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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image=
|image= Settameric_West_Plains.png
|imagesize=
|imagesize= 250px
|name= ''Kalyah language''
|name= ''Kalyah language''
|nativename=''Kalyahekwe''
|nativename=''Kalyahekwe''
|pronunciation=/kalʲ.ˈja.hɛ.kʷɛ/
|pronunciation=/ka.ˈlʲa.hɛ.kʷɛ/
|-
|-
|creator=[[User:Raistas|Raistas]]
|creator=[[User:Raistas|Raistas]]
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'''Kalyah''' (with four varieties, known as Möhkinis, Teimyois, Šonoowis and Eihtoomis) is a language, spoken in the western part of a vast flat region of the Northern continent, simply called the Plains. The most commonly spoken variety is Teimyois, it is referred to as an "ð-dialect", because the *θ is still distinct in most cases as a phoneme /ð/. The grammar and the examples used here are from Teimyois, but data on other dialects will be given as well. It is spoken by approximately 117,000 people across the northern part of the Plains near the Frost Bay (''Iniikekwa'').
'''Kalyah''' (with four varieties, known as Möhkinis, Teimyois, Šonoowis and Eihtoomis) is a language, spoken in the western part of a vast flat region of the Northern continent, simply called the Plains. The most commonly spoken variety is Teimyois, it is referred to as an "ð-dialect", because the *θ is still distinct in most cases as a phoneme /ð/. The grammar and the examples used here are from Teimyois, but data on other dialects will be given as well. It is spoken by approximately 117,000 people across the northern part of the Plains near the Frost Bay (''Iniikekwa'').


Kalyah is believed to have begun as a '''Plains Settameric''' dialect spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the original homeland, near the '''Kahaaler''' mountains and slowly spread eastward. However, it's divergence into separate dialects began much later, around 700 years ago. The main criteria of division are reflexes of *l, *š and *θ as the boundaries, made by those reflexes, are quite clear. Another important phonological variation involves the palatalisation of the phoneme *k to "č" before /j/ and /i(ː)/, however the division is not as clear, since *ky is often pronounced as [c] in the west, slowly becomes [c͡ç], when moving eastward, until it finally becomes [t͡ʃ] Eihtoomis dialect.
Kalyah is believed to have begun as a '''Plains Settameric''' dialect spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the original homeland, near the '''Kahaaler''' mountains and slowly spread eastwards. However, it's divergence into separate dialects began much later, around 700 years ago. The main criteria of division are reflexes of *l, *š and *θ as the boundaries, made by those reflexes, are quite clear. Another important phonological variation involves the palatalisation of the phoneme *k to "č" before /j/ and /i(ː)/, however the division is not as clear, since *ky is often pronounced as [c] in the west, slowly becomes [c͡ç], when moving eastward, until it finally becomes [t͡ʃ] Eihtoomis dialect.
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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|-
|-
! align="left"|[[w:Close vowel|Close]]
! align="left"|[[w:Close vowel|Close]]
| align="center"| ii |[iː]
| align="center"| ii [iː]
| align="center| öö [øː~ʉː]
| align="center| öö [øː~ʉː]
| align="center"| oo [oː~uː]
| align="center"| oo [oː~uː]
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| rowspan="2" align="center| ö [ø~ʏ]
| rowspan="2" align="center| ö [ø~ʏ]
| rowspan="2" align="center"| o [o~ʊ]
| rowspan="2" align="center"| o [o~ʊ]
|-
|-
|-
! align="left"|[[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
! align="left"|[[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
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===Phonological processes===
===Phonological processes===
Western dialects of Kalyah allow only three types of consonant clusters: '''tn''', '''hC''' and '''sC''', where '''C''' is a plosive or an affricate with an exception of "y" which can be added to almost any consonant and almost always disappears palatalizing the previous consonant in the process. Some dialects like Eihtoomis allow more types of clusters, such as nasals with plosives. When a combination of two consonants, that is not allowed, occures, it is broken by a short vowel ''i'' or ''e'' (only in person markers). Quite often the cluster that occures word-finally simplifies in old words, this is not the case with newly created words and word compounds. Palatalization of the sound /t/ to /t͡s/ and /s/ (word-initially from an original ''*θ'') and /ð/ to /s/ occurs before the vowels /i/ and /iː/ as well as the consonant /j/, but the rule does not apply when /iː/ came from old /eː/. For example, the stem ''leð'' "throw" becomes tahkelesiit "we threw it to you" before the ending /iːt/, but ''etiih'' "grass", where it is not palatalized before /iː/ (the word came from ''*eteehs''). Palatalization is also found in diminutives, where all instances of /t/ and /ð/ in a word are replaced by [t͡s] before the diminutive suffixes ''-eni'', ''-e(s)ki'', etc. Thus, ''ilyoð'' "horse" would become ''ilyoceni "little horse".
