"


Verbal structures encompass the following information based on slots:


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
kååpáfa mevaabotúnotigùu
!Slot I !! Slot II !! Slot III !! Slot IV !! Slot V !! Slot VI !! Slot VII !! Slot VIII !! Slot IX !! Slot X !! Slot XI !! Slot XII
|-
| Passiv + tense || Modal prefix || Motional || Hearsay || '''Stem''' || tense (habitual) || Subject (nom.) || Object [1.Acc./Gen. 2. Dat. 3.Essive 4. Translative 5. Exlative] || Lokative / Temporal || Modal particle || Subordinated phrase || Questions & Moods
|}


kååp-á-f-a | me-FAAB-ot-ú-n-o-ti-uu


Negation
BODY-gen.-3.sg.anim.fem.-gen. | instr.-FIBRE-every-essive-3.sg.inam.-loc.-almost-or


The negative suffix ''noL-'' can be inserted before any of the slots I - IV, depending on what element should be negated.
"or with every fibre of her body."


===Persons/Pösóods===
==='''Nummerals / Nȕüms'''===


The category of person is included in every verb, independently if it is the subject, direct or indirect object. Only participles and infinitives can be used without personal suffixes but this happens rarely, e. g. as entrances in dictionaries. The following table gives an overview of the personal suffixes in the standard language. In colloquial speech this endings might change a bit, but the suffixes are the same as the possessive suffixes used for nouns. Therefore, this table will be sufficient for an overview. 


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
The numeral system in Volapȕük nulíik consists of cardinal and ordinal numbers. Both types of numbers are part of the larger realm of nouns. The original counting system is a decimal system with seperate words for ''hundred'' and ''thousand''. Due to the immigration of Inuit and Irish a vigesimal system has evolved. This system has a fixed range of uses, especially counting people, units of time [years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds, the age of a person]. Due the presence of two counting systems and the speakers' ability to switch between the two systems, the development of a third system has taken place. this system is not officially regulated but depends on the individual abillity of every speaker two switch between the two systems. This third system presents itself as a mixture between decimal and vigesimal to varying degrees and replacements. In general, the tens are kept in the vigesimal and the hundreds, thousens and so one are used in decimal. However, different collocations are possible, too. This third system is an integer part of colloquial speech and will be avoided completely in the written and official language. In recent years, it has become a dominant system to count non-human animate entities, such as animals and plants. In the written language, these have to be counted in decimal, not vigesimal.
|+ style="text-align: center;" | '''Overview of possessive suffixes [standard language]'''
 
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="4"|
 
!rowspan ="2" |Singular
'''The basic numbers'''
!rowspan ="2" | Dual
 
!colspan ="4" | Plural
The basic numbers include the numbers from 0 to 20. These numbers do not change, independently of the counting system. The numbers from 0 to 10 are monosyllabic and have a short vowel.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
| 0 || ser || - || zero
|-
|-
||Dual +1
|| 1 || bal || - || one
||Plural + 1
||Plural + 2
||Plural + 3+
|-
|-
!rowspan ="6" | 1. Person
|| 2 || tel || - || two
!colspan ="3" | general
||-b-
||-bd- / -dd- [bd < *bt]
|colspan ="4" | -bz- / -zz-
|-
|-
!rowspan = "2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
|| 3 || kil || - || three
!informal
||
||-lb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -lbz-
|-
|-
!formal
|| 4 || fol || - || four
||
||-rb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -rbz-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | exclusive
|| 5 || lul || - || five
!masculine
|-
||
|| 6 || mäl || - || six
||-mb- < -m- + -b-  
||
||-mbz-
||-mdž- < *mtbž
||-zb- < *msb
|-
|-
!feminine
|| 7 || vel || - || seven
||
||-vb- < -f- + -b-
||
||-vbz-
||-vdž- < *ftbž
||-sb- < *fsb
|-
|-
!neutral
|| 8 || šöl || - || eight
||
||-bb- < -p + -b-
||
||-bbz-
||-bdž- < *ptbž
||-sp- < *sp
|-
|-
!rowspan ="8" | 2. Person
|| 9 || tsül || - || nine
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!informal
||-l-
||-lt-
|colspan ="4" | -lz-
|-
|-
!formal
|| 10 || deg || - || ten
||-r-
|}
||-rt-
 
|colspan ="4" | -rz-
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
| 11 || degbal || debal || eleven
|-
|-
!rowspan ="6" colspan ="1" | exclusive
|| 12 || dektel || dekel || twelve
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" | informal
!masculine
||
||-lmV-
|colspan ="4" |-lmzV-
|-
|-
!feminine
|| 13 || dekkil || dekil || thirteen
||
||-lfV-
|colspan ="4" |-lvzV-
|-
|-
!neutral
|| 14 || dekfol || defol || fourteen
||
||-lpV-
|colspan ="4" |-lpsV- / -lbzV-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" |formal
|| 15 || deglul || delul || fifteen
!masculine
||
||-rmV-
|colspan ="4" |-rmzV-
|-
|-
!feminine
|| 16 || degmäl || demäl || sixteen
||
||-rfV-
|colspan ="4" |-rvzV-
|-
|-
!neutral
|| 17 || degvel || devel / devvel || seventeen
||
||-rpV-
|colspan ="4" |-rpsV- / -rbzV-
|-
!rowspan ="4" | 3.Person
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | animate
!masculine
||-m-
||-mt-
|colspan ="4" | -mz-
|-
!feminine
||-f-
||-ft-
|colspan ="4" | -fs-
|-
|-
!neutral
|| 18 || dekšöl || dešöl || eighteen
||-p-
||-pt-
|colspan ="4" | -ps-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | inanimate
|| 19 || dektsül || detsül / desül || nineteen
||-n-
||-nt-
|colspan ="4" | -nz-
|-
|-
|| 20 || telđeg || teleg / teeg || twenty
|}
|}


===''Slot I / Bóok I''===
The short form ''teeg'' is the basis of the vigesimal system. This number has led to a colloquial short form of tens.


This slot is soley used to indicated passive voice. All verbal structures in passive will start with the suffixe ''p-'' + a tense vowel that equals the vowel in slot V. This structure is inherited from the proto-language. Without the ''p''-prefix it indicated time back then. However this vowel was moved to Slot V and thus created a "double tense marking" in the passive.
{| class="wikitable"
 
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
===''Slot II / Bóok II''===
|-
 
| 21 || telegbal || teegbal / teebal || twenty-one
This slot is reserved for modal prefixes. All modal prefixes lenite the following consonant.
|-
 
|| 22 || telektel || teektel / teetel || twenty-two
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
|-
|+ style="text-align: center;" | '''Modal prefixes'''
|| 23 || telekkil || teekkil / teekil || twenty-three
! Prefix !! Etymology !! Meaning !! Example
|-
|| 24 || telekfol || teekfol / teefol || twenty-four
|-
|| 25 || teleglul || teeglul / teelul || twenty-five
|-
|| 26 || telegmäl || teegmäl / teemäl || twenty-six
|-
|-
|ka- || <kan- || ability || Kabükkábin Volapükin nulikí 'I can speak Volapȕük nulíik.'
|| 27 || telegvel || teegvel / teevel || twenty-seven
|-
|-
||mö- || <mög- || possibility / chance || Möbükkáltinot Volapük nulikí. 'You both have here the chance to speak Volapȕük nulíik.'
|| 28 || telekšöl || teekšöl / teešöl || twenty-eight
|-
|-
||su- || <sev- || knowledge (how to) || Sebenkábins vödemís. 'I can write texts [I know how to]
|| 29 || telektsül || teektsül / teetsül / teesül [slang] || twenty-nine
|-
|-
||vi- || <vil- || wish / want || Vibükkábin Volapük nulikí. 'I want to speak Volapȕük nulíik.'
|| 30 || kilđeg [teegdeg] || kileg / kiig || thirty
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
||dä- || <däl- || be allowed to || Däzagválineb konotatí faWolapüg nulikú. 'You may tell me this story in Volapȕük nulíik.'
| 31 || kilegbal [tee[g]de[g]bal / teedeg bal] || kiigbal / kiibal || thirty-one
|-
|-
||mü- || <müt- || must; obligation || Müzagválineb konotatí faWolapüg nulikú. 'You must tell me this story in Volapȕük nulíik!'
|| 32 || kilektel [tee[g]de[k]tel / teedeg tel] || kiiktel / kiitel || thirty-two
|-
|-
||sö- || <söt- || should || Sözagválineb konotatí faWolapüg nulikú. 'You should tell me this story in Volapȕük nulíik.'
|| 33 || kilekkil [tee[g]de[k]kil / teedeg kil] || kiikkil / kiikil || thirty-three
|-
|-
||pli- || <plid- || like || Plizagvábinelš konotís faWolapüg nulikú. 'I like to tell you stories in Volapȕük nulíik.'
|| 34 || kilekfol [tee[g]de[k]fol / teedeg fol] || kiikfol / kiifol || thirty-four
|-
|-
||ste- || <steif- || to try || Stennisullivéb, dennisullivébab. 'I tried to reach the island but I failed.'
|| 35 || kileglul [tee[g]de[g]lul / teedeg lul] || kiiglul / kiilul || thirty-five
|-
|-
||de- || <def- || to fail || Dezuemgébin vödemíle. 'I failed to understand your text [the one you sent me].'
|| 36 || kilegmäl [tee[g]de[g]mäl / teedeg mäl] || kiigmäl / kiimäl || thirty-six
|-
|-
||pri- || <prim- || to start || Prillärngábin Volapük nulikí. 'I start learning Volapȕük nulíik.'
|| 37 || kilegvel [tee[g]de[g]vel / teedeg vel] || kiigvel / kiivel || thirty-seven
|-
|-
||fi- || <fin- || to end || Firreedgébinfò bukakí. 'I have finally reading this book.'
|| 38 || kilekšöl [tee[g]de[k]šöl / teedeg šöl] || kiikšöl / kiišöl || thirty-eight
|-
|-
||ko- || <komand- || to recomend || Korreedvábinel buketí. 'I recommend you reading this book.'
|| 39 || kilektsül [tee[g]de[k]tsül / teedeg tsül] || kiiktsül / kiitsül / kiisül [slang] || thirty-nine
|-
|-
||pro- || prom- || to promise || Pronniđaadilamkábvoog. 'I promise to come to your banquet next week.'
|| 40 || folđeg [teldeeg] || foleg / foog || fourty
|}
|}


