Brytho-Hellenic: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Brytho-Hellenic
|name = Brytho-Hellenic
|nativename = Elynik (to kaen)
|nativename = Elynic (to cain)
|pronunciation = [ɛ'le:nik 'tɔ 'kai̯n]
|pronunciation = [ɛ'li:nik 'tɔ 'kai̯n]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
|states = Elas to Kaen
|states = Elas to Cain
|nation = Elas to Kaen
|nation = Elas to Cain
|speakers = 52 millions
|speakers = 52 millions
|date = 2012
|date = 2012
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|fam3 = Celto-Hellenic
|fam3 = Celto-Hellenic
|map          = Elas_mini.gif
|map          = Elas_mini.gif
|mapcaption    = New Greece or "Elas to Kaen"
|mapcaption    = New Greece or "Elas to Cain"
|iso1 = el
|iso1 = el
|iso2 = ely
|iso2 = ely
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==General information==
==General information==


'''Brytho-Hellenic''', Brythohellenic or simply '''Neohellenic''' (the native name is ''Elynik'') is a language that is spoken nowadays in a different timeline in a country that corresponds almost exactly to our England and to our Wales.
'''Brytho-Hellenic''', Brythohellenic or simply '''Neohellenic''' (the native name is ''Elynic'') is a language that is spoken nowadays in a different timeline in a country that corresponds almost exactly to our England and to our Wales.
In that timeline the Persians have won the wars against Greece and the Greeks have been forced to emigrate and to flee. Firstly the Greeks find protection in Magna Graecia, but, as the Persians conquer those territories, they shift to Northern Italy, where the Romans withstand the Persian troops. In 389 b.C. Rome is destroyed and both Romans and Greeks flee to Carthage, enemy of the Persian empire. Together they try to attack the Persian fleet, but they are defeated again.
In that timeline the Persians have won the wars against Greece and the Greeks have been forced to emigrate and to flee. Firstly the Greeks find protection in Magna Graecia, but, as the Persians conquer those territories, they shift to Northern Italy, where the Romans withstand the Persian troops. In 389 b.C. Rome is destroyed and both Romans and Greeks flee to Carthage, enemy of the Persian empire. Together they try to attack the Persian fleet, but they are defeated again.
In the last days of 382 b.C. an imposing expedition sails away from a harbour on the coast of New Carthage - our Cartagena in Spain. Its mission is to find new territories where they can live in peace and prosperity, far from the Persian threat.
In the last days of 382 b.C. an imposing expedition sails away from a harbour on the coast of New Carthage - our Cartagena in Spain. Its mission is to find new territories where they can live in peace and prosperity, far from the Persian threat.
In 381 b.C. ''Conon the Athenian'' and his Greeks reach our '''Scilly Islands''': they have chosen to sail northward, because they had heard about legends that spoke about a fertile and grassy island in the North. It is the beginning of the ''New Greece'' or '''Elas to Kaen''' (IPA ['ɛlas 'tɔ 'kai̯n]).
In 381 b.C. ''Conon the Athenian'' and his Greeks reach our '''Scilly Islands''': they have chosen to sail northward, because they had heard about legends that spoke about a fertile and grassy island in the North. It is the beginning of the ''New Greece'' or '''Elas to Cain''' (IPA ['ɛlas 'tɔ 'kai̯n]).


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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|-
|-
|a
|a
|[a] / [ǝ]
|[a]
|in unstressed syllables, above all in the last syllable, it tends to be pronounced as a schwa
|it is an opened central vowel
|-
|-
|b
|b
|[b]
|[b]
| -
| -
|-
|c
|[k]
|it is always pronunced as in the English word ''cat'', even in front of '''e''', '''i''', and '''y'''
|-
|ch
|[x]
|it is pronounced as in the Scottish word ''loch''
|-
|-
|d
|d
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|dh
|dh
|[ð] / [j] / [v] / [ ]
|[ð] / [j] / [v] / [ ]
|generally it is pronounced as ''th'' in the word ''this''; when it occurs between vowels its pronunciation can vary between [j] and [v]: generally it is [j] when the vowel that follows is '''e''', '''i''' or '''y''', while it is [v] when the vowel that follows is '''a''', '''o''', '''u''' or '''w'''. Some speakers don't pronounce it at all when it comes in patterns '''a-a''', '''o-o''', '''u-u''', '''o-u''', '''u-a''', '''u-o''' and other combinations between '''w''', '''o''' and '''a'''
|generally it is pronounced as ''th'' in the word ''this''; when it occurs between vowels its pronunciation can vary between [j] and [v]: generally it is [j] when the vowel that follows is '''e''', '''i''' or '''y''', while it is [v] when the vowel that follows is '''a''', '''o''' or '''u'''. Some speakers don't pronounce it at all when it comes in patterns '''a-a''', '''a-o''', '''a-u''', '''o-a''', '''o-o''', '''o-u''', '''u-a''', '''u-o''', '''u-u'''
|-
|-
|e
|e
|[ɛ]
|[ɛ] / [e]
|it is always pronounced open
|it can be pronounced either open or closed, this doesn't affect the meaning of words
|-
|-
|f
|f
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|-
|-
|g
|g
|[g] / [x] / [h]
|[g]
|when it comes before or after other consonants it is pronounced [g], between vowels it is pronounced [x], even if some speakers tend to pronounce it as [h] in this position
|it is always pronounced as in the English word ''gun'', even in front of '''e''', '''i''', and '''y'''
|-
|-
|h
|h
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|[i] / [j]
|[i] / [j]
|often it forms a diphthong when precedes or follows another vowel
|often it forms a diphthong when precedes or follows another vowel
|-
|k
|[k]
|it is always pronunced as in the English word ''kite''
|-
|-
|l
|l
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|-
|-
|u
|u
|[i]
|[u] / [w]
| -
|it is pronounced as [u] when it is followed by a consonant; it is pronounced [w] when it is preceded or followed by a vowel
|-
|-
|v
|v
|[v]
|[v]
| -
| -
|-
|w
|[u] / [w]
|it is pronounced as [u] when it is followed by a consonant; it is pronounced [w] when it is preceded or followed by a vowel; when it is followed by '''l''' or '''r''' it can have either a consonantal or vocalic value, to distinguish it, it is written '''ŵ''' when it has a vocalic value; in the diphthong '''wy''' it can be either the vocalic (it is written '''ŵy''') or consonantal element (it is written wŷ)
|-
|-
|y
|y
|[i] / [e]
|[i:]
|in monosyllabic words it is read as [i], in polysyllabic words it is read [i] if in the last syllable, otherwise [e]; in the diphthong '''yw''' it can be either the vocalic (it is written '''ŷw''') or consonantal element (it is written yŵ)
|it is pronounced like '''e''' in the English word ''see''.
|}
|}


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===Diphthongs and digraphs===
===Diphthongs and digraphs===


In Brythohellenic there are 18 diphthongs, that is clusters of two vowels pronounced with a single emission of air. These diphthongs are:
In Brythohellenic there are 17 diphthongs, that is clusters of two vowels pronounced with a single emission of air. These diphthongs are:


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
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!'''Pronunciation'''
!'''Pronunciation'''
|-
|-
|''ae''
|''ai''
|[ai̯]
|[ai̯]
|-
|-
|''aw''
|''au''
|[au̯]
|[au̯]
|-
|-
|''ei'', ''eu'', ''ey''
|''ei'', ''ey''
|[ɛi̯]
|[ɛi̯] / [ei̯:]
|-
|-
|''ew''
|''eu''
|[ɛu̯]
|[ɛu̯]
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|''ie''
|''ie''
|[jɛ]
|[jɛ] / [je]
|-
|-
|''io''
|''io''
|[jɔ] / [jo]
|[jɔ] / [jo]
|-
|-
|''iw''
|''iu''
|[ju]
|[ju]
|-
|-
|''oe''
|''oi''
|[ɔi̯] / [oi̯]
|[ɔi̯] / [oi̯]
|-
|-
|''uw''
|''ua''
|[iu̯]
|-
|''wa''
|[wa]
|[wa]
|-
|-
|''we''
|''ue''
|[wɛ]
|[wɛ] / [we]
|-
|-
|''wi''
|''ui''
|[wi]
|[wi]
|-
|-
|''wo''
|''uo''
|[wɔ] / [wo]
|[wɔ] / [wo]
|-
|-
|''ŵy'' / ''wŷ''
|''uy''
|[ui̯] / [wi] - [we]
|[wi:]
|-
|-
|''ŷw'' / ''yŵ''
|''yu''
|[iu̯] - [eu̯] / [ju]
|[i:u̯]
|}
|}


Brythohellenic has got only one digraph: ''rh'' [r̥], which is rare enough. The other combinations as ''dh'' and ''th'' are considered true letters.
The use of dieresis indicates that the combination of vowels is to be read as a hiatus, f.ex.: '''ethïu''', I eat, is read as [ɛ'θiu], it is thus a three-syllable word.
Brythohellenic has got only one digraph: ''rh'' [r̥], which is rare enough. The other combinations as ''ch'', ''dh'', and ''th'' are considered true letters.


===Stress===
===Stress===
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* often the hiatus with 'i' has become a diphthong, ex.: ''σοφία'' > *''σόφια'' > '''hef''', "knowledge";
* often the hiatus with 'i' has become a diphthong, ex.: ''σοφία'' > *''σόφια'' > '''hef''', "knowledge";
* almost always the last syllable has fallen, ex.: ''καινός'' > '''kaen''', "new"; ''θάνατος'' > '''thanadh''', "death".
* almost always the last syllable has fallen, ex.: ''καινός'' > '''cain''', "new"; ''θάνατος'' > '''thanadh''', "death".


These two phoenomena have influenced heavily the stress system of Brythohellenic. Nowadays the stress steadily falls on the last but one syllable: this means that in the plural forms of nouns it shifts, ex.: '''thalas''' ['θalas], "sea" > '''thalasas''' [θa'lasas], "seas"; '''aelŵr''' ['ai̯lur], "cat" > '''aelŵroe''' [ai̯'luroi̯], "cats".
These two phoenomena have influenced heavily the stress system of Brythohellenic. Nowadays the stress steadily falls on the last but one syllable: this means that in the plural forms of nouns it shifts, ex.: '''thalas''' ['θalas], "sea" > '''thalasas''' [θa'lasas], "seas"; '''ailur''' ['ai̯lur], "cat" > '''ailuroi''' [ai̯'luroi̯], "cats".


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
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===Nouns, gender and number===
===Nouns, gender and number===


Even if Ancient Greek had three genders and three numbers, the system simplified a lot and Modern Elynik has got two genders - '''masculine''' and '''feminine''' - and two numbers - '''singular''' and '''plural'''.
Even if Ancient Greek had three genders and three numbers, the system simplified a lot and Modern Elynic has got two genders - '''masculine''' and '''feminine''' - and two numbers - '''singular''' and '''plural'''.
It is hard to distinguish the gender of a noun, because there are not specific gender-linked endings: mostly nouns end with consonant regardless for the gender.
It is hard to distinguish the gender of a noun, because there are not specific gender-linked endings: mostly nouns end with consonant regardless for the gender.
Forming plural is not so complicated, as there are only three plural endings:
Forming plural is not so complicated, as there are only three plural endings:


* '''oe''', that is typical of masculine nouns;
* '''oi''', that is typical of masculine nouns;
* '''ae''', that is used with feminine nouns;
* '''ai''', that is used with feminine nouns;
* '''as''', less spread and used with both masculine and feminine nouns.
* '''as''', less spread and used with both masculine and feminine nouns.


However there are also some irregularities which have to be learned by heart, ex.: the plural of '''ith''', "fish", is '''ith''w''as'''; the plural of '''gys''', "earth", is '''gae'''; the plural of '''ŵr''', "water", is '''wdhas''', and so on. Irregular nouns, however, are few.
Please note that nowadays the endings '''oi''' and '''ai''' tend to be replaced with the colloquial ''e'' both in writing and speech. The same occurs with the endin '''as''', that is substituted for '''es'''. These endings, that come from South-Elas dialects, are less used in the North.
There are also some irregularities which have to be learned by heart, ex.: the plural of '''ith''', "fish", is '''ith''u''as'''; the plural of '''gys''', "earth", is '''gai'''; the plural of '''ur''', "water", is '''udhas''', and so on. Irregular nouns, however, are few.
Here is a list of nouns with plural form:
Here is a list of nouns with plural form:


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|-
|-
!lidh
!lidh
|lidhoe
|lidhoi
|masculine
|masculine
|stone
|stone
!pwd
!pud
|pwdas
|pudas
|masculine
|masculine
|foot
|foot
|-
|-
!kŵr
!kur
|kŵrae
|kurai
|feminine
|feminine
|land
|land
!ŵran
!uran
|wranoe
|uranoi
|masculine
|masculine
|sky, heaven
|sky, heaven
|-
|-
!kryvid
!cryvid
|kryvidas
|cryvidas
|feminine
|feminine
|shoe
|shoe
!fws
!fus
|fwdhas
|fudhas
|masculine
|masculine
|light
|light
|-
|-
!sŵy
!suy
|sŵae
|suai
|feminine
|feminine
|life
|life
!lws
!lus
|lwsae
|lusai
|feminine
|feminine
|language
|language
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|masculine
|masculine
|animal
|animal
!bivyl
!bivel
|bivloe
|bivloi
|masculine
|masculine
|book
|book
|-
|-
!ef
!erudh
|afae
|erudhas
|feminine
|masculine
|love
|love
!alwvik
!aluvec
|alwvikae
|aluvecai
|masculine
|masculine
|fox
|fox
|-
|-
!koeran
!coiran
|koeranoe
|coiranoi
|masculine
|masculine
|lord
|lord
!koeren
!coiren
|koeranae
|coiranai
|feminine
|feminine
|lady
|lady
|-
|-
!enyr
!enyr
|annyr
|anras
|masculine
|masculine
|man
|man
!gunys
!ginys
|gunae
|ginai
|feminine
|feminine
|woman
|woman
|-
|-
!pur
!pir
|puroe
|piroi
|masculine
|masculine
|fire
|fire
!kefel
!cefel
|kefalae
|cefalai
|feminine
|feminine
|head
|head
|-
|-
!tov
!tov
|tovoe
|tovoi
|masculine
|masculine
|place
|place
!kron
!cron
|kronoe
|cronoi
|masculine
|masculine
|time
|time
|-
|-
!odhyr
!odher
|odhroe
|odhroi
|masculine
|masculine
|morning
|morning
!yver
!yver
|yverae
|yverai
|feminine
|feminine
|day
|day
|-
|-
!dyl
!dyl
|dylae
|dylai
|feminine
|feminine
|afternoon
|afternoon
!efer
!efer
|eferae
|eferai
|feminine
|feminine
|evening
|evening
|-
|-
!nuth
!nith
|nuthas
|nithas
|feminine
|feminine
|night
|night
!hilyn
!hilyn
|hilynae
|hilynai
|feminine
|feminine
|moon
|moon
|-
|-
!seldh
!celdh
|seldhoe
|celdhoi
|masculine
|masculine
|priest
|priest
!sildh
!cildh
|seldhae
|celdhai
|feminine
|feminine
|priestess
|priestess
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|masculine
|masculine
|tree
|tree
!kadh
!cadh
|kadhas
|cadhas
|masculine
|masculine
|hand
|hand
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|eye
|eye
|-
|-
!kedhydh
!cedhydh
|kedhydhas
|cedhydhas
|masculine
|masculine
|teacher
|teacher
!fil
!fil
|filoe
|filoi
|masculine
|masculine
|friend
|friend
|-
|-
!ethyr
!ether
|ethroe
|ethroi
|masculine
|masculine
|enemy
|enemy
!edhaer
!edhair
|edhaeroe
|edhairoi
|masculine
|masculine
|lover
|lover
|-
|-
!kuwn
!cïun
|kunoe
|cinoi
|masculine
|masculine
|dog
|dog
!kom
!com
|komoe
|comoi
|masculine
|masculine
|world
|world
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|-
|-
!derwen
!derwen
|darwen
|daruen
|darwenae
|daruenai
|feminine
|feminine
|oak
|oak
|-
|-
!derwydd
!derwydd
|darwydh
|daruidh
|darwydhas
|daruidhas
|masculine
|masculine
|priest, magician, druid
|priest, magician, druid
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!bryn
!bryn
|bryn
|bryn
|brynae
|brynai
|feminine
|feminine
|hill
|hill
|-
|-
!nifwl
!nifwl
|nivwl
|nivul
|nivloe
|nivuloi
|masculine
|masculine
|mist, fog
|mist, fog
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!llyn
!llyn
|lyn
|lyn
|lynoe
|lynoi
|masculine
|masculine
|lake
|lake
|-
|-
!gwellt
!gwellt
|gweldh
|guell
|gweldhas
|guellas
|feminine
|feminine
|grass
|grass
|-
|-
!ofydd
!ofydd
|ovydh
|evidh
|ovydhas
|evidhas
|masculine
|masculine
|ovate
|ovate
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|-
|-
!awen
!awen
|awen
|auen
|awenae
|auenai
|feminine
|feminine
|inspiration
|inspiration
|-
|-
!bleydh
!bleydh
|bleudh
|bleidh
|bleudhas
|bleidhas
|masculine
|masculine
|wolf
|wolf
|-
|-
!lowarth
!lowarth
|lowarth
|louarth
|lowarthas
|louarthas
|feminine
|feminine
|paradise
|paradise
|-
|-
!calon
!calon
|kalen
|calen
|kalenae
|calenai
|feminine
|feminine
|heart
|heart
|}
|}