Western dialects of Kalyah allow only three types of consonant clusters: '''tn''', '''hC''' and '''sC''', where '''C''' is a plosive or an affricate with an exception of "y" which can be added to almost any consonant and almost always disappears palatalizing the previous consonant in the process. Some dialects like Eihtoomis allow more types of clusters, such as nasals with plosives. When a combination of two consonants, that is not allowed, occurs, it is broken by a short vowel ''i'' or ''e'' (only in person markers). Quite often the cluster that occurs word-finally simplifies in old words, this is not the case with newly created words and word compounds. Palatalization of the sound /t/ to /t͡s/ and /s/ (word-initially from an original ''*θ'') and /ð/ to /s/ occurs before the vowels /i/ and /iː/ as well as the consonant /j/, but the rule does not apply when /iː/ came from old /eː/. For example, the stem ''leð'' "throw" becomes tahkelesiit "we threw it to you" before the ending /iːt/, but ''etiih'' "grass", where it is not palatalized before /iː/ (the word came from ''*eteehs''). Palatalization is also found in diminutives, where all instances of /t/ and /ð/ in a word are replaced by [t͡s] before the diminutive suffixes ''-eni'', ''-e(s)ki'', etc. Thus, ''ilyoð'' "horse" would become ''ilyoceni "little horse".
 
===Prosody===
===Prosody===
Stress in Kalyahekwe is non-phonemic. Traditionally, the word stress is antepenultimate and dynamic. This means that it falls on the third from last syllable in words with three or more syllables, but on the first syllable of the root in other words. But in Northern dialects it is always placed on the initial syllable instead. Both variations are correct in modern Kalyah. In its earlier stages of development Kalyah probably had a pitch accent, but it was lost completely nowadays. If a word is longer than four syllables, a secondary stress can be placed on the second to last syllable, for instance: ''koočikwaaniitis'' [koː.ˈt͡ʃɪ.kʷɔɑ.ˌniː.tɪs] "we might not be running around".
Stress in Kalyahekwe is non-phonemic. Traditionally, the word stress is antepenultimate and dynamic. This means that it falls on the third from last syllable in words with three or more syllables, but on the first syllable of the root in other words. But in Northern dialects it is always placed on the initial syllable instead. Both variations are correct in modern Kalyah. In its earlier stages of development Kalyah probably had a pitch accent, but it was lost completely nowadays. If a word is longer than four syllables, a secondary stress can be placed on the second to last syllable, for instance: ''koočikwaaniitis'' [koː.ˈt͡ʃɪ.kʷɔɑ.ˌniː.tɪs] "we might not be running around".
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| lom
| lom
| lom'''a'''
| lom'''a'''
| očč'''a'''
| ohč'''a'''
| očč'''an'''
| ohč'''an'''
|-
|-
! Obviate
! Obviate
| lom'''a'''
| lom'''a'''
| lom'''oi'''
| lom'''oi'''
| očč'''an'''
| ohč'''an'''
| očč'''one'''
| ohč'''one'''
|}
|}
When an object is possessed by somebody, it is marked by a possessive marker. All possessive prefixes are represented in the table below:
When an object is possessed by somebody, it is marked by a possessive marker. All possessive prefixes are represented in the table below:
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|}
|}
*'''M''' - Möhkinis dialects, '''Š''' - Šonoowis dialect.