 
{| class="wikitable"
''Subject'' versus ''Object''
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
 
|-
===''Slot III / Bóok III''===
| 41 || folegbal [teldee[g]bal / teldeeg bal] || foogbal / foobal || fourty-one
 
|-
This slot is reserved for motional prefixes. This prefixes indicate a type of movement that is done in order to fulfill the action of the main verb. In English and other languages this is done via a construction like "I go shopping.", "she went dancing." or "He went to fetch him from the station." In Volapȕük nulíik this task is done by motional prefixes. Those prefixes are:
|| 42 || folektel [teldee[k]tel / teldeeg tel] || fooktel / footel || fourty-two
 
|-
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|| 43 || folekkil [teldee[k]kil / teldeeg kil] || fookkil / fookil || fourty-three
! prefix !! etymology !! meaning !! example
|-
|| 44 || folekfol [teldee[k]fol / teldeeg fol] || fookfol / foofol || fourty-four
|-
|| 45 || foleglul [teldee[g]lul / teldeeg lul] || fooglul / foolul || fourty-five
|-
|-
|go- || gol- 'to go' || to go || Gođanüdáb nidzifí. 'I to the city to dance. / I go dancing in the city.'
|| 46 || folegmäl [teldee[g]mäl / teldeeg mäl] || foogmäl / foomäl || fourty-six
|-
|-
||kö- || köm- 'to come' || to come [from doing sth.] || Köbäskarébgaad. 'I came from fishing this morning.'
|| 47 || folegvel [teldee[g]vel / teldeeg vel] || foogvel / foovel || fourty-seven
|-
|-
||rö- || rön- 'to run' || to run [for doing sth.] || Röbhlünkȁmin dünáan nuní. 'The servant ran to deliver the message.'
|| 48 || folekšöl [teldee[k]šöl / teldeeg šöl] || fookšöl / foošöl || fourty-eight
|-
|-
||si- || siim- 'to swim' || to swim || Sinnisullivȁbnäät. 'I swam to reach the island last night.'
|| 49 || folektsül [teldee[k]tsül / teldeeg tsül] || fooktsül / footsül / foosül [slang] || fourty-nine
|-
|-
||fu- || fug- 'to flee' || to flee || Fuđeedémsim. 'They have fled from killing him.' [They could not kill him and fled instead.]
|| 50 || lulđeg [teldee[g]deg] || luleg / luug || fifty
|}
|}


 
{| class="wikitable"
===''Slot IV / Bóok IV''===
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
 
|-
This category encompasses suffixes that express the way in which someone has received an information, e. g. via hearing, reading, listening, seeing, feeling, knowing etc. The subject of the main verb is put in the accusative. Therefore, these suffixes automatically activate the -k/-g or -f/-v suffix [accusative or accusative-dative], since the suffix requires an accusative object. A noun that is an object to the main verb will be placed as a seperate word.
| 51 || lulegbal [teldeeg de[g]bal] || luugbal / luubal || fifty-one
 
{| class = "bluetable lightbluebg"
! prefix !! etymology !! meaning !! example
|-
|-
| li- || lil- || to hear || Lillominkekábimnäät. 'I heard him coming home last night.
|| 52 || lulektel [teldeeg de[k]tel] || luuktel / luutel || fifty-two
|-
|-
|| lo- || log- || to see || Lodiffébimem hipulí moní man bäldiké. 'I saw the boy stealing money from the old man.'
|| 53 || lulekkil [teldeeg de[k]kil] || luukkil / luukil || fifty-three
|-
|-
|| se- || sen- || to sense, to feel || Sedžemiglekȁfim lȁäd bleeníik man yunikí. 'The old lady sensed the young man entering the room.'
|| 54 || lulekfol [teldeeg de[k]fol] || luukfol / luufol || fifty-four
|-
|-
|| nu- || nol- || to know [to know from knowledge] || Nuđeadgábin Napoleoní sulLebakó! 'I know that Napoleon died on Elba!
|| 55 || luleglul [teldeeg de[g]lul] || luuglul / luulul || fifty-five
|-
|-
|| ti- || tik- || to think [to suppose] || Tidiffébimem hipulakí moní man bäldiké. 'I think this boy stole has stolen the money from the old man.'
|| 56 || lulegmäl [teldeeg de[g]mäl] || luugmäl / luumäl || fifty-six
|-
|-
|| re- || read- || to read || Ressevgábim Sherlock Holmesí Doyleá bukís. I know Sherlock Holmes from reading Doyle's books.
|| 57 || lulegvel [teldeeg de[g]vel] || luugvel / luuvel || fifty-seven
|-
|| 58 || lulekšöl [teldeeg de[k]šöl] || luukšöl / luušöl || fifty-eight
|-
|| 59 || lulektsül [teldeeg de[k][t]sül] || luuktsül / luutsül / luusül [slang] || fifty-nine
|-
|| 60 || mälđeg [kildeeg] || mäleg / määg || sixty
|}
|}


===''Slot V / Bóok V''===
{| class="wikitable"
 
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
This category contains the main verb. The slot can be filled with simple verb stems, such as ''fitön'' 'to eat', ''golön'' 'to go', ''penön'' 'to write' or derived verb stems, such as ''nüdugön'' 'to introduce', ''ledanön'' 'to thank very much'. The stem may be followed by a suffix that indicates which object a noun will have. These suffixes apply only to verb stems who may appear on their own, with a dative or with an accusative object or with both. Nouns that are suffixed with a co-verb suffix will not receive the accusative case suffix as the noun is automatically the accusative object. They may however receive a accusative and dative marking suffix. The [e] is inserted if there is a consonant cluster before the suffix. There are three suffixes:
|-
 
| 61 || mälegbal [kildee[g]bal / kildeeg bal] || määgbal / määbal || sixty-one
{| class =bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
!suffix !! cases !! example !! translation
|| 62 || mälektel [kildee[k]tel / kildeeg tel] || määktel / määtel || sixty-two
|-
|| 63 || mälekkil [kildee[k]kil / kildeeg kil] || määkkil / määkil || sixty-three
|-
|-
|-Ø || nominative || penáb. || I write.
|| 64 || mälekfol [kildee[k]fol / kildeeg fol] || määkfol / määfol || sixty-four
|-
|-
||-[e]k / -[e]g || accusative/genitive || pengábin vödemí. || I write a text.
|| 65 || mäleglul [kildee[g]lul / kildeeg lul] || määglul / määlul || sixty-five
|-
|-
||-[e]k / -[e]g || accusative/genitive || fitkábin mití. || I eat the meat. 
|| 66 || mälegmäl [kildee[g]mäl / kildeeg mäl] || määgmäl / määmäl || sixty-six
|-
|-
||-[e]p / -[e]b || dative || penbábel. || I write you.
|| 67 || mälegvel [kildee[g]vel / kildeeg vel] || määgvel / määvel || sixty-seven
|-
|-
||-[e]p / -[e]b || dative || givbábepš. || I give them.
|| 68 || mälekšöl [kildee[k]šöl / kildeeg šöl] || määkšöl / määšöl || sixty-eight
|-
|-
||-[e]f / -[e]v || accusative/genitive + dative || Givvábinsel bukís. || I give you the books.
|| 69 || mälektsül [kildee[k][t]sül / kildeeg tsül] || määktsül / määtsül / määsül [slang] || sixty-nine
|-
|-
||-[e]f / -[e]v || accusative/genitive + dative || Kanitfúbinert Volapükäná hümí. || I will have sung the hymn of Volapükȁän for you [formal]
|| 70 || velđeg [kildee[g]deg] || veleg / veeg || seventy
|}
|}


===''Slot VI / Bóok VI''===
{| class="wikitable"
 
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
This slot is reserved for the tense marker and the habitual marker. The vowel in this slot receives the main stress of the verb and is therfore and important unit in every verbal structure. Since this slot has to be filled always, there is actuall no real tenseless verbal structure. However, the present habitual / generic marker serves as an aorist which is also used in laws and other time independent texts and rules.
 
This table presents them:
 
{| class = "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
|+ style="text-align: center;" | '''Tense marker'''
! marker !! tense !! usage !! habitual version
|-
|-
| -a- || present || present events occuring at the moment, on the day; events that started in the past and continue to the present moment || -aa-
| 71 || velegbal [kildeeg de[g]bal] || veegbal / veebal || seventy-one
|-
|-
|| -e- || perfect || events that have occurred in the past and whose results are visible now || -ee- (rarely used)
|| 72 || velektel [kildeeg de[k]tel] || veektel / veetel || seventy-two
|-
|-
|| -ä- || preterite || past events that started and ended in the past; story telling: framework story || -ää-
|| 73 || velekkil [kildeeg de[k]kil] || veekkil / veekil || seventy-three
|-
|-
|| -i- || past preterite || events that happened in the past prior to another event || -ii-
|| 74 || velekfol [kildeeg de[k]fol] || veekfol / veefol || seventy-four
|-
|-
|| -o- || future || events that will take later, the next day, in the next year || -oo-
|| 75 || veleglul [kildeeg de[g]lul] || veeglul / veelul || seventy-five
|-
|-
|| -u- || future perfect || events that will be finished in the past. || -uu-
|| 76 || velegmäl [kildeeg de[g]mäl] || veegmäl / veemäl || seventy-six
|-
|| 77 || velegvel [kildeeg de[g]vel] || veegvel / veevel || seventy-seven
|-
|| 78 || velekšöl [kildeeg de[k]šöl] || veekšöl / veešöl || seventy-eight
|-
|| 79 || velektsül [kildeeg de[k][t]sül] || veektsül / veetsül / veesül [slang] || seventy-nine
|-
|| 80 || šölđeg [foldeeg] || šöleg / šöög || sixty
|}
|}


The habitual present has a special function. It is not only used for repetitive action / repeated actions but functions as an aorist, thus indicating no time reference. This function is only active if there is no explicit adverb of frequency in the verbal structure. Otherwise the habitual function is active. This form is used in law texts, for scientific laws, grammatical rules and so on.
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
| 81 || šölegbal [foldee[g]bal / foldeeg bal] || šöögbal / šööbal || eighty-one
|-
|| 82 || šölektel [foldee[k]tel / foldeeg tel] || šööktel / šöötel || eighty-two
|-
|| 83 || šölekkil [foldee[k]kil / foldeeg kil] || šöökkil / šöökil || eighty-three
|-
|| 84 || šölekfol [foldee[k]fol / foldeeg fol] || šöökfol / määfol || eighty-four
|-
|| 85 || šöleglul [foldee[g]lul / foldeeg lul] || šööglul / šöölul || eighty-five
|-
|| 86 || šölegmäl [foldee[g]mäl / foldeeg mäl] || šöögmäl / šöömäl || eighty-six
|-
|| 87 || šölegvel [foldee[g]vel / foldeeg vel] || šöögvel / šöövel || eighty-seven
|-
|| 88 || šölekšöl [foldee[k]šöl / foldeeg šöl] || šöökšöl / šööšöl || eighty-eight
|-
|| 89 || šölektsül [foldee[k][t]sül / foldeeg tsül] || šööktsül / šöötsül / šöösül [slang] || eighty-nine
|-
|| 90 || tsülđeg [foldee[g]deg] || tsüleg / tsüüg || ninety
|}


{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
| 91 || tsülegbal [foldeeg de[g]bal] || tsüügbal / tsüübal || ninety-one
|-
|| 92 || tsülektel [foldeeg de[k]tel] || tsüüktel / tsüütel || ninety-two
|-
|| 93 || tsülekkil [foldeeg de[k]kil] || tsüükkil / tsüükil || ninety-three
|-
|| 94 || tsülekfol [foldeeg de[k]fol] || tsüükfol / tsüüfol || ninety-four
|-
|| 95 || tsüleglul [foldeeg de[g]lul] || tsüüglul / tsüülul || ninety-five
|-
|| 96 || tsülegmäl [foldeeg de[g]mäl] || tsüügmäl / tsüümäl || ninety-six
|-
|| 97 || tsülegvel [foldeeg de[g]vel] || tsüügvel / tsüüvel || ninety-seven
|-
|| 98 || tsülekšöl [foldeeg de[k]šöl] || tsüükšöl / tsüüšöl || ninety-eight
|-
|| 99 || tsülektsül [foldeeg de[k][t]sül] || tsüüktsül / tsüütsül / tsüüsül [slang] || ninety-nine
|-
|| 100 || tum [luldeeg] || baldum || a hundred
|}