Some words have a counterpart whose meaning has shifted: from the Greek ''ουάτις'', a word mentioned by Strabo and of Proto-Celtic origin (*''vatis''), comes '''gwedh''', "astute person" < "one who can predict the moves of enemies" < "soothsayer". From the same root comes of course the Brythonic word ''ofydd'', that has been taken as loan once the Greeks reached Great Britain.
Some words have a counterpart whose meaning has shifted: from the Greek ''ουάτις'', a word mentioned by Strabo and of Proto-Celtic origin (*''vatis''), comes '''guedh''', "astute person" < "one who can predict the moves of enemies" < "soothsayer". From the same root comes of course the Brythonic word ''ofydd'', that has been taken as loan once the Greeks reached Great Britain.
Another example is the word '''bard''', that has substituted the Ancient Greek ''ἀοιδός'', whose descendant, '''awid''', has got the meaning of "artist".
Another example is the word '''bard''', that has substituted the Ancient Greek ''ἀοιδός'', whose descendant, '''auid''', has got the meaning of "artist".
Even the word '''awen''' has substituted another Greek word, '''daevon''' < *''δαιμόνος'' < ''δαιμόνιον'', that now has the meaning of "puck, spirit"; the plural '''Awenae''' is also used to mean '''Mwsae''', plural of '''Mws''' < ''Mοῦσα'', "Muse".
Even the word '''auen''' has substituted another Greek word, '''daivon''' < *''δαιμόνος'' < ''δαιμόνιον'', that now has the meaning of "puck, spirit"; the plural '''Auenai''' is also used to mean '''Musai''', plural of '''Mus''' < ''Mοῦσα'', "Muse".


====Formation of feminine====
====Formation of feminine====
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Mostly the feminine form of such nouns come from the masculine one by adding some suffixes:
Mostly the feminine form of such nouns come from the masculine one by adding some suffixes:


* '''-yr''' (pl. ''-(y)rae''), mostly added to masculine nouns ending with ''-ydh'' and denoting agent, ex.: '''melbydh''' (= "singer") > '''melbydhyr''' (plural: ''melbydhrae'');
* '''-er''' (pl. ''-(e)rai''), mostly added to masculine nouns ending with ''-ydh'' and denoting agent, ex.: '''melbydh''' (= "singer") > '''melbydher''' (plural: ''melbydhrai'');
* '''-en''' (pl. ''-anae''), added to many nouns, ex.: '''ethyr''' > '''ethren''' (plural: ''ethranae''); '''fil''' > '''filen''' (plural: ''filanae'');
* '''-en''' (pl. ''-anai''), added to many nouns, ex.: '''ether''' > '''ethren''' (plural: ''ethranai''); '''fil''' > '''filen''' (plural: ''filanai'');
* '''-e-''' (pl. ''-a-ae''), that replaces the ending ''a + consonant'' of many masculine nouns, ex.: '''elaf''' (= "deer") > '''elef''' (plural: ''elafae''); '''maw''' (= "sorcerer") > '''mew''' (= "witch") (plural: ''mawae'').
* '''-e-''' (pl. ''-a-ai''), that replaces the ending ''a + consonant'' of many masculine nouns, ex.: '''elaf''' (= "deer") > '''elef''' (plural: ''elafai''); '''mau''' (= "sorcerer") > '''meu''' (= "witch") (plural: ''mauai'').


Sometimes the feminine form is obtained by changing the last vowel, ex.: '''seldh''' > '''sildh''' (plural: ''seldhae'').
Sometimes the feminine form is obtained by changing the last vowel, ex.: '''celdh''' > '''cildh''' (plural: ''celdhai'').


===Articles===
===Articles===


Brythohellenic hasn't got ''indefinite article'', to translate phrases like "a cat" or "some women" we have just to omit the article: '''aelŵr''' means both "a cat" and "cat", and '''gunaes''' means both "some women" and "women".
Brythohellenic hasn't got ''indefinite article'', to translate phrases like "a cat" or "some women" we have just to omit the article: '''ailur''' means both "a cat" and "cat", and '''ginais''' means both "some women" and "women".
There is only one kind of article, the ''definite'' one: this article is used to talk about well known things that are familiar to the speakers, because they have already been talked about, or because they belong to the experiences baggage of the speakers, that is we use the definite article to talk about known informations, to talk about determined informations.
There is only one kind of article, the ''definite'' one: this article is used to talk about well known things that are familiar to the speakers, because they have already been talked about, or because they belong to the experiences baggage of the speakers, that is we use the definite article to talk about known informations, to talk about determined informations.
The definite article has got one invariable form, '''to''', that is used both for masculine and feminine nouns, for singular and plural nouns: '''to omyr''', "the rain"; '''to hwvadh''', "the body"; '''to lwsae''', "the languages"; '''to nysoe''', "the islands", and so on.
The definite article has got one invariable form, '''to''', that is used both for masculine and feminine nouns, for singular and plural nouns: '''to omyr''', "the rain"; '''to huvadh''', "the body"; '''to lusai''', "the languages"; '''to nysoi''', "the islands", and so on.