*'''M''' - Möhkinis dialects, '''Š''' - Šonoowis dialect.
*Here are examples of all four types: '''I''' –''yohkyeen'' (''yo-hk-yeen'') "I see it" (active transitive verb), '''II''' – ''kesseen'' (''k-s-yeen'') "I understand" (detransitive verb), ''nöyon'' (''ne-m-yon'' "I am seen" (passive) , '''III''' ''eikseen'' (''e-i-hk-s-yeen'') "(thing) that I see" (conjunct verb), '''IV''' – ''mökkwi'' (''m-ökkw-i'') "I set fire" ([[w:Deponent verb|deponent]] verb). As can be seen for these examples, every type has slightly different person markers.
*Here are examples of all four types: '''I''' –''yohkyeen'' (''yo-hk-yeen'') "I see it" (active transitive verb), '''II''' – ''kesseen'' (''k-s-yeen'') "I understand" (detransitive verb), ''nöyon'' (''ne-m-yon'' "I am seen" (passive) , '''III''' ''eikseen'' (''e-i-hk-s-yeen'') "(thing) that I see" (conjunct verb), '''IV''' – ''möhkwi'' (''m-öhkw-i'') "I set fire" ([[w:Deponent verb|deponent]] verb). As can be seen for these examples, every type has slightly different person markers.
Aspect are shown with multiple prefixes attached to a lexical stem. There are multiple aspect prefixes, sometimes more than one aspectual prefix can be attached to a verb. They are often used in combination with various clitics, but can also be used on their own. Together with person markers and a root they are compulsory parts of a verb. Aspect markers are not used to describe time, the same way as tenses in English, but can tell about the duration or completeness. Comparing to some Southern languages, Kalyah has a moderate inventory of aspectual prefixes. Four modifiers are used to change the [[w:Valency|valency]] of the verb. A modifier is always placed right next to the root before any other prefixes.
Aspect are shown with multiple prefixes attached to a lexical stem. There are multiple aspect prefixes, sometimes more than one aspectual prefix can be attached to a verb. They are often used in combination with various clitics, but can also be used on their own. Together with person markers and a root they are compulsory parts of a verb. Aspect markers are not used to describe time, the same way as tenses in English, but can tell about the duration or completeness. Comparing to some Southern languages, Kalyah has a moderate inventory of aspectual prefixes. Four modifiers are used to change the [[w:Valency|valency]] of the verb. A modifier is always placed right next to the root before any other prefixes.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| Indicates possible and/or future actions.
| Indicates possible and/or future actions.
|-
|-
| ''hjaa-''
| ''hyaa-''
| Indicates distant past, used with imperfective aspect.
| Indicates distant past, used with imperfective aspect.
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|}
|}
Kalyah has relatively few [[w:Grammatical mood|mood]] suffixes. The moods are: indicative (indicates that something is a statement of fact), subjunctive (expresses various states of unreality, subjunctive present is used for events that can happen now or in the future, while subjunctive past is used for events that will not occure, but could have happened under different circumstances), and optative (indicates a wish or hope, and is also used as imperative).
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix
! Meaning
|-
| ''-∅''
| Indicative
|-
| ''-ciin''
| Subjunctive Present
|-
| ''-yii''
| Subjunctive Past
|-
| ''-öön''
| Optative
|-
|}
There are two additional suffixes called negative and interrogative. The negative suffix is used to negate a verb and the interrogative suffix is used to turn a sentence into a question.
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix
! Meaning
|-
| ''-is''
| Negative
|-
| ''-okw''
| Interrogative
|-
|}
===Demonstratives===
===Demonstratives===
Kalyah has three types of demonstrative pronouns: '''proximal''' (indicates a person or an object that is close to the speaker), '''medial''' (indicates something that is slightly farther away from the speaker, but can be close to the listener) and '''distal''' (used, when someone or something is far away from the speaker). There are two sets based on animacy.