Usage of tenses
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
| 101 || tumbal [luldee[g]bal / luldeeg bal] || baldumbal || a hundred and one
|-
|| 102 || tumtel [luldee[k]tel / luldeeg tel] || baldumtel || a hundred and two
|-
|| 103 || tumkil [luldee[k]kil / luldeeg kil] || baldumkil || a hundred and three
|-
|| 104 || tumfol [luldee[k]fol / luldeeg fol] || baldumfol || a hundred and four
|-
|| 105 || tumlul [luldee[g]lul / luldeeg lul] || baldumlul || a hundred and five
|-
|| 106 || tummäl [luldee[g]mäl / luldeeg mäl] || baldummäl || a hundred and six
|-
|| 107 || tumvel [luldee[g]vel / luldeeg vel] || baldumvel || a hundred and seven
|-
|| 108 || tumšöl [luldee[k]šöl / luldeeg šöl] || baldumšöl || a hundred and eight
|-
|| 109 || tumtsül [luldee[k][t]sül / luldeeg tsül] || baldumtsül / baldumtsül / baldumsül [slang] || a hundred and nine
|-
|| 110 || tumdeg [luldee[g]deg / luldeeg deg] || baldumdeg || a hundred and ten
|}


''present''
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
| 111 || tum de[g]bal [luldeeg de[g]bal] || baldum de[g]bal || hundred-eleven
|-
|| 112 || tum de[k]tel [luldeeg de[k]tel] || baldum de[k]tel || hundred-twelve
|-
|| 113 || tum de[k]kil [luldeeg de[k]kil] || baldum de[k]kil || hundred-thirteen
|-
|| 114 || tum de[k]fol [luldeeg de[k]fol] || baldum de[k]fol || hundred-fourteen
|-
|| 115 || tum de[g]lul [luldeeg de[g]lul] || baldum de[g]lul || hundred-fifteen
|-
|| 116 || tum de[g]mäl [luldeeg de[g]mäl] || baldum de[g]mäl || hundred-sixteen
|-
|| 117 || tum de[g]vel [luldeeg de[g]vel] || baldum de[g]vel || hundred-seventeen
|-
|| 118 || tum de[k]šöl [luldeeg de[k]šöl] || baldum de[k]šöl || hundred-eighteen
|-
|| 119 || tum de[k]tsül [luldeeg de[k][t]sül] || baldum / de[k]tsül / de[t]sül [slang] || hundred-nineteen
|-
|| 120 || tumteleg [mäldeeg] || baldumteeg || a hundred-twenty
|}


The present tense [dunavödamagéed nulíik] describes the


Besides the vigesimal and decimal system, a second system has developped that is used to express larger numbers. It is based on the basic decimal numbers - deg [10], tum [100] and mil [1000]. These bases are combined with suffixes that are derived from the numbers 1 - 9 and indicate the times the base number is multiplied with itself.


''perfect''
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word basic !! suffix !! numerical value
|-
|| 1 || bal || -Cab || x^1
|-
|| 2 || tel || -Cet || x^2
|-
|| 3 || kil || -Cik || x^3
|-
|| 4 || fol || -Cof || x^4
|-
|| 5 || lul || -Cul || x^5
|-
|| 6 || mäl || -Cäm || x^6
|-
|| 7 || vel || -Cev || x^7
|-
|| 8 || šöl || -Cöš || x^8
|-
|| 9 || tsül || -Cüts || x^9
|-
|| 10 || deg || -Ceg/-Ced || x^10
|}


[dunavödamagéed fimekégöl]
{| class="wikitable"
!Suffix !! base 10 [numerical value] !! base 100 [numerical value] !! base 1000 [numerical value]
|-
|| [-Cab] || deggab [10] || tummab [100] || millab [1.000]
|-
|| [-Cet] || degget [100] || tummet [10.000] || millet [1.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cik] || deggik [1.000] || tummik [1.000.000] || millik [1.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cöf] || deggöf [10.000] || tummöf [100.000.000] || millöf [1.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cul] || deggul [100.000] || tummul [1.000.000.000] || millul [1.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cäm] || deggäm [1.000.000] || tummäm [100.000.000.000] || milläm [1.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cev] || deggev [10.000.000] || tummev [100.000.000.000.000] || millev [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cöš] || deggöš [100.000.000] || tummöš [10.000.000.000.000.000] || millöš [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cüts] || deggüts [1.000.000.000] || tummüts [1.000.000.000.000.000.000] || millüts [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Ceg/-Ced] || deggeg/degged [10.000.000.000] tummeg / tummed [100.000.000.000.000.000.000] || milleg / milled [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|}




''preterite''
Numbers with the suffix -Cab do exist theoretically but are not used neither in written nor in spoken language.


[dunavödamagéed konotlíik]
The suffixes may also be used for units of surface and space:


''past preterite''


[dunavödamagéed balidlíik]
méet [metre] + Cet > *méettet > mettéet 'squaremetre' [m.-et]


''future''


[dunavödamagéed toollíik]
metíil [kilometre] + Cet > *metiillet > metilléet 'squarekilometre' [mm.-et]




''future perfect''
metáak [centimetre] + Cet > *metaakket > metakkéet 'squarecentimetre' [mdg.-et]


[dunavödamagéed tuullíik]


===''Slot VII / Bóok VII''===
méet [metre] + Cik > *méettik > mettíik 'cubic metre' [m.-ik]
 
 
metáak [centimetre] + Cik > *metaakkik > metakkíik 'cubic centimetre' [mdg.-ik]
 
 
metíll [kilometre] + Cik > *metiillik > metillíik 'cubic kilometre' [mm.-ik]
 


===''Slot VIII / Bóok VIII''===
Since numeral expressions follow the noun, kilo-, mega - a.s.o. are expressed in the format ''unit of measurement''[partitive] + numeral expression. Examples:


===''Slot IX / Bóok IX''===
Locative / temporal


dammetá [metre, part.] + mil > dammetamíil [mm.] 'kilometre' [coll. metíil]


This slot provides information concerning the place where an action takes place and the time. This slot is restricted for adverbs of place, time and frequency. Personal pronouns may be included to indicate a person who is present or at which place the action takes place. This slot is licenced for a secondary stress. It may, however, not be stressed if there is a suffix in the question slot.


daghramá [gram, part.] + mil > daghramamíil [gm.]'kilogram' [coll. gramíil]


''Locative endings''


{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
daghramá [gram, part.] + deggäm > daghramadeggȁäm [gg.] 'ton' [coll. gramȁäm]  
!case marker !! suffix !! meaning !! translation
|-
| -o- || -k- || "the place [near the speaker]" || "here"
|-
|| -o- || -t- || "the place [near the listener]" || "there"
|}


Examples:


dametá [metre, part.] + dađegá > dametadađegáak [mdđ.] 'dekametre' [coll. međáak]


Pepenvénok penéedam. "His letter has been written here."


dametá [metre, part.]+ dađeggetá > dametadeggetáak [mdg.] 'centimetre' [coll. metáak] 


Stanȁfotlì, šenȁnädù saséen? "Did she stand there when the murder took place?"


dametá [metre, part.] + dammilá > dametadammiláak [mdm.] 'millimetre' [coll. memáak]


Binȁbom, šenȁnädù saséen. "I was with him / at his place when the murder took place."


dametá [metre, part.] + dammilletá > dametadammilletáak [mdmt.] 'micrometre' [coll. meláak]


Binȁbdäälòm, šenȁnädù saséen. "I was yesterday with HIM / at his place, when the murder took place." [Not: ''Binȁbomdȁäl'' is a second grammatically option but puts an emphasis on the time rather than on the person, so "I was YESTERDAY with him." [not today or the day before yesterday].


dametá [metre, part.] + dadummulá > dametadadummuláak [mdtl.] 'nanometre' [coll. medáak]




''Temporal endings''
dawatá [watt, part.] + millet > dawatamilléet [vmt.]'megawatt' [coll. vatéet]


This clase of endings is much larger than the previous. The proto-language had temporal adverbs that combined tense suffixes with expressions of time [day, year, month, ...] to creat meanings like "tomorrow, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and so on." In the development, this adverbs changed in a manner that gave rise to the the development of suffixes. A few examples will clearify the process:


daghramämá [ton, part.] + millet > daghramämamilléet [gmm.] 'megaton' [coll. gramäméet]


{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
 
! English !! Proto-language !! Early form !! Early modern form !! Modern form !! Suffix
dawatá [watt, part.] + millik > dawatamillíik [vmk.]'gigawatt' [coll. vatíik]
|-
 
| today || adelo || adaló ||  daaló || daal || -daal-
 
|-
daghramämá [ton, part.] + millik > daghramämamillíik [gmk.]  'gigaton' [coll. gramämíik]
|| yesterday ||ädalo || ädäló || dääló || dääl || -dääl-
 
|-
==='''Verbs/Dunavȍöds'''===
|| next year || oyeló || oyoló || yooló || yool || -yool-
 
 
Verbs are the core of every sentence in Volapȕük nulíik. A sentence can be made without any noun but may not lack a verb, be it even an adjective used as a verb. This focus on verbal structures is expressed in that way that verbs normally open a sentence, except e. g. for emphasis. Verbs are so important because they bear a lot of information which allow them to function as single-word sentences. Each verb is built up in a strict manner and though a verb can have several suffixes following the stem and giving special information on space, time and point of view, they all follow the very same structure.
 
Verbal structures encompass the following information based on slots:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!Slot I !! Slot II !! Slot III !! Slot IV !! Slot V !! Slot VI !! Slot VII !! Slot VIII !! Slot IX !! Slot X !! Slot XI !! Slot XII
|-
|-
| Passiv + tense || Modal prefix || Motional || Hearsay || '''Stem''' || tense (habitual) || Subject (nom.) || Object [1.Acc./Gen. 2. Dat. 3.Essive 4. Translative 5. Exlative] || Lokative / Temporal || Modal particle || Subordinated phrase || Questions & Moods
|}
|}


===''Slot X / Bóok X''===


Modal particles
Negation


These particles give information concerning the likeliness, the degree to which an action is performed and conjunction.
The negative suffix ''noL-'' can be inserted before any of the slots I - IV, depending on what element should be negated.


The table gives an overview:
===Persons/Pösóods===


The category of person is included in every verb, independently if it is the subject, direct or indirect object. Only participles and infinitives can be used without personal suffixes but this happens rarely, e. g. as entrances in dictionaries. The following table gives an overview of the personal suffixes in the standard language. In colloquial speech this endings might change a bit, but the suffixes are the same as the possessive suffixes used for nouns. Therefore, this table will be sufficient for an overview. 