When a noun is determined, that is preceded by the article or other determiners (such as possessives or demonstratives) and is followed by an adjective - in standard Elynik the adjectives always follow the substantives - the article shifts bewtween noun and adjective, ex.:
When a noun is determined, that is preceded by the article or other determiners (such as possessives or demonstratives) and is followed by an adjective - in standard Elynic the adjectives always follow the substantives - the article shifts bewtween noun and adjective, ex.:


* '''to omyr''' > '''omyr to surin''' (= "the cold rain", lit. "rain the cold (one)");
* '''to omyr''' > '''omyr to sirin''' (= "the cold rain", lit. "rain the cold (one)");
* '''to nysoe''' > '''nysoe to euwedhoe''' (= "the fertile islands", lit. "islands the fertile (ones)").
* '''to nysoi''' > '''nysoi to eivedhoi''' (= "the fertile islands", lit. "islands the fertile (ones)").


Even when a noun doesn't need the article - for example proper nouns - it appears between this noun and the possible adjective, ex.:
Even when a noun doesn't need the article - for example proper nouns - it appears between this noun and the possible adjective, ex.:


* '''Elas''' (= "Greece") > '''Elas ''to'' Kaen''' (= "New Greece", lit. "Greece the New (one)");¹
* '''Elas''' (= "Greece") > '''Elas ''to'' Cain''' (= "New Greece", lit. "Greece the New (one)");¹
* '''Elyn''' (= "Helena") > '''Elyn ''to'' plyd kalin''' (= "the most beautiful Helena", lit. "Helena the most beautiful (one)").
* '''Elyn''' (= "Helena") > '''Elyn ''to'' plyd calin''' (= "the most beautiful Helena", lit. "Helena the most beautiful (one)").


¹ Nowadays they tend to use the word ''Elas'' to mean ''Elas to Kaen'', while the "Old Greece" is known as ''Elas to Paladh''.
¹ Nowadays they tend to use the word ''Elas'' to mean ''Elas to Cain'', while the "Old Greece" is known as ''Elas to Paladh''.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===


Elynik adjectives always follow the noun(s) they are referred to: when the noun is undetermined they simply follow it, but, when the noun is determined, then the definite article, '''to''', or the possessives are put between the noun and the adjective.
Elynic adjectives always follow the noun(s) they are referred to: when the noun is undetermined they simply follow it, but, when the noun is determined, then the definite article, '''to''', or the possessives are put between the noun and the adjective.
Usually adjectives' singular form is identical for masculine and feminine, even if there can be exceptions, the plural forms are two, instead: one for masculine, usually ending in ''-oe'', and one for feminine, ending in ''-ae''.
Usually adjectives' singular form is identical for masculine and feminine, even if there can be exceptions, the plural forms are two, instead: one for masculine, usually ending in ''-oe'', and one for feminine, ending in ''-ae''.
Some adjectives:
Some adjectives:
Line 639: Line 638:
!'''Meaning'''
!'''Meaning'''
|-
|-
!iwŷdh
!ivydh
|iwŷdhoe
|ivydhoi
|iwŷdhae
|ivydhai
|good
|good
!penyr
!penyr
|penyroe
|penyroi
|penyrae
|penyrai
|bad
|bad
|-
|-
!elyv
!elev
|elvoe
|elvoi
|elvae
|elvai
|happy
|happy
!lur
!lir
|luroe
|liroi
|lurae
|lirai
|sad
|sad
|-
|-
!egrin
!egrin
|egrinoe
|egrinoi
|egrinae
|egrinai
|tall / high
|tall / high
!thaval
!thaval
|thavaloe
|thavaloi
|thavalae
|thavalai
|short
|short
|-
|-
!kalin
!calin
|kalinoe
|calinoi
|kalinae
|calinai
|beautiful / goodlooking
|beautiful / goodlooking
!aegyr
!aiger
|aegroe
|aigroi
|aegrae
|aigrai
|ugly
|ugly
|-
|-
!meal
!meal
|mealoe
|mealoi
|mealae
|mealai
|big / great
|big / great
!migrin
!migrin
|migrinoe
|migrinoi
|migrinae
|migrinai
|little / small
|little / small
|-
|-
!paladh
!paladh
|paladhoe
|paladhoi
|paladhae
|paladhai
|old
|old
!yvik
!yvic
|yvikoe
|yvicoi
|yvikae
|yvicai
|young
|young
|-
|-
!thenar
!thenar
|thenaroe
|thenaroi
|thenarae
|thenarai
|strong
|strong
!athin
!athin
|athinoe
|athinoi
|athinae
|athinai
|weak
|weak
|-
|-
!thervin
!thervin
|thervinoe
|thervinoi
|thervinae
|thervinai
|hot
|hot
!surin
!sirin
|surinoe
|sirinoi
|surinae
|sirinai
|cold
|cold
|-
|-
!fover
!fover
|foveroe
|foveroi
|foverae
|foverai
|terrible
|terrible
!plys
!plys
|plysoe
|plysoi
|plysae
|plysai
|near / close
|near / close
|-
|-
!tyledhin
!tyledhin
|tyledhinoe
|tyledhinoi
|tyledhinae
|tyledhinai
|far / distant
|far / distant
!semyk
!semyc
|semykoe
|semycoi
|semykae
|semycai
|tired
|tired
|}
|}
Line 732: Line 731:
Some usage examples:
Some usage examples:


* '''migrin''' + '''aelŵr''' > ''aelŵr migrin'' (= "(a) little cat");
* '''migrin''' + '''ailur''' > ''ailur migrin'' (= "(a) little cat");
* '''meal''' + '''to enyr''' > ''enyr to meal'' (= "the big man");
* '''meal''' + '''to enyr''' > ''enyr to meal'' (= "the big man");
* '''semyk''' + '''koeren evon''' > ''koeren evon semyk'' (= "my tired lady").
* '''semyc''' + '''coiren evon''' > ''coiren evon semyc'' (= "my tired lady").


====Comparative====
====Comparative====


The ''higher degree comparative'' is usually formed with the word '''wa''' that precedes the adjective to which is referred, the second term is introduced by '''y''' ex.:
The ''higher degree comparative'' is usually formed with the word '''va''' that precedes the adjective to which is referred, the second term is introduced by '''y''' ex.:


* ''Andh '''wa''' kalin '''y''' dennyr'' > A flower more beautiful than a tree.
* ''Andh '''va''' calin '''y''' dennyr'' > A flower more beautiful than a tree.


In the written language it is still used the old form with the suffix '''-wn''', ex.:
In the written language it is still used the old form with the suffix '''-un''', ex.:


* ''Andh '''kaldhwn''' '''y''' dennyr'' > A flower more beautiful than a tree.
* ''Andh '''caldhun''' '''y''' dennyr'' > A flower more beautiful than a tree.


The ''same degree comparative'' is formed with the periphrasis '''wdhys''' + adjective + '''yfer''', ex.:  
The ''same degree comparative'' is formed with the periphrasis '''udhys''' + adjective + '''yfer''', ex.:  


* ''Andh '''wdhys''' kalin '''yfer''' dennyr'' > A flower as beautiful as a tree,
* ''Andh '''udhys''' calin '''yfer''' dennyr'' > A flower as beautiful as a tree,


The ''lower degree comparative'' is formed with the periphrasis '''mŷon''' + adjective + '''y''', ex.:
The ''lower degree comparative'' is formed with the periphrasis '''myon''' + adjective + '''y''', ex.:


* ''Andh '''mŷon''' kalin '''y''' dennyr'' > A flower less beautiful than a tree.
* ''Andh '''myon''' calin '''y''' dennyr'' > A flower less beautiful than a tree.