Kalyah has three types of demonstrative pronouns: '''proximal''' (indicates a person or an object that is close to the speaker), '''medial''' (indicates something that is slightly farther away from the speaker, but can be close to the listener) and '''distal''' (used, when someone or something is far away from the speaker). There are two sets based on animacy.
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*There are minor differences between Northwestern and Southern dialects, where the initial ''"e"'' usually becomes ''"ya"'' in Eihtoomis and Šonoowis, but is always ''"e"'' in Teimyois.
*There are minor differences between Northwestern and Southern dialects, where the initial ''"e"'' usually becomes ''"ya"'' in Eihtoomis and Šonoowis, but is always ''"e"'' in Teimyois.
These pronouns act like separate words, but in some Northern dialects they can be used with verbs as prefixes instead of person markers. These pronouns can also attach prefixes, that would change their meaning, for example: ''nökweð'' "where (is it)?" (''n-ökw-eð'', where ''"n-"'' is a spatial prefix and ''"ökw-"'' is an interrogative prefix). They can also act as separate sentences, for instance: ''nökweðan'' "where are they?", which does not require any additional verbs, unlike a similar construction in English.
These pronouns act like separate words, but in some Northern dialects they can be used with verbs as prefixes instead of person markers. These pronouns can also attach prefixes, that would change their meaning, for example: ''nökweð'' "where (is it)?" (''n-ökw-eð'', where ''"n-"'' is a spatial prefix and ''"ökw-"'' is an interrogative prefix). They can also act as separate sentences, for instance: ''nökweðan'' "where are they?", which does not require any additional verbs, unlike a similar construction in English.
==Syntax==
The basic transitive sentence is of the form SVO (subject-verb-object), which is typical for the Eastern Plains languages, but other order forms are also possible. Both subject and object noun phrases may be omitted from a sentence, if this information can be inferred from the context. Full noun phrases are often only used in the beginning of a conversation or later for emphasis.
===Direction===
[[w:Direct–inverse alignment|Direction]] of the agent-patient relationship is often obvious from person markers on verbs, but it is double marked on nouns (as obviation) and on verbs (as a direct or inverse marker) and these two markings must agree. If a proximant noun is an agent, than the direct marker is used, but if an obviate noun is an agent instead, the inverse marker is attached to the verb right after its root. The direct marker is usually either ''"-e-"'' or zero, while the inverse marker is ''"-a-"''. These markers are only used when both subject and object markers are in the 3rd person. If a subject is inanimate or of lower animacy than its object, the inverse marker is always used. For example, ''yeeniit'' "they sees him/her" has a direct marker "∅", but ''yeenali'' "he/she sees them" with an inverse marker "-a".
===Incorporation===
Some intransitive verb contain a transitive verb stem and an incorporated nominal root as a prefix. This is not compulsory and not all nouns can be incorporated (most can, however). Such verbs would thus have a narrower meaning and denote habitual action. Not only nouns can be incorporated, though they is certainly the most common type. For example, ''ilyoð hayiðeeleh'' "the horse is scaring him/her", which means there is a particular horse nearby, while ''hilyosiðeeli'' "he/she is scared of horses (occassionally and right now too)". There is a second option: ''hilyoðeiðeeli'' "he/she is scared of horses" with a habitual marker ''"-aa-"'' (''-aayi-''>''-aai-''>''-ei-''), and the meaning is the same, but it specifies, that the action is constant.
===Locative particles===
Kalyah has four locative suffixes, similar to locative cases in some languages, but these suffixes are not real cases. These suffixes are: ''-iin/-niin'' which can be translated as "here" or "near", ''-(w)aah'' which has a basic meaning of position ("on", "at", "in"), ''-(a)mo'' "towards", "in front of it", "along" and ''-aahk'' which has distributive meaning ("among", "part of"). An example can be ''kookesaah'' "on my shoulders" (from ''ookes'' "shoulder"), or ''eihtomo'' "along the river" (from ''eihto'' "river", hence ''eihtoomis'' "which is along rivers" - one of the four main dialects of Kalyah).