{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|+ style="text-align: center;" | '''Overview of possessive suffixes [standard language]'''
|-ya ||already || bukíya || [I have read] the book already
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="4"|
!rowspan ="2" |Singular
!rowspan ="2" | Dual
!colspan ="4" | Plural
|-
|-
||-le ||completely, the whole; not at all [negated] || ? || ?
||Dual +1
||Plural + 1
||Plural + 2
||Plural + 3+
|-
|-
||-ti || almost || Flapȁmiftì šitsilí || He almost hit the girl
!rowspan ="6" | 1. Person
!colspan ="3" | general
||-b-
||-bd- / -dd- [bd < *bt]
|colspan ="4" | -bz- / -zz-
|-
|-
||-no || yet / not yet [negated] || Nobhukkedébno || I have not yet read the book.
!rowspan = "2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!informal
||
||-lb-  
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -lbz-
|-
|-
||-(g)ee || and || Petéer Páulee || Peter and Paul
!formal
||
||-rb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -rbz-
|-
|-
||-(g)ee ... -(g)ee || both ... and ... || Petéeree Páulee || both Peter and Paul
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | exclusive
!masculine
||
||-mb- < -m- + -b-  
||
||-mbz-
||-mdž- < *mtbž
||-zb- < *msb
|-
|-
||-(g)uu || or || Petéer Páuluu || Peter or Paul
!feminine
||
||-vb- < -f- + -b-  
||
||-vbz-
||-vdž- < *ftbž
||-sb- < *fsb
|-
|-
||-(g)uu ... -(g)uu || either ... or ... ||Petéeruu Páuluu || either Peter or Paul
!neutral
||
||-bb- < -p + -b-
||
||-bbz-
||-bdž- < *ptbž
||-sp- < *sp
|-
|-
||-(g)ii || too, also || Petéerii || Peter, too
!rowspan ="8" | 2. Person
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!informal
||-l-
||-lt-
|colspan ="4" | -lz-
|-
|-
||-ba || maybe, perheps || Möyyufálembà. || Maybe you can help him.
!formal
||-r-
||-rt-
|colspan ="4" | -rz-
|-
|-
||-fe || in deed, factually || ? || ?
!rowspan ="6" colspan ="1" | exclusive
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" | informal
!masculine
||
||-lmV-
|colspan ="4" |-lmzV-
|-
|-
||-le || possibly || ? || ?
!feminine
||
||-lfV-
|colspan ="4" |-lvzV-
|-
|-
||-sä || as if || ? || ?
!neutral
||
||-lpV-
|colspan ="4" |-lpsV- / -lbzV-
|-
|-
||-bo/-so || little, not much || Nollärnȁbdäälbo. || I did not study much yesterday.
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" |formal
!masculine
||
||-rmV-
|colspan ="4" |-rmzV-
|-
|-
||-ni || some || Lärnȁbdäälni. || I did learn something yesterday (not little nor much).
!feminine
|-
||
||-mö || much || Mittidȁmväägmö|| Last week he ate much meat.
||-rfV-
|colspan ="4" |-rvzV-
|-
!neutral
||
||-rpV-
|colspan ="4" |-rpsV- / -rbzV-
|-
|-
||-tu || too much || ? || ?
!rowspan ="6" | 3.Person
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | animate
!masculine
||-m-
||-mt-
|colspan ="4" | -mz-
|-
|-
||-mu || extreme || fit grandíikmu || an extrem big fish
!feminine
||-f-
||-ft-
|colspan ="4" | -fs-
|-
|-
||-ve || very || váad koldíikve || very cold water
!neutral
||-p-
||-pt-
|colspan ="4" | -ps-
|-
|-
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | inanimate
|}
||-n-
 
||-nt-
If more than one suffix will be used, then there is a hierachy of suffixes:
|colspan ="4" | -nz-
 
|-
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | cataphoric
||-k-
||-kt-
|colspan ="4" | -ks-
|-
!rowspan =1" colspan ="3" | anaphoric
||-t-
||-tt-
|colspan ="4" | -ts-
|}


1. completion of action/time information [-ya | -no | -le | -ti]
===''Slot I / Bóok I''===
2. emphasis [-te | -ve]
3. likelyhood [-ba | -fe | -la | -sä]
4. degree of completion [-bo/-so | -ni | -mö | -mu | -tu]
5. conjunction [-(g)uu | -(g)ee | -(g)ii ]


This slot is soley used to indicated passive voice. All verbal structures in passive will start with the suffixe ''p-'' + a tense vowel that equals the vowel in slot V. This structure is inherited from the proto-language. Without the ''p''-prefix it indicated time back then. However this vowel was moved to Slot V and thus created a "double tense marking" in the passive.


===''Slot II / Bóok II''===


This slot is reserved for modal prefixes. All modal prefixes lenite the following consonant.


The particle meaning "but" does belong to this category but it varies, according to the dialects:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
 
|+ style="text-align: center;" | '''Modal prefixes'''
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
! Prefix !! Etymology !! Meaning !! Example
! dialect !! suffix !! etymology !! example
|-
|-
| North || -lua / -lwa || < Inuktitut ''*-(C)aluaq'' || Viyyufȁbeflua! But I wanted to help her!
|ka- || <kan- || ability || Kabükkábin Volapükin nulikí 'I can speak Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
|-
|| South/East || -bä/-be || < vo. ''*ab'' [through methasis and differentiation  || Viyyufȁbefbä! / Viyyufȁbefbe!
||mö- || <mög- || possibility / chance || Möbükkáltinot Volapük nulikí. 'You both have here the chance to speak Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
|-
|| West/Central || -xa || < Old Irish ''*acht'' || Viyyufȁbefxa! But I wanted to help her!
||su- || <sev- || knowledge (how to) || Sebenkábins vödemís. 'I can write texts [I know how to]
|}
|-
 
||vi- || <vil- || wish / want || Vibükkábin Volapük nulikí. 'I want to speak Volapȕük nulíik.'
===''Slot XI / Bóok XI''===
|-
 
||dä- || <däl- || be allowed to || Däzagválineb konotatí faWolapüg nulikú. 'You may tell me this story in Volapȕük nulíik.'
Subordinated clause
|-
 
||mü- || <müt- || must; obligation || Müzagválineb konotatí faWolapüg nulikú. 'You must tell me this story in Volapȕük nulíik!'
This slot includes suffixes that make the whole following phrase a subordinated clauses. The syntax of subordinated and main clauses does not differ, the question if a clause is a main or a subordinated clause is rather marked by the presence or absence of a subordinated clause marker. A subordinated marker may receive a second stress.
 
===''Slot XII / Bóok XII ''===
 
 
Question marker
 
This slot is reserved for question marker. These include the question marker -li and suffixes based on the stem ''-ky-/-ki-'' < *ki- for persons, ''-ks-'' < *ks- for objects and abstract ideas, ''-ly-/-li-'' < *li- for quality and ''-kl-'' < *kel- for relative clauses. This last suffix is used manly in written language. In spoken language, the marker for subordinated clauses ''-da-'' is combined with the personal, objectional or qualitive suffix to create a relative clause. This slot may receive a second stress if there is no other slot that can take the stress before.
 
Question marker for persons
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!Question !! Basic suffix !! Case !! Suffix used !! Variations [dialect] / Evolution
|-
|-
| Who? || -ky- || -o [Nom.] || -kyo || -ko [South/East] / kyo < *kio
||sö- || <söt- || should || Sözagválineb konotatí faWolapüg nulikú. 'You should tell me this story in Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
|-
|| Whose? || -ky- || -a [Gen.] || -kya || -ka [South/East] / kya < *kia
||pli- || <plid- || like || Plizagvábinelš konotís faWolapüg nulikú. 'I like to tell you stories in Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
|-
|| [To] Whom? || -ky- || -e [Dat.] || -kye || -ke [South/East] / kye < *kie
||ste- || <steif- || to try || Stennisullivéb, dennisullivébab. 'I tried to reach the island but I failed.'
|-  
|| Who? || -ky- || -i [Acc.] || -kii || -ki [South/East] / kii < *ki-i
|-
|-
|| With whom? At whose place? || -ky- || -öp [old loc.] || -kyöp || -köp [South/East] / *ki-öp
||de- || <def- || to fail || Dezuemgébin vödemíle. 'I failed to understand your text [the one you sent me].'
|}
 
===Co-verb suffixes===
 
Supposedly upon Inuktitut influence there has been a development of suffixes which were derived from basic verbs and attached to nouns. When attached to nouns, they lengthen the last consonant of the noun / noun phase and by this are seperated from similar derivational suffixes. These new suffixes turned the whole structure into verbs which can be conjugated the same any other verb can be. These verbs encompass verbs of perception (logön, lilön, smelön), basic human activities (drinön, fidön. Most of the nouns they are attached to function as the object of the action and thus are considered accusative objects. In contrast to accusative objects which are used independently, they do not change the case to genitive in a negated sentence nor do they receive any pronominal conjuncture after the subject phrase.
Due to phonological restraints (a syllable initial consonant cluster may not involve a long consonant), these suffixes can only be placed after a singular stem. This means that nouns in plural or dual are not licensed for suffixation.
 
Examples:
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!suffix !! etymology !! meaning !! example sentence
|-
|-
|-Cind || *-rind < *drinön || to drink || Vattindáb niwäreté. vat-TIND-á-b 'I drink water out of a glass.'
||pri- || <prim- || to start || Prillärngábin Volapük nulikí. 'I start learning Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
|-
||-Cid || *fidön || to eat  || Nommittidábnèe. no-mit-TID-á-b-nèe 'I never eat meat.'
||ro- || <rop- || to interrupt || Rozbikodpábem Hyacinthé. 'I interrupt my conversation with Hyacinth [and continue it later].'
|-
|-
||-Cet || *getön || to receive || Florretáabeldȍl. flor-RET-á-b-e-l-dȍl 'I receive flowers from you every day.'
||fi- || <fin- || to end || Firreedgébinfò bukakí. 'I have finally reading this book.'  
|-
|-
||-Civ || *givön || to give || Bukkivbábel. Buk-KIV-á-b-e-l. 'I give you the book.'
||ko- || <komand- || to recomend || Korreedvábinel buketí. 'I recommend you reading this book.'
|-
||-Cum || *sumön || to take || Florruméföv. Flor-RUM-é-f-öv. 'She would have taken a flower.'
|-
|-
||-Civ || *rivön || to reach || Nisulliváb. nisul-LIV-á-b 'I reach the island.'
||pro- || <prom- || to promise || Pronniđaadilamkábvoog. 'I promise to come to your banquet next week.'
|-
|-
||-Cog || *logön || to see || Dogallogáboknùu. dog-al-LOG-á-b-o-k-nùu 'I am seeing your dog here.
||slu- || <slud- || to decide || Slummerikiglém. 'He has taken the decision to go to America.'
|-
|-
||-Cil || *lilön || to hear || Kagatodrennilȁbiktȍd. ka-gat-o-dren-NIL-ȁ-b-i-k-tȍd 'I could hitherto hear your cat weep the whole time.'
||se- || <sed- || to let, to have done || Sebeneddenbámeb. 'He has the letter written by me.'
|-
|-
||-Cem || *smelön || to smell || Pligafonnullemáabii. pli(d)-gaf-o-nul(ik)-LEM-áa-b-ii. 'I always like smelling fresh coffee [new coffee].'
||ke- || <koed- || to permit, to refuse to prevent || Keđeadgȁfim. 'She let him die.' [she did nothing to prevent him from dying]
|-
|-
||-Cuk || *-tuq < Inuktitut || to make [food] || Plibitsakkukáabeldȍl. pli(d)-bitsak-KUK-áa-b-e-l-dȍl. 'I like making pizza for you every day.'
||le- ||<lead- || to permit, to allow || Lenniveriglépsib. 'I was allowed to enter university.' [to enroll in studies]
|-
|}
||-Cek || *meekön || to make [non-food] || Tooddekémš. tood-DEK-é-mš. 'The men have made a car.' [coll.]
|-
||-Ced || *nedön || to need [sth.] || Nünömmedálksüp? 'Why do you need a computer?'
|}  




<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
''Subject'' versus ''Object''


Nouns
===''Slot III / Bóok III''===
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology


-->
This slot is reserved for motional prefixes. This prefixes indicate a type of movement that is done in order to fulfill the action of the main verb. In English and other languages this is done via a construction like "I go shopping.", "she went dancing." or "He went to fetch him from the station." In Volapȕük nulíik this task is done by motional prefixes. Those prefixes are:


==Syntax==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! prefix !! etymology !! meaning !! example
|-
|go- || gol- 'to go' || to go || Gođanüdáb nidzifí. 'I to the city to dance. / I go dancing in the city.'
|-
||kö- || köm- 'to come' || to come [from doing sth.] || Köbäskarébgaad. 'I came from fishing this morning.'
|-
||rö- || rön- 'to run' || to run [for doing sth.] || Röbhlünkȁmin dünáan nuní. 'The servant ran to deliver the message.'
|-
||si- || siim- 'to swim' || to swim || Sinnisullivȁbnäät. 'I swam to reach the island last night.'
|-
||fu- || fug- 'to flee' || to flee || Fuđeedémsim. 'They have fled from killing him.' [They could not kill him and fled instead.]
|}


The word order of a neutral phrase is V-S-O. This applies to main and dependend clauses. Questions follow the same pattern, with the question word attached to the main verb. If the subject of a question is another noun than a pronoun, the verbal phrase still has a filler pronoun without specific meaning.