=====Adjectives with an irregular higher degree comparative=====
=====Adjectives with an irregular higher degree comparative=====
Line 764: Line 763:
!'''Comparative'''
!'''Comparative'''
|-
|-
!iwŷdh
!ivydh
|aredhwn
|aredhun
!penyr
!penyr
|yswn
|ysun
|-
|-
!kalin
!calin
|kaldhwn
|caldhun
!red (= "easy")
!red (= "easy")
|rawn
|raun
|-
|-
!migrin
!migrin
|medhwn
|medhun
!meal
!meal
|myswn
|mysun
|-
|-
!polus (= "many/much")
!polis (= "many/much")
|pledhwn
|pledhun
!alwyn (= "painful/agonizing")
!aluyn (= "painful/agonizing")
|aldhwn
|aldhun
|}
|}


Irregular higher degree comparatives are used as normal comparatives, ex.:
Irregular higher degree comparatives are used as normal comparatives, ex.:


* ''Ys hi aredhwn y ew'' - You are better than me.
* ''Ys hi aredhun y eu'' - You are better than me.


The comparative form is the same for both masculine and feminine nouns, but in the plural the two forms are different: ''aredhwnoe'' vs. ''aredhwnae''.
The comparative form is the same for both masculine and feminine nouns, but in the plural the two forms are different: ''aredhunoi'' vs. ''aredhunai''.


====Superlative====
====Superlative====
Line 795: Line 794:
The superlative degree is generally formed with the word '''plyd''', that precedes the adjective to which is referred. The relative superlative is the same form of the absolute superlative, but it takes the definite article and is generally followed by a limitation, that is expressed with '''en''' (= "in") / '''evan''' (= "of"), ex.:
The superlative degree is generally formed with the word '''plyd''', that precedes the adjective to which is referred. The relative superlative is the same form of the absolute superlative, but it takes the definite article and is generally followed by a limitation, that is expressed with '''en''' (= "in") / '''evan''' (= "of"), ex.:


* ''Andh to '''plyd''' kalin '''en''' to kom'' - The most beautiful flower in the world.
* ''Andh to '''plyd''' calin '''en''' to com'' - The most beautiful flower in the world.


In the written language it is also used the old superlative with the suffix '''-yd''':
In the written language it is also used the old superlative with the suffix '''-yd''':


* ''Andh to '''kalyd''' '''evan''' to kom'' - The most beautiful flower of the world.
* ''Andh to '''calyd''' '''evan''' to com'' - The most beautiful flower of the world.


=====Adjectives with an irregular superlative=====
=====Adjectives with an irregular superlative=====
Line 813: Line 812:
!'''Superlative'''
!'''Superlative'''
|-
|-
!iwŷdh
!ivydh
|aredhwn
|aredhun
|aryd
|aryd
!penyr
!penyr
|yswn
|ysun
|ykyd
|ycyd
|-
|-
!kalin
!calin
|kaldhwn
|caldhun
|kalyd
|calyd
!red
!red
|rawn
|raun
|rad
|rad
|-
|-
!migrin
!migrin
|medhwn
|medhun
|elegyd
|elegyd
!meal
!meal
|myswn
|mysun
|meyd
|meyd
|-
|-
!polus
!polis
|pledhwn
|pledhun
|plyd
|plyd
!alwŷn
!aluyn
|aldhwn
|aldhun
|alwŷd
|aluyd
|}
|}


Line 851: Line 850:
|-
|-
!paladh
!paladh
|wa paladh / paladh'''wn'''
|va paladh / paladh'''un'''
|plyd paladh / paladh'''yd'''
|plyd paladh / paladh'''yd'''
|-
|-
!lur
!lir
|wa lur / lur'''wn'''
|va lir / lir'''un'''
|plyd lur / lur'''yd'''
|plyd lir / lir'''yd'''
|-
|-
!egrin
!egrin
|wa egrin / egrin'''wn'''
|va egrin / egrin'''un'''
|plyd egrin / egrin'''yd'''
|plyd egrin / egrin'''yd'''
|-
|-
!plys
!plys
|wa plys / plys'''wn'''
|va plys / plys'''un'''
|plyd plys / plys'''yd'''
|plyd plys / plys'''yd'''
|}
|}


The superlative has got only one singular form, in the plural masculine and feminine are different, ex.: '''aryd''' > '''arydoe''', '''arydae'''.
The superlative has got only one singular form, in the plural masculine and feminine are different, ex.: '''aryd''' > '''arydoi''', '''arydai'''.


====Numerals====
====Numerals====
Line 882: Line 881:
|-
|-
!0
!0
|wden
|uden
| -
| -
!1
!1
|eis
|eis
|prwdh
|prudh
|-
|-
!2
!2
|dios
|dios
|deudher
|deidher
!3
!3
|trys
|trys
Line 907: Line 906:
!7
!7
|eft
|eft
|eudodh
|eidodh
|-
|-
!8
!8
|oth
|oth
|owodh
|ovodh
!9
!9
|enag
|enag
Line 945: Line 944:
|-
|-
!18
!18
|othwdeg
|othudeg
|othwdegadh
|othudegadh
!19
!19
|enadeg
|enadeg
Line 952: Line 951:
|-
|-
!20
!20
|iwaen
|ivain
|iwaed
|ivaid
!21
!21
|iwaen sun eis
|ivain sin eis
|iwaed sun prwdh
|ivaid sin prudh
|-
|-
!22
!22
|iwaen sun dios
|ivain sin dios
|iwaed sun deudher
|ivaid sin deidher
!30
!30
|iwaen-deg
|ivain-deg
|iwaendegadh
|ivaindegadh
|-
|-
!31
!31
|iwaen-deg sun eis
|ivain-deg sin eis
|iwaendegadh sun prwdh
|ivaindegadh sin prudh
!40
!40
|dioewaen
|dioivain
|dioewaed
|dioivaid
|-
|-
!50
!50
|dioewaen-deg
|dioivain-deg
|dioewaendegadh
|dioivaindegadh
!60
!60
|triwaen
|trivain
|triwaed
|trivaid
|-
|-
!70
!70
|triwaen-deg
|trivain-deg
|triwaen-degadh
|trivaindegadh
!80
!80
|tetharwaen
|tetharvain
|tetharwaed
|tetharvaid
|-
|-
!90
!90
|tetharwaen-deg
|tetharvain-deg
|tetharwaendegadh
|tetharvaindegadh
!100
!100
|egadh
|egadh
Line 1,005: Line 1,004:
|-
|-
!200
!200
|diagesioe/ae
|diagesioi/ai
|diagesiod
|diagesiod
!300
!300
|trygesioe/ae
|trygesioi/ai
|trygesiod
|trygesiod
|-
|-
!400
!400
|tethragesioe/ae
|tethragesioi/ai
|tethragesiod
|tethragesiod
!500
!500
|pennagesioe/ae
|pennagesioi/ai
|pennagesiod
|pennagesiod
|-
|-
!600
!600
|esagesioe/ae
|esagesioi/ai
|esagesiod
|esagesiod
!700
!700
|eftagesioe/ae
|eftagesioi/ai
|eftagesiod
|eftagesiod
|-
|-
!800
!800
|othagesioe/ae
|othagesioi/ai
|othagesiod
|othagesiod
!900
!900
|enagesioe/ae
|enagesioi/ai
|enagesiod
|enagesiod
|-
|-
!1000
!1000
|hilioe/ae
|hilioi/ai
|hiliod
|hiliod
!2000
!2000
|diahilioe/ae
|diahilioi/ai
|diahiliod
|diahiliod
|-
|-
!3000
!3000
|tryhilioe/ae
|tryhilioi/ai
|tryhiliod
|tryhiliod
!4000
!4000
|tethrahilioe/ae
|tethrahilioi/ai
|tethrahiliod
|tethrahiliod
|-
|-
!5000
!5000
|pennahilioe/ae
|pennahilioi/ai
|pennahiliod
|pennahiliod
!6000
!6000
|esahilioe/ae
|esahilioi/ai
|esahiliod
|esahiliod
|-
|-
!7000
!7000
|eftahilioe/ae
|eftahilioi/ai
|eftahiliod
|eftahiliod
!8000
!8000
|othahilioe/ae
|othahilioi/ai
|othahiliod
|othahiliod
|-
|-
!10000
!10000
|mirioe/ae
|mirioi/ai
|miriod
|miriod
!11000
!11000
|mirioe/ae sun hilioe/ae
|mirioi/ai sin hilioi/ai
|miriod sun hiliod
|miriod sin hiliod
|-
|-
!20000
!20000
|dimirioe/ae
|dimirioi/ai
|dimiriod
|dimiriod
!100000
!100000
|egadh-hilioe
|egadh-hilioi
|egadh-hiliod
|egadh-hiliod
|-
|-
!500000
!500000
|pennagesioe-hilioe
|pennagesioi-hilioi
|pennagesioe-hiliod
|pennagesioi-hiliod
!1000000
!1000000
|kryn
|kryn
Line 1,082: Line 1,081:
|-
|-
!2000000
!2000000
|dios krynoe
|dios krynoi
|deudher krynod
|deidher krynod
!1000000000
!1000000000
|riagryn
|riagryn