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
The following table shows words in Teimyois and corresponding words in a selection of other dialects. From it a number of similarities and some differences can be seen. Most differences are phonological and some are lexical. Their grammar operates more or less in exactly the same way, so if one person knows sound correspondences between the dialects, it is easy for them to understand speakers of those dialects. Verbs can sometimes have different conjugation patterns, but usually it does not create any major problem when it comes to intelligibility. In the following table, each verb is given with a third person singular subject, and if a verb is transitive, with a third person object or objects, nouns are given in their singular form.
The following table shows words in Teimyois and corresponding words in a selection of other dialects. From it a number of similarities and some differences can be seen. Most differences are phonological and some are lexical. Their grammar operates more or less in exactly the same way, so if one person knows sound correspondences between the dialects, it is easy for them to understand speakers of those dialects. Verbs can sometimes have different conjugation patterns, but usually it does not create any major problem when it comes to intelligibility. In the following table, each verb is given with a third person singular subject, and if a verb is transitive, with a third person object or objects, nouns are given in their singular form.  
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
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|-
|-
| "morning"
| "morning"
| ''niikin''
| ''noikin''
| ''noikin''
| ''noikin''
| ''niikin''
| ''niikin''
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| ''liihkw''
| ''liihkw''
| ''ðiihkw''
| ''ðiihkw''
| ''niikw''
| ''nookw''
| ''eikwih''
| ''yehkw''
|-
|-
| "horse"
| "horse"
| ''ilyoð''
| ''ilyoð''
| ''issot''
| ''issot''
| ''iyo''
| ''iyoo''
| ''iyot''
| ''iyoo''
|-
|-
| "leaf"
| "leaf"
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| ''ahto''
| ''ahto''
|-
|-
| "man (male adult)"
| "my younger sister"
| ''ahto''
| ''(ki)niisi''
| ''ahto''
| ''(ki)niisi''
| ''ahto''
| ''kiniiši''
| ''ahto''
| ''činiisi''<br>''činiiši''
|-
|-
| "mother"
| "mother"
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| ''kööθeh''
| ''kööθeh''
| ''kahceh''
| ''kahceh''
| ''kahceh''
| ''kahcih''
|-
|-
| "s/he swims"
| "s/he swims"
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| ''koomah''
| ''koomah''
| ''koomah''
| ''koomah''
| ''koomšah''
| ''koonšah''
| ''sökoomeh''
| ''sökoomih''<br>''šökoomih''
|-
|-
| "town"
| "town"
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| ''yoyeeneh''
| ''yoyeeneh''
| ''yoseeneh''
| ''yoseeneh''
| ''yočeeneh''
| ''yeenih''
| ''yočeeneh''
| ''yeeniih''
|-
| "it is snowing"
| ''kooni''
| ''hiyeθi''
| ''kooni''
| ''kooni''
|-
| "it is big"
| ''woin''
| ''woin''
| ''oon''
| ''een''
|-
| "outside"
| ''neimii''
| ''naimii''
| ''ništaamii''
| ''nyekasmii''
|-
| "one"
| ''yeem''
| ''yeem''
| ''yaam''
| ''yaam''
|-
| "two"
| ''mohčii''
| ''moθθii''
| ''močii''
| ''mohčii''
|-
| "three"
| ''kyösti''
| ''kyösti''
| ''kööšti''
| ''čöösti''<br>''čööšti''
|-
| "four"
| ''mečis''
| ''meθis''
| ''mečis''
| ''mičis''
|-
| "five"
| ''fen''
| ''epahiikw''
| ''fyan''
| ''fyen''
|-
| "rock"
| ''teim''
| ''teim''
| ''cikwi''
| ''cikwi''
|-
| "yes"
| ''eha''
| ''aih''
| ''yaa''
| ''yaa''<br>''yeha''
|-
| "no"
| ''iče''
| ''iiθ''
| ''ena''<br>''na''
| ''iči''
|-
|-
|}
|}
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Settameric languages]]
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Settameric languages]]
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