===''Slot IV / Bóok IV''===


Loggéfim maní. "She has seen a man."
This category encompasses suffixes that express the way in which someone has received an information, e. g. via hearing, reading, listening, seeing, feeling, knowing etc. The subject of the main verb is put in the accusative. Therefore, these suffixes automatically activate the -k/-g or -f/-v suffix [accusative or accusative-dative], since the suffix requires an accusative object. A noun that is an object to the main verb will be placed as a seperate word.  


{| class = "bluetable lightbluebg"
! prefix !! etymology !! meaning !! example
|-
| li- || lil- || to hear || Lillominkekábimnäät. 'I heard him coming home last night.
|-
|| lo- || log- || to see || Lodiffébimem hipulí moní man bäldiké. 'I saw the boy stealing money from the old man.'
|-
|| se- || sen- || to sense, to feel || Sedžemiglekȁfim lȁäd bleeníik man yunikí. 'The old lady sensed the young man entering the room.'
|-
|| nu- || nol- || to know [to know from knowledge] || Nuđeadgábin Napoleoní sulLebakó! 'I know that Napoleon died on Elba!
|-
|| ti- || tik- || to think [to suppose] || Tidiffébimem hipulakí moní man bäldiké. 'I think this boy stole has stolen the money from the old man.'
|-
|| bi-/be- || betik- || to consider || Beđäsingélinslì vabís? 'Have you considered drawing cars?'
|-
|| re- || read- || to read || Ressevgábim Sherlock Holmesí Doyleá bukís. I know Sherlock Holmes from reading Doyle's books.
|-
|| tse- || tsed- || to mean || Tseđitfóbimellà. I think you should leave him.
|-
|| ši- || šin- || to appear || Pežiđeedbémep katé. He seems to be killed by the cat.
|}


Loggéfimlì maní? "Has she seen a man?"
===''Slot V / Bóok V''===
 


This category contains the main verb. The slot can be filled with simple verb stems, such as ''fitön'' 'to eat', ''golön'' 'to go', ''penön'' 'to write' or derived verb stems, such as ''nüdugön'' 'to introduce', ''ledanön'' 'to thank very much'. The stem may be followed by a suffix that indicates which object a noun will have. These suffixes apply only to verb stems who may appear on their own, with a dative or with an accusative object or with both. Nouns that are suffixed with a co-verb suffix will not receive the accusative case suffix as the noun is automatically the accusative object. They may however receive a accusative and dative marking suffix. The [e] is inserted if there is a consonant cluster before the suffix. There are three suffixes:


Loggéfim vóom maní. "The woman has seen a man."
{| class =bluetable lightbluebg"
!suffix !! cases !! example !! translation
|-
|-Ø || nominative || penáb. || I write.
|-
||-[e]k- / -[e]g- || accusative/genitive || pengábin vödemí. = Vödemmenáb. || I write a text.
|-
||-[e]k / -[e]g- || accusative/genitive || fitkábin mití. = Mittitáb. || I eat the meat. 
|-
||-[e]p- / -[e]b- || dative || penbábel. || I write you.
|-
||-[e]p- / -[e]b- || dative || givbábepš. || I give them.
|-
||-[e]f- / -[e]v- || accusative/genitive + dative || Givvábinsel bukís. || I give you the books.
|-
||-[e]f- / -[e]v- || accusative/genitive + dative || Kanitfúbinert Volapükäná hümí. || I will have sung the hymn of Volapükȁän for you [formal]
|}




Loggéfimlì vóom maní? "Has the woman seen a man?
In this group of suffixes, there is a fourth suffix: -s- / -z-. It does not infere in the distribuition of objects, i. e. does not mark the following dative / accusative or dative & accusative object, but rather conveys the idea that the subject of a sentence does not control the process expressed in the verb by pure volition but is "follows" the process independently of its own will. Typical verbs for this suffix are 'to sink', 'to go down', 'to die [as a natural process]', 'to be born [in Latin the verb rendering this meaning was a medio-passive verb], to tremble / to shiver. The subject is given in the essive case instead of the nominative.
 
 
Examples:
 
Dremzȁäpnäättè tsilú. The child only trembled the night.
 
[Drem-z-ȁä-p-näät-tè | tsilú | TREMBLE-val.ess.-pret.gen.-3.sg.anim.neutr.-only | CHILD-ess.]
 
Falfifsȁb. I fell to the front.
 
[Fal-fif-s-ȁ-b | FALL-to.the.front.-val.ess.-pret.-1.sg.]


Tülzȁb. I felt dizzy.


[Tül-z-ȁ-b. | TURN-val.ess.-pret.-1.sg.]


Danüdzȁm. He danced as in trance.


[Danüd-z-ȁ-m. DANCE-val.ess.-pret.-3.sg.anim.masc.]


===Constituent order===
Goolniđitsȁmit lüđomíma bibhirémö. He went home tottering because he had too many beers.
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->


==Example texts==
[Gool-niđit-s-ȁ-m-i-t | lü-đom-í-m-a | bi-bhir-é-mö || GO-to.right.to.left.-val.ess.-pret.-3.sg.anim.masc.-dir.-deict.cataph. | dir.-HOME-acc.-3.sg.anim.masc.-gen. | caus.dir.-BEER-dat.-excessive].
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->


Examples of translations:
===''Slot VI / Bóok VI''===


"If I had a flower for every time I think of you, I could walk forever in my garden." - Claudia A. Grandi
This slot is reserved for the tense marker and the habitual marker. The vowel in this slot receives the main stress of the verb and is therfore and important unit in every verbal structure. Since this slot has to be filled always, there is actuall no real tenseless verbal structure. However, the present habitual / generic marker serves as an aorist which is also used in laws and other time independent texts and rules.


Translation:
This table presents them:


"Florretáabaafì tikábilbalbì, nesimlikánöv gáadba."
{| class = "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
{|
|+ style="text-align: center;" | '''Tense marker'''
! marker !! tense !! usage !! habitual version
|-
| -a- || present || present events occuring at the moment, on the day; events that started in the past and continue to the present moment || -aa-
|-
|-
|Florretáabaafì
|| -e- || perfect || events that have occurred in the past and whose results are visible now || -ee- (rarely used)
||tikábilbalbì
|-
||nesimlikánöv
|| -ä- || preterite || past events that started and ended in the past; story telling: framework story || -ää-
||gáadba.
|-
|| -i- || past preterite || events that happened in the past prior to another event || -ii-
|-
|-
|Flor-ret-áa-b-aa-fì
|| -o- || future || events that will take later, the next day, in the next year || -oo-
||tik-á-b-i-l-bal-bì
||ne-sim-lik-á-n-öv
||gáad-ba.
|-
|-
|FLOWER-receive-pres.gen.-1.sg.-always-if
|| -u- || future perfect || events that will be finished in the past. || -uu-
||THINK-pres.-1.sg.-acc.-2.sg.-one.time-because
||[neg.-BORDER-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj.-cond.
||GARDEN-1.sg.gen.
|}
|}


Literally: "If I always get a flower because I think of you one time, my garden would be endless."
The habitual present has a special function. It is not only used for repetitive action / repeated actions but functions as an aorist, thus indicating no time reference. This function is only active if there is no explicit adverb of frequency in the verbal structure. Otherwise the habitual function is active. This form is used in law texts, for scientific laws, grammatical rules and so on.
 


Usage of tenses


''present''
The present tense [dunavödamagéed nulíik] describes the


"He who hesitates is lost."


"Tsogáapaabì flotáapaa nivlumedó."
''perfect''


{|
[dunavödamagéed fimekégöl] 
|-
|Tsogáapaabì
||flotáapaa
||nivlumedó.
|-
|Tsog-áa-p-aa-bì
||flot-áa-p-aa
||ni-vlumed-ó.
|-
|HESITATE-pres.gen.-3.sg.f./m.-always-because
||FLOAT-pres.gen.-3.sg.f./m.-always
||IN-RIVER-loc.
|}


Literally: "Since he/she always hesitates he/she always floats in a river."


''preterite''


[dunavödamagéed konotlíik]


"I love pizza."
''past preterite''


"Pitsakkiddofáab."
[dunavödamagéed balidlíik]
{|
|-
|Pitsakkiddofáab.
|-
|Pitsak-kid-dof-áa-b.
|-
|Pitsak-Cid-Cof-áa-b.
|-
|PIZZA-eat.v-enjoy.v-pres.gen.-1.sg.
|}


Literally: "I enjoy eating pizza."
''future''
 
[dunavödamagéed toollíik]
 
 
''future perfect''
 
[dunavödamagéed tuullíik]
 
===''Slot VII / Bóok VII''===
 
 
This slot includes the personal endings. The default value of this slot is nominative. However, if slot V provides the suffix -s- / -z- the case is the essive case.
 
===''Slot VIII / Bóok VIII''===




This slot includes the suffixes for the primary case endings. All suffixes used in this slot are compunt of two elements:


"My heart is empty, I feel it."
1. Vowel to indicate the case


Translations:
2. Consonant/Consonant clusters to indicate the person involved.


Senäláb vagälikánda láadba. literally: "I feel that my heart is empty." [Very modern styled and more common among younger people]


Vagälikán láadba. Senäláneb. literally: "My heart is empty. It feels to me." [traditional]
Which case suffixes appear in this slot depends on many factors. One of this factor is the suffix of slot for:


Nesenällabán láadba, senäláneb. literally: "My heart is without emotions. It feels to me." [very traditional and stylistically on a high level.]


{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
!valence marker !! suffixes !! case suffix filled in slot VIII !! translation
|-
|| accusative || -k- / -g-  || -i- || normally direct object [also used for negated verbal complexes where it corresponds with genitive.]
|-
|| dative || -p- / -b- || -e- || indirect object, benefective, obligative for passive voice
|-
|| accusative-dativ || -f- / -v- || -i- / -e- || direct & indirect object are given
|}


"Sunlight takes about eight minutes and twenty seconds to reach Earth."
The object of verbs of transformation / abstraction are rendered in this slot via the tranlative, exlative and essive case.


Translation:
The origin of these suffixes is rather obscure. -p- / -b- seems to be related to the passive prefix ''p-'' and and therefore at the beginning it may have been used as a reinforcement of the passive voice. Later on the relation nominative - dative might have established and then, later on, it has become a valence marker.


"Bináans minúut šölza sekúun telđegee kontagáanadla solalíit talá suzürfatí."
The marker for accusative seems to be related to the deictic suffix -k. Probably this suffix was used as a shortening / ellipse structure: Logéb diní at. > Logéb diní ak. > Logéb dinakí. > Logkéb dinakí > Loggéb [dinakí.] > Loggéb diní. If this theory holds true, the suffix denoted at the beginning a definite object and only gradually changed to become a general valence marker. The structure with the direct object being inserted after the subject marker, which is standard nowadays "Loggébin diní." appears roughly at 1500 for the first time and becomes standard within ca. 200 - 300 years. The definite meaning vanishes and is now expressed via the deictic suffixes -ak / -et.