Revision as of 19:52, 22 April 2014


Brytho-Hellenic
Elynic (to cain)
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|ɛ'li:nik 'tɔ 'kai̯n]]
Created by–
Native toElas to Cain
Native speakers52 millions (2012)
Indo-European
Official status
Official language in
Elas to Cain
Language codes
ISO 639-1el
ISO 639-2ely
ISO 639-3ely
Elas mini.gif
New Greece or "Elas to Cain"

General information

Brytho-Hellenic, Brythohellenic or simply Neohellenic (the native name is Elynic) is a language that is spoken nowadays in a different timeline in a country that corresponds almost exactly to our England and to our Wales. In that timeline the Persians have won the wars against Greece and the Greeks have been forced to emigrate and to flee. Firstly the Greeks find protection in Magna Graecia, but, as the Persians conquer those territories, they shift to Northern Italy, where the Romans withstand the Persian troops. In 389 b.C. Rome is destroyed and both Romans and Greeks flee to Carthage, enemy of the Persian empire. Together they try to attack the Persian fleet, but they are defeated again. In the last days of 382 b.C. an imposing expedition sails away from a harbour on the coast of New Carthage - our Cartagena in Spain. Its mission is to find new territories where they can live in peace and prosperity, far from the Persian threat. In 381 b.C. Conon the Athenian and his Greeks reach our Scilly Islands: they have chosen to sail northward, because they had heard about legends that spoke about a fertile and grassy island in the North. It is the beginning of the New Greece or Elas to Cain (IPA ['ɛlas 'tɔ 'kai̯n]).

Phonology

Alphabet

After the defeat against the Persians almost the entire Greek people fled towards Roman territory: Rome triplicated its population and was greekized. During their living together Greeks and Romans used mainly the Greek language to communicate, whereas the Latin language became a secondary and socially lower language, spoken mainly by common people. Nevertheless - almost incomprehensibly - the Greeks adopted the Latin alphabet, maybe trying to be understood even by the lower social classes. As we are talking about the modern language, we don't consider the first versions of the alphabet that were used in ancient times. The alphabet of Brythohellenic contains 23 letters:

Letters Pronunciation Further informations
a [a] it is an opened central vowel
b [b] -
c [k] it is always pronunced as in the English word cat, even in front of e, i, and y
ch [x] it is pronounced as in the Scottish word loch
d [d] -
dh [ð] / [j] / [v] / [ ] generally it is pronounced as th in the word this; when it occurs between vowels its pronunciation can vary between [j] and [v]: generally it is [j] when the vowel that follows is e, i or y, while it is [v] when the vowel that follows is a, o or u. Some speakers don't pronounce it at all when it comes in patterns a-a, a-o, a-u, o-a, o-o, o-u, u-a, u-o, u-u
e [ɛ] / [e] it can be pronounced either open or closed, this doesn't affect the meaning of words
f [f] -
g [g] it is always pronounced as in the English word gun, even in front of e, i, and y
h [h] -
i [i] / [j] often it forms a diphthong when precedes or follows another vowel
l [l] -
m [m] -
n [n] -
o [ɔ] / [o] it can be either open or closed, but it doesn't affect the meaning
p [p] -
r [r] trilled just as in Italian
s [s] always voiceless
t [t] -
th [θ] as th in the English thin
u [u] / [w] it is pronounced as [u] when it is followed by a consonant; it is pronounced [w] when it is preceded or followed by a vowel
v [v] -
y [i:] it is pronounced like e in the English word see.

Consonantal phonemes

Brythohellenic has the following consonantic phonemes:

Phonemes Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop p b t d k g
Affricate
Nasal m (ɱ) n (ŋ)
Fricative f v θ ð s x h
Approximant r̥ r j w
Lateral approximant l


Vocalic phonemes

Brythohellenic has the following vowel system:

Phonemes
Opening Front Back
Closed i u
Mid-closed e o
Mid-open ɛ ɔ
Open a

There is also the schwa sound [ǝ]. The natives don't consider it a distinct sound, though, and as it occurs specially at the end of words where it is written an a, they consider it to be a true 'a'!

Diphthongs and digraphs

In Brythohellenic there are 17 diphthongs, that is clusters of two vowels pronounced with a single emission of air. These diphthongs are:

Diphthongs Pronunciation
ai [ai̯]
au [au̯]
ei, ey [ɛi̯] / [ei̯:]
eu [ɛu̯]
ia [ja]
ie [jɛ] / [je]
io [jɔ] / [jo]
iu [ju]
oi [ɔi̯] / [oi̯]
ua [wa]
ue [wɛ] / [we]
ui [wi]
uo [wɔ] / [wo]
uy [wi:]
yu [i:u̯]

The use of dieresis indicates that the combination of vowels is to be read as a hiatus, f.ex.: ethïu, I eat, is read as [ɛ'θiu], it is thus a three-syllable word. Brythohellenic has got only one digraph: rh [r̥], which is rare enough. The other combinations as ch, dh, and th are considered true letters.

Stress

Ancient Greek has undergone deep changes during its coexistence with Latin and above all with the Brythonic languages. Two main changes have been:

  • often the hiatus with 'i' has become a diphthong, ex.: σοφία > *σόφια > hef, "knowledge";
  • almost always the last syllable has fallen, ex.: καινός > cain, "new"; θάνατος > thanadh, "death".

These two phoenomena have influenced heavily the stress system of Brythohellenic. Nowadays the stress steadily falls on the last but one syllable: this means that in the plural forms of nouns it shifts, ex.: thalas ['θalas], "sea" > thalasas [θa'lasas], "seas"; ailur ['ai̯lur], "cat" > ailuroi [ai̯'luroi̯], "cats".

Grammar

Nouns, gender and number

Even if Ancient Greek had three genders and three numbers, the system simplified a lot and Modern Elynic has got two genders - masculine and feminine - and two numbers - singular and plural. It is hard to distinguish the gender of a noun, because there are not specific gender-linked endings: mostly nouns end with consonant regardless for the gender. Forming plural is not so complicated, as there are only three plural endings:

  • oi, that is typical of masculine nouns;
  • ai, that is used with feminine nouns;
  • as, less spread and used with both masculine and feminine nouns.