{|
===''Slot IX / Bóok IX''===
|-
Locative / temporal
|Bin-áa-n-s
 
||minúut
 
||šöl-za
This slot provides information concerning the place where an action takes place and the time. This slot is restricted for adverbs of place, time and frequency. Personal pronouns may be included to indicate a person who is present or at which place the action takes place. This slot is licenced for a secondary stress. It may, however, not be stressed if there is a suffix in the question slot.
||sekúun
 
||telđeg-ee
 
||kontag-áa-n-ad-la
''Locative endings''
||sola-líit  
 
||tal-á
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
||su-zürfat-í
!case marker !! suffix !! meaning !! translation
|-
|-
|BE-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-pl.
| -o- || -k- || "the place [near the speaker]" || "here"
||MINUTE
|-
||EIGHT-about
|| -o- || -t- || "the place [near the listener]" || "there"
||SECOND
|}
||TWENTY-and
 
||TOUCH-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-fin.-subj.
Examples:
||SUN-LIGHT
 
||EARTH-gen.
 
||on-SURFACE-acc.
Pepenvénok penéedam. "His letter has been written here."
|}
 
 
Stanȁfotlì, šenȁnädù saséen? "Did she stand there when the murder took place?"
 
 
Binȁbom, šenȁnädù saséen. "I was with him / at his place when the murder took place."
 
 
Binȁbdäälòm, šenȁnädù saséen. "I was yesterday with HIM / at his place, when the murder took place." [Not: ''Binȁbomdȁäl'' is a second grammatically option but puts an emphasis on the time rather than on the person, so "I was YESTERDAY with him." [not today or the day before yesterday].
 
 
 
''Temporal endings''
 
This clase of endings is much larger than the previous. The proto-language had temporal adverbs that combined tense suffixes with expressions of time [day, year, month, ...] to creat meanings like "tomorrow, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and so on." In the development, this adverbs changed in a manner that gave rise to the the development of suffixes. A few examples will clearify the process:
 
 
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
! English !! Proto-language !! Early form !! Early modern form !! Modern form !! Suffix
|-
| today || adelo || adaló ||  daaló || daal || -daal-
|-
|| yesterday ||ädalo || ädäló || dääló || dääl || -dääl-
|-
|| next year || oyeló || oyoló || yooló || yool || -yool-
|-
|}
 
 
 
 
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
! English !! standard word !! before the last !! last !! this !! next !! after the next !! some... || regular
|-
|| moment || timȕül || -tiil- || -tääl- || -taal- || -tool- || -tuul- || -tüül- || -tael-
|-
|| minute || minúut || -miit- || -määt- || -maat- || -moot- || -muut- || -müüt- || -maet-
|-
|| hour || dȕüp || -diip- || -dääp- || -daap- || -doop- || -duup- || -düüp- || -daep-
|-
|| morning || gȍöd || -giid- || -gääd- || -gaad- || -good- || -guud- || -güüd- || -gaed-
|-
|| midday || tsedéel || -tsiil- || -tsääl- || -tsaal- || -tsool- || -tsuul- || -tsüül- || -tsael-
|-
|| evening || sóar || -siir- || -säär- || -saar- || -soor- || -suur- || -süür- || -saer-
|-
|| day || déel || -diil- || -dääl- || -daal- || -dool- || -duul- || -düül- || -dael-
|-
|| night || néet || -niit- || -näät- || -naat- || -noot-  || -nuut- || -nüüt- || -naet-
|-
|| week || véeg || -viig- || -vääg- || -vaag- || -voog- || -vuug- || -vüüg- || -vaeg-
|-
|| month || móol || -miil- || -määl- || -maal- || -mool- || -muul- || -müül- || -mael-
|-
|| spring || florȕüp || -fiip- || -fääp- || -faap- || -foop- || -fuup- || -füüp- || -faep-
|-
|| summer || hitȕüp || -hiip- || -hääp- || -haap- || -hoop- || -huup- || -hüüp- || -haep-
|-
|| autumn || flukȕüp || -liip- || -lääp- || -laap- || -loop- || -luup- || -lüüp- || -laep-
|-
|| winter || nifȕüp || -niip- || -nääp- || -naap- || -noop- || -nuup- || -nüüp- || -naep-
|-
|| year || yéel || -yiil- || -yääl- || -yaal- || -yool- || -yuul- || -yüül- || -yael-
|-
|| time / occasion || náad || -niid- || -nääd- || -naad- || -nood- || -nuud- || -nüüd- || -naed-
|-
|| time [epoque] || tíid || -tiid- || -tääd- || -taad- || -tood- || -tuud- || -tüüd- || -taed-
|}
 
 
This inclusion of temporal markers implies that a song title such as "Yesterday" by the Beatles cannot be rendered properly by just stating the suffix ''-dääl-'' but rather needs an implementation within a verb: e.g. "šenȁndääl" / "šenȁkädȁäl" / "šenȁtädȁäl" lit. 'it happened yesterday' or "Loggȁbindȁäl." / "Lilgȁbindȁäl." 'I saw / heard it yesterday.'. In consequence, the openess of meaning that lies in the simple mentioning of the word "yesterday" is lost and cannot be rendered in Volapȕük nulíik.
 
===''Slot X / Bóok X''===
 
Modal particles
 
These particles give information concerning the likeliness, the degree to which an action is performed and conjunction.
 
The table gives an overview:
 
 
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|-ya ||already || bukíya || [I have read] the book already
|-
||-le ||completely, the whole; not at all [negated] || ? || ?
|-
||-ti || almost || Flaptȁmiftì šitsilí || He almost hit the girl
|-
||-tää || then, next || Badikáan líif, deadzóptää || Life is bad, then you die.
|-
||-no || yet / not yet [negated] || Nobhukkadébno || I have not yet read the book.
|-
||-(g)ee || and || Petéer Páulee || Peter and Paul
|-
||-(g)ee ... -(g)ee || both ... and ... || Petéeree Páulee || both Peter and Paul
|-
||-(g)uu || or || Petéer Páuluu || Peter or Paul
|-
||-(g)uu ... -(g)uu || either ... or ... ||Petéeruu Páuluu || either Peter or Paul
|-
||-(g)ii || too, also || Petéerii || Peter, too
|-
||-ba || maybe, perheps || Möyyufpálembà. || Maybe you can help him.
|-
||-fe || in deed, factually || ? || ?
|-
||-le || possibly || ? || ?
|-
||-sä || as if || ? || ?
|-
||-fä || if only || ? || ?
|-
||-bo/-so || little, not much || Nollärnȁbdäälbo. || I did not study much yesterday.
|-
||-ni || some || Lärnȁbdäälni. || I did learn something yesterday (not little nor much).
|-
||-mö || much || Mittidȁmväägmö|| Last week he ate much meat.
|-
||-tu || too much || ? || ?
|-
||-mu || extreme || fit grandíikmu || an extrem big fish
|-
||-ve || very || váad koldíikve || very cold water
|-
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
|-
||-sö || consequently, so || kvisinbábel, mövidádd. || I cook for you, so we both can eat [together].
|-
||-su || immediately || Robledabsugȍd kođogú gufpabemeegȍd! || Stop playing with the dog immediately and help me!
|}
 
If more than one suffix will be used, then there is a hierachy of suffixes:
 
 
1. completion of action/time information [-ya | -no | -le | -ti | -tää | -sö]
 
2. emphasis [-te | -ve]
 
3. likelyhood [-ba | -fe | -la | -sä]
 
4. degree of quantity [-bo/-so | -ni | -mö | -mu | -tu]
 
5. conjunction [-(g)uu | -(g)ee | -(g)ii ]
 
 
An example of several suffixes:
 
"Peneddenémyatebà." He might have already written only the letter."
 
[Pened-[d]en-é-m-ya-te-bà | LETTER-write-perf.-3.sg.anim.masc.-already-only-maybe]
 
 
 
The particle meaning "but" does belong to this category but it varies, according to the dialects:
 
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
! dialect !! suffix !! etymology !! example
|-
| North || -lua / -lwa || < Inuktitut ''*-(C)aluaq'' || Viyyufpȁbefluà! But I wanted to help her!
|-
|| South/East || -bä/-be || < vo. ''*ab'' [through methasis and differentiation  || Viyyufpȁbefbȁ! / Viyyufpȁbefbè!
|-
|| West/Central || -xa || < Old Irish ''*acht'' || Viyyufpȁbefxà! But I wanted to help her!
|}
 
===''Slot XI / Bóok XI''===
 
Subordinated clause
 
This slot includes suffixes that make the whole following phrase a subordinated clauses. The syntax of subordinated and main clauses does not differ, the question if a clause is a main or a subordinated clause is rather marked by the presence or absence of a subordinated clause marker. A subordinated marker may receive a second stress.
 
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|-
||-bi ||because || Lüvgóbil löfkábilbì. || I leave you because I love you.
|-
||-do ||although || Plödiglábs reenánotdò. || We go outside, although it is raining there.
|-
||-da || that || Saggábin domimakmémda Markus. || I say that Markus has come from his home.
|-
||-ne || without || Lüvém dinonnagémne. || He has left without saying anything.]
|-
||-fi || if || ||
|-
||-ad || in order to || ||
|-
||-(i)bsä || unless || ||
|}
 
===''Slot XII / Bóok XII ''===
 
 
''Question marker''
 
This slot is reserved for question marker. These include the question marker -li and suffixes based on the stem ''-ky-/-ki-'' < *ki- for persons, ''-ks-'' < *ks- for objects and abstract ideas, ''-ly-/-li-'' < *li- for quality and ''-kl-'' < *kel- for relative clauses. This last suffix is used manly in written language. In spoken language, the marker for subordinated clauses ''-da-'' is combined with the personal, objectional or qualitive suffix to create a relative clause. This slot may receive a second stress if there is no other slot that can take the stress before.
 
 
The question marker for yes-no-questions is -li.
 
 
''Wh-questions [sȁäk kolíiks / ksolíiks / lyolíiks]''
 
Question marker for persons
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!Question !! Basic suffix !! Case !! Suffix used !! Variations [dialect] / Evolution
|-
| Who? || -ky- || -o [Nom.] || -kyo || -ko [South/East] / kyo < *kio
|-
|| Whose? || -ky- || -a [Gen.] || -kya || -ka [South/East] / kya < *kia
|-
|| [To] Whom? || -ky- || -e [Dat.] || -kye || -ke [South/East] / kye < *kie
|-
|| Who? || -ky- || -i [Acc.] || -kii || -ki [South/East] / kii < *ki-i
|-
|| With whom? At whose place? || -ky- || -öp [old loc.] || -kyöp || -köp [South/East] / *ki-öp
|-
|| As who? || -ky- || -u [Ess.] || -kyu || -ku [South/East] / *ki-u
|-
|| To who [transforming]? || -ky- || -ü [Transl.] <iw(e) || -kyü || -kü [South/East] / <küü[Western] <*kiw <*kiwe<*ki+we [< we< u+e]
|-
|| At which time? [precise] || -ky- || -im [time] || -kim || - / kim < kiim [Northern] < *ki+im
|-
|| When? [general] || -ky- || -üp [time precise] || -kyüp || -küp [South/East] / kyüp < *ki-üp
|-
|| Because of whom? || -ky- || -ib [reason] || -kib || - / kiib [Western] < *ki-ib]
|}
 
 
Question markers for objects / abstract things / non-human living things
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!Question !! Basic suffix !! Case !! Suffix used !! Variations [dialect] / Evolution
|-
| What? || -ks- || -o [Nom.] || -kso ||  ks-o < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| Of what? || -ks- || -a [Gen.] || -ksa || ks-a < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| [To] What? || -ks- || -e [Dat.] || -kse || ks-e < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| What? || -ks- || -i [Acc.] || -ksi || ks-i < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| Where? || -ks- || -öp [old loc.] || -ksöp || ks-öp < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| As what? || -ks- || -u [Ess.] || -ksu || ks-u <*ks- < *kis-
|-
|| To what [transforming]? || -ks- || -ü [Transl.] <iw(e) || -ksü || ks-ü  *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| At which time? [precise] || -ks- || -im [time] || -ksim || ks-im < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| When? [general] || -ks- || -üp [time precise] || -ksüp || ks-üp < *ks- < *kis-
|-
|| Why? || -ks- || -ib [reason] || -ksib || ks-ib < *ks- < *kis-
|}
 
 
Question marker for Quality
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!Question !! Basic suffix !! Case !! Suffix used !! Variations [dialect] / Evolution
|-
| How [is]? || -ly- || -o [Nom.] || -lyo ||  ly-o < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| of what type? || -ly- || -a [Gen.] || -lya || ly-a < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| [To] Which type? || -ly- || -e [Dat.] || -lye || ly-e < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| How [did one do smth.]? || -ly- || -i [Acc.] || -lii || li-i < *li- + -i
|-
|| at what kind of place? || -ly- || -öp [old loc.] || -lyöp || ly-öp < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| As what? || -ly- || -u [Ess.] || -lyu || ly-u < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| To what [transforming]? || -ly- || -ü [Transl.] <iw(e) || -lyü || ly-ü  < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| At which time? [precise] || -ly- || -im [time] || -liim || li-im < *li- + -ib
|-
|| When? [general] || -ly- || -üp [time precise] || -lyüp || ly-üp < *ly- < *li-
|-
|| Why? || -ly- || -ib [reason] || -liib || li-ib < *li- + -ib
|}
 
 
The marker for objects and quality are used on nouns to form questions like "which...?" [-ks-] and "what kind of / what type of?" [-ly-/-li-].
 
Examples:
 
Readgálinnù bukíksi? [coll. Readgálinnù bukíks?]
 
READ-val.acc.-pres.-2.sg.-acc.-inam.obj.sg.-now | BOOK-acc.-qm.ob.-acc.
 
"Which book are you reading?"
 
Short question: "Readgálinnuksì?"
 
 
Readgálinnù bukílii? [coll. Readgálinnù bukíli?]
 
READ-val.acc.-pres.-2.sg.-acc.-inam.obj.sg.-now | BOOK-acc.-qm.qu.-acc.
 
"What kind of book are you reading?"
 
Short question: "Readgálinnulìi?"
 
 
The last group of question markers is to some degree special, as they came out of active usage about 500 years ago. However, they belong to the literal language and are there expected to be used. The spoken language [colloquial and formal] does create relative sentences differently. Instead of employing a relative sentence marker, this language variations combine a quotationmarker "-da-" [receives secondary stress] and one of the question markers [person, object or quality] to create relative sentences. Examples:
 
Yesterday I bought the book that I like [the book that pleases me].
 
"Remgȁbindȁäl bukí plidbánebklò." (Literal language)
"Rem-g-ȁ-b-i-n-dȁäl buk-í plid-b-á-n-e-b-klò."
BUY-val.acc.-pret.-1.sg.-acc.-inam.obj.sg.-yesterday | BOOK-acc. | LIKE-val.dat.-pres.-inam.obj.sg.-dat.-1.sg.-rlm.-nom.
 
"Rem-g-ȁ-b-i-n-dȁäl buk-í plid-b-á-n-e-b-dà-kso
BUY-val.acc.-pret.-1.sg.-acc.-inam.obj.sg.-yesterday | BOOK-acc. | LIKE-val.dat.-pres.-inam.obj.-sg-dat.-1sg.-quot.-qm.obj.-nom.
 
 
The Relative clause markers [used in literary language only]
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!Question !! Basic suffix !! Case !! Suffix used !! Variations [dialect] / Evolution
|-
| which? || -kl- || -o [Nom.] || -klo ||  kl-o < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| Of which? || -kl- || -a [Gen.] || -kla || ks-a < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| [To] which? || -kl- || -e [Dat.] || -kle || ks-e < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| which? || -kl- || -i [Acc.] || -ksi || kl-i < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| where? || -kl- || -öp [old loc.] || -klöp || kl-öp < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| As which? || -kl- || -u [Ess.] || -klu || ks-u < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| To which [transforming]? || -kl- || -ü [Transl.] <iw(e) || -klü || kl-ü  *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| At which time? [precise] || -kl- || -im [time] || -klim || kl-im < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| When? [general] || -kl- || -üp [time precise] || -klüp || kl-üp < *kl- < *kel-
|-
|| Why? || -kl- || -ib [reason] || -klib || ks-ib *kl- < *kel-
|}
 
 
''Mood''
 
The category of mood encompasses suffixes of different categories. One group are clearly mood suffixes, as imperative [-öd], respectful request [-ös] and subjunctive [-la] but also the infinitiv [-ön] and the gerundium / participle suffixe [-öl] is located in this slot. Since sentences can be either questions or requests or infinitivs / participle, all suffixes in this category are mutally exclusive, thus in this category only one suffix is allowed. These suffixes are stressed by default and take the main accent. Therefore, all infinitives, participles and so on are stresst on the last syllable.
 
 
===Reflexivity/Reciprocity===
 
 
Reflexivity describes a linguistic concept in which the agent of and action and patient / receiver of an action are identical. Many language use specific pronouns to express reflexivity. Volapűük nulíik does not have a specific set of pronouns for this purpos but expresses this concept by repeating the subject pronoun suffix in the object position:
 
"Lavám."
 
LAV-á-m
 
WASH-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.
 
He washes.
 
 
"Lavgámin."
 
LAV-g-á-m-i-n
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.inam.
 
He washes it.
 
 
"Lavgámip."
 
LAV-g-á-m-i-p
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.anim.neutr.
 
He washes them [singular].
 
 
"Lavgámif."
 
LAV-g-á-m-i-f
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.anim.fem.
 
He washes her.
 
 
"Lavgámim."
 
LAV-g-á-m-i-m
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.anim.masc.
 
He washes himself.
 
 
If the person mentioned washes another person of the same gender, the deictic pronoun -t is used:
 
 
"Lavgámit."
 
LAV-g-á-m-i-t
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.deic.dist.
 
"He washes him."
 
 
In singular contexts, this procedure is not complicated or causes much problems. In dual or plural contexts, however, more possible constellations are possible and theirfore require a different approach.
 
 
1) Each member of group is doing something to themself.
 
If a group of two, three or more members is undergoing the process of washing and the recipient is identical to the agent, then the doer is in the dual / plural and the recipient is singular:
 
"Lavgápsip."
 
LAV-g-á-ps-i-p
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.neutr.
 
"They wash themselves." [each one individually]
 
 
"Lavgáptip."
 
LAV-g-á-pt-i-p
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.du.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.neutr.
 
"They two wash themselves." [each one individually]
 
 
 
2) Within a group of three or more members, one member is the patient / receiver and all other members are doing the work. In this case the deictic closeness pronoun is used:
 
"Lavgápsik."
 
LAV-g-á-pt-i-k
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.deict.clos.
 
"They wash him." [He is a member of the group].
 
 
3) Within a group of three or more people, each member is washing every other member. This case is considered a case of reflexivity and thus expressed via repetition of the plural subject marker:
 
"Lavgápsips."
 
LAV-g-á-pt-i-ps
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.pl.anim.neutr.
 
"They wash themselves." [every member every other member]
 
===Co-verb suffixes===
 
Supposedly upon Inuktitut influence there has been a development of suffixes which were derived from basic verbs and attached to nouns. When attached to nouns, they lengthen the last consonant of the noun / noun phase and by this are seperated from similar derivational suffixes. These new suffixes turned the whole structure into verbs which can be conjugated the same any other verb can be. These verbs encompass verbs of perception (logön, lilön, smelön), basic human activities (drinön, fidön. Most of the nouns they are attached to function as the object of the action and thus are considered accusative objects. In contrast to accusative objects which are used independently, they do not change the case to genitive in a negated sentence nor do they receive any pronominal conjuncture after the subject phrase.
Due to phonological restraints (a syllable initial consonant cluster may not involve a long consonant), these suffixes can only be placed after a singular stem. This means that nouns in plural or dual are not licensed for suffixation.
 
Examples:
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!suffix !! etymology !! meaning !! example sentence
|-
||-Cind || *-rind < *drinön || to drink || Vattindáb niwäreté. vat-TIND-á-b 'I drink water out of a glass.'
|-
||-Cid || *fidön || to eat  || Nommittidábnèe. no-mit-TID-á-b-nèe 'I never eat meat.'
|-
||-Cet || *getön || to receive || Florretáabeldȍl.  flor-RET-á-b-e-l-dȍl 'I receive flowers from you every day.'
|-
||-Civ || *givön || to give || Bukkivbábel. Buk-KIV-á-b-e-l. 'I give you the book.'
|-
||-Cum || *sumön || to take || Florruméföv. Flor-RUM-é-f-öv. 'She would have taken a flower.'
|-
||-Cok || *sokön < sukön || to look for || Kikabbokábnu. 'I am looking for my key.'
|-
||-Cuv || *tuvön || to find sth. || Kikabbuvébnu. 'I have found just my key.'
|-
||-Civ || *rivön || to reach || Nisulliváb. nisul-LIV-á-b 'I reach the island.'
|-
||-Cog || *logön || to see || Dogallogáboknùu. dog-al-LOG-á-b-o-k-nùu 'I am seeing your dog here.
|-
||-Cil || *lilön || to hear || Kagatodrennilȁbiktȍd. ka-gat-o-dren-NIL-ȁ-b-i-k-tȍd 'I could hitherto hear your cat weep the whole time.'
|-
||-Cem || *smelön || to smell || Pligafonnullemáabii. pli(d)-gaf-o-nul(ik)-LEM-áa-b-ii. 'I always like smelling fresh coffee [new coffee].'
|-
||-Cuk || *-tuq < Inuktitut || to make [food] || Plibitsakkukáabeldȍl. pli(d)-bitsak-KUK-áa-b-e-l-dȍl. 'I like making pizza for you every day.'
|-
||-Cek || *meekön || to make [non-food] || Tooddekémš. tood-DEK-é-mš. 'The men have made a car.' [coll.]
|-
||-Ced || *nedön || to need [sth.] || Nünömmedálksüp? nünüm-MED-á-l-ksüp 'Why do you need a computer?'
|-
||-Cof || *yofön || to enjoy || Pennofpábef motéba. pen-NOF-p-á-b-e-f 'I enjoy writing my mother.'
|-
||-Cen || *penön || to write || Peneddenáb. pened-DEN-á-b 'I write a letter.'
|-
||-Cad || *readön || to read || Peneddadáb. pened-DAD-á-b 'I read a letter.'
|-
||-Cif || *tifön || to steal || Kaparabbifél. kapar-ab-BIF-é-l 'You have stolen my goat.'
|-
||-Cin || *binön || to exist || Dawatakkináan niđärsätó. 'There is water in the dessert.' Niđärsätokkináan dawatá. 'In the desert, there is water.'
|-
||-Cüt || *mütön || to cause to do [by force] || Penedakkennütpépsem. 'They have forced him to write this letter.'
|-
||-Cun || *flunön || to influence s.o. || Penedakkennunbépsem. 'They have influenced him to write this letter.'
|-
||-Cag || *sagön || to say, to tell || Konottagbémeb. 'He has told me a story.
|}
 
 
-Cüt / -Cun are also used to create causatives in Volap'üük nulíik.
 