Please note that nowadays the endings oi and ai tend to be replaced with the colloquial e both in writing and speech. The same occurs with the endin as, that is substituted for es. These endings, that come from South-Elas dialects, are less used in the North. There are also some irregularities which have to be learned by heart, ex.: the plural of ith, "fish", is ithuas; the plural of gys, "earth", is gai; the plural of ur, "water", is udhas, and so on. Irregular nouns, however, are few. Here is a list of nouns with plural form:

Singular Plural Gender Meaning Singular Plural Gender Meaning
lidh lidhoi masculine stone pud pudas masculine foot
kur kurai feminine land uran uranoi masculine sky, heaven
cryvid cryvidas feminine shoe fus fudhas masculine light
suy suai feminine life lus lusai feminine language
thyr thyras masculine animal bivel bivloi masculine book
erudh erudhas masculine love aluvec aluvecai masculine fox
coiran coiranoi masculine lord coiren coiranai feminine lady
enyr anras masculine man ginys ginai feminine woman
pir piroi masculine fire cefel cefalai feminine head
tov tovoi masculine place cron cronoi masculine time
odher odhroi masculine morning yver yverai feminine day
dyl dylai feminine afternoon efer eferai feminine evening
nith nithas feminine night hilyn hilynai feminine moon
celdh celdhoi masculine priest cildh celdhai feminine priestess
dennyr dennyras masculine tree cadh cadhas masculine hand
etyr eteras masculine star omadh omadhas masculine eye
cedhydh cedhydhas masculine teacher fil filoi masculine friend
ether ethroi masculine enemy edhair edhairoi masculine lover
cïun cinoi masculine dog com comoi masculine world

Loan words

As the Greeks reached Great Britain found a completely new world, full of animals and plants they had never seen. Celtic people had highly different customs and beliefs and spoke an unintelligible language. Even if the Greeks considered them to be barbarian, they were the "owners" of the new land, so Greeks had to learn to live together with Brythons and to forget about prejudices like "superiority" or "inferiority". During the coexistence and the mixing with Brythons, the Greeks have adopted some Celtic words:

Original word Singular Plural Gender Meaning
derwen daruen daruenai feminine oak
derwydd daruidh daruidhas masculine priest, magician, druid
bryn bryn brynai feminine hill
nifwl nivul nivuloi masculine mist, fog
llyn lyn lynoi masculine lake
gwellt guell guellas feminine grass
ofydd evidh evidhas masculine ovate
bardos bard bardas masculine poet
awen auen auenai feminine inspiration
bleydh bleidh bleidhas masculine wolf
lowarth louarth louarthas feminine paradise
calon calen calenai feminine heart

Some words have a counterpart whose meaning has shifted: from the Greek ουάτις, a word mentioned by Strabo and of Proto-Celtic origin (*vatis), comes guedh, "astute person" < "one who can predict the moves of enemies" < "soothsayer". From the same root comes of course the Brythonic word ofydd, that has been taken as loan once the Greeks reached Great Britain. Another example is the word bard, that has substituted the Ancient Greek ἀοιδός, whose descendant, auid, has got the meaning of "artist". Even the word auen has substituted another Greek word, daivon < *δαιμόνος < δαιμόνιον, that now has the meaning of "puck, spirit"; the plural Auenai is also used to mean Musai, plural of Mus < Mοῦσα, "Muse".

Formation of feminine

It isn't easy to distinguish between a masculine and a feminine noun, because there is no gender-linked ending. However, when we speak about entities that have got a physical gender, such as people and animals, it can be useful to be able to distinguish between masculine and feminine gender. Mostly the feminine form of such nouns come from the masculine one by adding some suffixes:

  • -er (pl. -(e)rai), mostly added to masculine nouns ending with -ydh and denoting agent, ex.: melbydh (= "singer") > melbydher (plural: melbydhrai);
  • -en (pl. -anai), added to many nouns, ex.: ether > ethren (plural: ethranai); fil > filen (plural: filanai);
  • -e- (pl. -a-ai), that replaces the ending a + consonant of many masculine nouns, ex.: elaf (= "deer") > elef (plural: elafai); mau (= "sorcerer") > meu (= "witch") (plural: mauai).

Sometimes the feminine form is obtained by changing the last vowel, ex.: celdh > cildh (plural: celdhai).

Articles

Brythohellenic hasn't got indefinite article, to translate phrases like "a cat" or "some women" we have just to omit the article: ailur means both "a cat" and "cat", and ginais means both "some women" and "women". There is only one kind of article, the definite one: this article is used to talk about well known things that are familiar to the speakers, because they have already been talked about, or because they belong to the experiences baggage of the speakers, that is we use the definite article to talk about known informations, to talk about determined informations. The definite article has got one invariable form, to, that is used both for masculine and feminine nouns, for singular and plural nouns: to omyr, "the rain"; to huvadh, "the body"; to lusai, "the languages"; to nysoi, "the islands", and so on.

When a noun is determined, that is preceded by the article or other determiners (such as possessives or demonstratives) and is followed by an adjective - in standard Elynic the adjectives always follow the substantives - the article shifts bewtween noun and adjective, ex.:

  • to omyr > omyr to sirin (= "the cold rain", lit. "rain the cold (one)");
  • to nysoi > nysoi to eivedhoi (= "the fertile islands", lit. "islands the fertile (ones)").

Even when a noun doesn't need the article - for example proper nouns - it appears between this noun and the possible adjective, ex.:

  • Elas (= "Greece") > Elas to Cain (= "New Greece", lit. "Greece the New (one)");¹
  • Elyn (= "Helena") > Elyn to plyd calin (= "the most beautiful Helena", lit. "Helena the most beautiful (one)").

¹ Nowadays they tend to use the word Elas to mean Elas to Cain, while the "Old Greece" is known as Elas to Paladh.

Adjectives

Elynic adjectives always follow the noun(s) they are referred to: when the noun is undetermined they simply follow it, but, when the noun is determined, then the definite article, to, or the possessives are put between the noun and the adjective. Usually adjectives' singular form is identical for masculine and feminine, even if there can be exceptions, the plural forms are two, instead: one for masculine, usually ending in -oe, and one for feminine, ending in -ae. Some adjectives:

Singular Masculine plural Feminine plural Meaning Singular Masculine plural Feminine plural Meaning
ivydh ivydhoi ivydhai good penyr penyroi penyrai bad
elev elvoi elvai happy lir liroi lirai sad
egrin egrinoi egrinai tall / high thaval thavaloi thavalai short
calin calinoi calinai beautiful / goodlooking aiger aigroi aigrai ugly
meal mealoi mealai big / great migrin migrinoi migrinai little / small
paladh paladhoi paladhai old yvic yvicoi yvicai young
thenar thenaroi thenarai strong athin athinoi athinai weak
thervin thervinoi thervinai hot sirin sirinoi sirinai cold
fover foveroi foverai terrible plys plysoi plysai near / close
tyledhin tyledhinoi tyledhinai far / distant semyc semycoi semycai tired

Some usage examples:

  • migrin + ailur > ailur migrin (= "(a) little cat");
  • meal + to enyr > enyr to meal (= "the big man");
  • semyc + coiren evon > coiren evon semyc (= "my tired lady").

Comparative

The higher degree comparative is usually formed with the word va that precedes the adjective to which is referred, the second term is introduced by y ex.:

  • Andh va calin y dennyr > A flower more beautiful than a tree.

In the written language it is still used the old form with the suffix -un, ex.:

  • Andh caldhun y dennyr > A flower more beautiful than a tree.