Verbs of motion can also combine with placenames to indicate a motion to or from a certain place. These co-verb suffixes do take either the accusative (-i-) for a movement directed to the place or the dative (-e-) case for movement from this place. The Northern dialect will use the ablative (-ä-) here.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!suffix !! etymology !! meaning !! example sentence
|-
|| -gl- || *gol- || to go || Merikiglób! 'I'll go to America!'
|-
|| -km- || *köm- || to come || Domilakmél nüdzälülúu. 'You came from [your] home to the party.'
|-
|| -rg- || *rig- || to originate || Helsinkikergáaf. 'She is from Helsinki.' [the generic present is used, since it is an unchangeable fact.]
|-
|| -sl- || *solu- || to die [in a place] || Moskovisléf. 'She has died in Moscow. [the original meaning 'to dissolve' was used as a metaphore of a soul that loses its connection to the material world when a a person dies. Since the original meaning implies a directional movement (dissolve into something), the placename appears in the accusative case.]
|-
|| -bl- || *ble- || to stay || domoblársöd! Stay at home!
|-
|}
 
 
Another category of co-verb suffixes are directional and local suffixes. These suffixes are different to the ones mentioned before for two reasons:
 
1. they convey spatial / directional meanings;
 
2. they do not combine with the last consonant by lenghtening it.
 
3. their vowels differ depending if a local reference is meant (-o- / locative), a direction (-i- / accusative [directive]) or the original of a movement (-e- [-ä- in the northern dialect] / dative / exlative.
 
They lengthen the vowel of the verbal stem.
 
a)
 
Compass points:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!meaning !! direction !! suffix !! example sentence
|-
|| north || nol || -nVl- || Goolnilémz.  'The men have gone north.'
|-
|| south || sul || -sVl- || Düvlorfüpó fliitseláapsayàel sóals. 'Each year, the swallows come from the south in spring.'
|-
|| west || ves || -vVs- || Goolvisös! 'Go west!'
|-
|| east || lof || -lVf- [-lVs- south/east] || Püükneeflofsáapš. 'They speak slowly in the east."
|}
 
 
Spatial elements can also be included:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!meaning !! direction !! suffix !! example sentence
|-
|| above || löp- || -lVp- || Köömlepáp räníid. 'A spider is coming from above.'
|-
|| down || don- || -dVn- || Siindinzȁn Atlantíis nimmelí. 'Atlantis sank in the sea [downwards].'
|-
|| front || föf- || -fVf- || Faanbetkȁmib tiirfifkȁmibee. 'He caught me from right behind and pulled me to the front.
|-
|| behind || bäk- || -bVk- || Goolbikarsös probyed đegú. 'Go back ten feet.'
|-
|| side || [f]lan- / sim- || -lVn- / -sVm- || Mogoollinȁp kráab. 'The crab went away sideways.'
|-
|| inside || nin- || -nVn- || Köömninös! 'Please, come in!'
|-
|| outside ||(p)löd- || -lVd || Sliiplodáap dóog. 'The dog sleeps outside.'
|-
|| right || det- || -đVt- || Gooldetáam himatáanif. 'Her husband always walks on the right side. [the weaker side;= he has no power at home.]
|-
|| left || ned- || -nyVd- || "Ghooldetaalnaagöd, goolnedaalaagöd, o zóonab!" 'Never walk on the right side, always walk on the left side, my son!" [Try to be a strong man at your own home]
|}
 
 
On the basis of this system of suffixes new suffixes have been created. They combine one element of a position and one element of the suffixes for "right" or left":
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!basic suffix !! first part !! right / left !! example !! translation
|-
|| -lVp- || -l- || -d[et]- || -lVđ- || above, right side
|-
|| -lVp- || -l- || -n[ed]- || -lVny- || above, left side
|-
|| -dVn- || -d- || -d[et]- || -dVđ- || -underneath, right side
|-
|| -dVn- || -d- || -n[ed]- || -dVny- || -underneath, left side
|-
|| -fVf- || -f- || -d[et]- || -fVđ- || -front, right side
|-
|| -fVf- || -f- || -n[ed]- || -fVny- || -front, left side
|-
|| -bVk- || -b- || -d[et]- || -bVđ- || -behind, right side
|-
|| -bVk- || -b- || -n[ed]- || -bVny- || -behind, left side
|-
|}
 
 
 
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
 
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology
 
-->
 
==Syntax==
 
The word order of a neutral phrase is V-S-O. This applies to main and dependend clauses. Questions follow the same pattern, with the question word attached to the main verb. If the subject of a question is another noun than a pronoun, the verbal phrase still has a filler pronoun without specific meaning.
 
 
Loggéfim maní. "She has seen a man."
 
 
Loggéfimlì maní? "Has she seen a man?"
 
 
 
Loggéfim vóom maní. "The woman has seen a man."
 
 
Loggéfimlì vóom maní? "Has the woman seen a man?
 
 
 
 
 
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
 
A noun phrase consists at least of a noun or a pronoun. The noun itself may contain the following parts: the noun itself, determiners, case suffixes, numeral suffixes, posessive suffixes and modal suffixes. Examples:
 
Pronoun:
 
'Oob'
 
nom.-1.sg.
 
"I"
 
"Iilmz"
 
acc.-2.sg./3.pl.masc.
 
"You [plural]"
 
 
Nouns:
 
"dóom"
 
HOUSEnom.
 
"house"
 
 
"niđomósamt"
 
"in-HOUS-loc.-pl.-gen.-3.sg.masc.-dual"
 
"in their houses / in the houses of the two men"
 
 
 
A Nounphrase can be expanded with noun-verbs, numbers and possessors. 
 
The sequence general sequence is "possessor [gen.] - NOUN - noun-verb - number". The noun phrase in the proto-language was put together of several elements that shared the same endings:
 
"nigadzóba nismaliksóba nilulóba."
 
in-GARDEN-pl.-loc.-1.sg.-gen. | in-SMALL-pl.-loc.-1.sg.-gen. | in-FIVE-loc.-1.sg.-gen.
 
"in my five gardens"
 
 
The second step in the development was that repetition of marks was reduced and, among other things, the lenition started to develop:
 
"nigadzó nizmaliksó nilulóba." [loss of possessive suffixe on the noun and verbal-noun phrase]
 
"nigadzó zmaliksó nlulóba." [loss and reduction of prefix on the adjective and numeral]
 
"nighadó zmalikó lluló[z]ba." [loss of plural marker on the noun and noun-verb; addition of the plural marker to the numeral]
 
"nighadó zmalike llulózba." [reduction of the locative suffix on the noun-verb. The remaining vowel serves to facilitate prononciation. Only beginning and end are marked for case.]
 
"nighade zmalike lluló[z]ba." [reduction of the locative suffix on the noun. Plural suffix on numerals becomes optional.]
 
"nighad[e] zmalik[e] llulóba." [plural marker on numerals disappears. the loss of the reduced further locative suffix beginns. The middle elements are the first to lose their end-vowels completely.]
 
"nighad[e] zmalik lulóba." [the reduced vowel(s) of the  middle elements is completed. The lenition process is partly reduced, especially for liquids and nasals [not for dialects that replace /m/ : /w/]
 
"nighad zmalig lulóba." [loss of the reduced vowel on the noun, which is partly retained, especiall in southern dialects. Voiceless consonants in the ending of nouns and noun-verbs become voiced.]
 
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
 
Examples of translations:
 
"If I had a flower for every time I think of you, I could walk forever in my garden." - Claudia A. Grandi
 
Translation:
 
"Florretáabaafì tikábilbalbì, nesimlikánöv gáadba."
{|
|-
|Florretáabaafì
||tikábilbalbì
||nesimlikánöv
||gáadba.
|-
|Flor-ret-áa-b-aa-fì
||tik-á-b-i-l-bal-bì
||ne-sim-lik-á-n-öv
||gáad-ba.
|-
|FLOWER-receive-pres.gen.-1.sg.-always-if
||THINK-pres.-1.sg.-acc.-2.sg.-one.time-because
||[neg.-BORDER-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj.-cond.
||GARDEN-1.sg.gen.
|}
 
Literally: "If I always get a flower because I think of you one time, my garden would be endless."
 
 
 
"He who hesitates is lost."
 
"Tsogáapaabì flotáapaa nivlumedó."
 
{|
|-
|Tsogáapaabì
||flotáapaa
||nivlumedó.
|-
|Tsog-áa-p-aa-bì
||flot-áa-p-aa
||ni-vlumed-ó.
|-
|HESITATE-pres.gen.-3.sg.f./m.-always-because
||FLOAT-pres.gen.-3.sg.f./m.-always
||IN-RIVER-loc.
|}
 
Literally: "Since he/she always hesitates he/she always floats in a river."
 
 
 
"I love pizza."
 
"Pitsakkiddofáab."
{|
|-
|Pitsakkiddofáab.
|-
|Pitsak-kid-dof-áa-b.
|-
|Pitsak-Cid-Cof-áa-b.
|-
|PIZZA-eat.v-enjoy.v-pres.gen.-1.sg.
|}
 
Literally: "I enjoy eating pizza."
 
 
 
"My heart is empty, I feel it."
 
Translations:
 
Senäláb vagälikánda láadba. literally: "I feel that my heart is empty." [Very modern styled and more common among younger people]
 
Vagälikán láadba. Senäláneb. literally: "My heart is empty. It feels to me." [traditional]
 
Nesenällabán láadba, senäláneb. literally: "My heart is without emotions. It feels to me." [very traditional and stylistically on a high level.]
 
 
"Sunlight takes about eight minutes and twenty seconds to reach Earth."
 
Translation:
 
"Bináans minúut šölza sekúun telđegee kontagáanadla solalíit talá suzürfatí."
 
{|
|-
|Bin-áa-n-s
||minúut
||šöl-za
||sekúun
||telđeg-ee
||kontag-áa-n-ad-la
||sola-líit  
||tal-á
||su-zürfat-í
|-
|BE-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-pl.
||MINUTE
||EIGHT-about
||SECOND
||TWENTY-and
||TOUCH-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-fin.-subj.
||SUN-LIGHT
||EARTH-gen.
||on-SURFACE-acc.
|}
 
 
 
'''Greetings'''
 
 
'''Daily greetings'''
 
"Gudikáperös / Gudikápelös Múun." -> Good day. [literally: May the God of time be good to you.]
 
"Slippudólös / Slippudórös dunneetú." -> Good night. [literally: May you sleep good during the night.]
 
"Gudikónös déella." -> Good morning. [literally: May your day be good.]




Informal greeting:


'''Greetings'''
"Dazauná éel / éelt / éels / éelš" [Hello]
"Saun éel / éelt / éelš" [Youth talk / colloquially]


Welcoming someone:


'''Daily greetings'''
"Gudikékelà nikömelen!" [lit. May your having come in be good]
 
"Gudikáperös / Gudikápelös Múun." -> Good day. [literally: May the God of time be good to you.]
 
"Slippudólös / Slippudórös dunneetú." -> Good night. [literally: May you sleep good during the night.]
 
"Gudikónös déella." -> Good morning. [literally: May your day be good.]


'''Thankfulness'''
'''Thankfulness'''
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[[Category:Languages]]
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[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Polysynthetic languages]]
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