The same degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis udhys + adjective + yfer, ex.:

  • Andh udhys calin yfer dennyr > A flower as beautiful as a tree,

The lower degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis myon + adjective + y, ex.:

  • Andh myon calin y dennyr > A flower less beautiful than a tree.
Adjectives with an irregular higher degree comparative

Some adjectives have got an irregular form of higher degree comparative:

Positive Comparative Positive Comparative
ivydh aredhun penyr ysun
calin caldhun red (= "easy") raun
migrin medhun meal mysun
polis (= "many/much") pledhun aluyn (= "painful/agonizing") aldhun

Irregular higher degree comparatives are used as normal comparatives, ex.:

  • Ys hi aredhun y eu - You are better than me.

The comparative form is the same for both masculine and feminine nouns, but in the plural the two forms are different: aredhunoi vs. aredhunai.

Superlative

The superlative degree is generally formed with the word plyd, that precedes the adjective to which is referred. The relative superlative is the same form of the absolute superlative, but it takes the definite article and is generally followed by a limitation, that is expressed with en (= "in") / evan (= "of"), ex.:

  • Andh to plyd calin en to com - The most beautiful flower in the world.

In the written language it is also used the old superlative with the suffix -yd:

  • Andh to calyd evan to com - The most beautiful flower of the world.
Adjectives with an irregular superlative

The same adjectives that have an irregular higher degree comparative have got also an irregular superlative form:

Positive Comparative Superlative Positive Comparative Superlative
ivydh aredhun aryd penyr ysun ycyd
calin caldhun calyd red raun rad
migrin medhun elegyd meal mysun meyd
polis pledhun plyd aluyn aldhun aluyd


Other adjectives form the comparative and the superlative degree regularly, ex.:

Positive Comparative Superlative
paladh va paladh / paladhun plyd paladh / paladhyd
lir va lir / lirun plyd lir / liryd
egrin va egrin / egrinun plyd egrin / egrinyd
plys va plys / plysun plyd plys / plysyd

The superlative has got only one singular form, in the plural masculine and feminine are different, ex.: aryd > arydoi, arydai.

Numerals

Numerals don't inflect. Here are the numerals from 0 to 100:

Number Cardinal Ordinal Number Cardinal Ordinal
0 uden - 1 eis prudh
2 dios deidher 3 trys tridh
4 tethar tethardh 5 pen pendh
6 es eth 7 eft eidodh
8 oth ovodh 9 enag enadh
10 deg degadh 11 enneg ennegadh
12 dydeg dydegadh 13 trydeg trydegadh
14 tethardeg tethardegadh 15 penneg pennegadh
16 edheg edhegadh 17 efteg eftegadh
18 othudeg othudegadh 19 enadeg enadegadh
20 ivain ivaid 21 ivain sin eis ivaid sin prudh
22 ivain sin dios ivaid sin deidher 30 ivain-deg ivaindegadh
31 ivain-deg sin eis ivaindegadh sin prudh 40 dioivain dioivaid
50 dioivain-deg dioivaindegadh 60 trivain trivaid
70 trivain-deg trivaindegadh 80 tetharvain tetharvaid
90 tetharvain-deg tetharvaindegadh 100 egadh egadhod

From egadh on, the numbers can be masculine or feminine:

Number Cardinal Ordinal Number Cardinal Ordinal
200 diagesioi/ai diagesiod 300 trygesioi/ai trygesiod
400 tethragesioi/ai tethragesiod 500 pennagesioi/ai pennagesiod
600 esagesioi/ai esagesiod 700 eftagesioi/ai eftagesiod
800 othagesioi/ai othagesiod 900 enagesioi/ai enagesiod
1000 hilioi/ai hiliod 2000 diahilioi/ai diahiliod
3000 tryhilioi/ai tryhiliod 4000 tethrahilioi/ai tethrahiliod
5000 pennahilioi/ai pennahiliod 6000 esahilioi/ai esahiliod
7000 eftahilioi/ai eftahiliod 8000 othahilioi/ai othahiliod
10000 mirioi/ai miriod 11000 mirioi/ai sin hilioi/ai miriod sin hiliod
20000 dimirioi/ai dimiriod 100000 egadh-hilioi egadh-hiliod
500000 pennagesioi-hilioi pennagesioi-hiliod 1000000 kryn krynod
2000000 dios krynoi deidher krynod 1000000000 riagryn riagryd

Pronouns and kinds of adjectives

Personal pronouns

Brythohellenic personal pronouns have three cases: nominative, accusative, and dative. In Brythohellenic there is no need to indicate subject pronoun before the verb, whereas in English it is compulsory.

Case 1st person
Singular Plural
Nominative ew vys
Accusative ve vas
Dative voe vin
Case 2nd person
Singular Plural
Nominative hi fy
Accusative he fas
Dative hoe fyn
Case 3rd person
Masculine s. Feminine s. Masculine pl. Feminine pl.
Nominative o ý oe ae
Accusative ton tyn tws tas
Dative tw ty toes taes

In a sentence the pronouns in dative case are positioned before of those in accusative case, so prepositions can be omitted, ex.:

  • Dŵre voe tyn - Give it to me.

The neuter pronoun it is translated in Brythohellenic with ý. The feminine pronoun ý is written with the accent to be distinguished from the preposition y (= "than"). When there are a pronoun and a noun, the pronoun always precedes the noun, ex.:

  • Dŵre tyn brys to koeren - Give it to the lady;
  • Dŵre ty to kuwn - Give her the dog.

Demonstratives

There are two demonstratives: ŷwn (= "this") and ledh (= "that"). The first demonstrative matches perfectly the first person, whereas the second one matches both the second and the third person:

Person Adverb Demonstrative Meaning
1st nawdh (= here) ŷwn this
2nd kys (= there) ledh that
3rd

Demonstratives don't inflect and always follow the nouns they are referred to, and the nouns take also the article, ex.:

  • To aelŵr ŷwn - This cat.
  • Yv en to oek ŷwn - I'm in this house;
  • Ergw e tho oekoe ledh - I come from those houses.

Possessives

Possessives can be used both as pronouns and adjectives. When they are used as adjectives, they always follow the noun they refer to.

Possessives
Person Singular Plural
ew evon evas
hi hon has
o dhw
ý dhys
vys yveron yveras
fy uveron uveras
oe / ae dhwn

Here are some examples:

  • Aelŵr evon - My cat;
  • Kuwn hon - Your dog;
  • Gunys dhw - His wife;
  • Enyr dhys - Her man;
  • Thyr yveron - Our animal;
  • Fil uveron - Your friend;
  • Kalen dhwn - Their heart.

Plural:

  • Aelŵroe evas - My cats;
  • Kunoe has - Your dogs;
  • Gunae dhw - His wives;
  • Annyr dhys - Her men;
  • Thyras yveras - Our animals;
  • Filoe uveras - Your friends;
  • Kalenae dhwn - Their hearts.

Possessived don't allow the use of the article. Third person possessives don't inflect.

Relatives and 'interro-exclamatories'

Interrogative pronouns, which are used also to make exclamations, function also as relatives:

Case Tis (who) Ti (what)
Nominative tis ti
Accusative ten ti
Dative ty ty
Genitive twn twn

Ex.:

  • Tis it o? - Who is he?
  • Tis kuwn kalin! - What a beautiful dog!
  • Twn it to bivyl ŷwn? - Whose is this book?
  • Ty yrygas tyn? - Whom have you said it to?
  • To ledh it to gunys ten filew - That is the woman whom I love.

Indefinites

Indefinites give us incomplete informations, because they don't define the precise quantity or the identity:

Indefinite Meaning
wdhis someone/anyone
edhi something/anything
mydys nobody
myden nothing
olen each
pan all
edher other
ovodh same, self

When pan is used as adjective, it has the singular form pas and the plural forms panas for masculine and pasae for feminine. Also edher has got plural: edheroe for masculine and edherae for feminine.

Indefinites can be formed also with the word alen:

  • To alenoe/ae - The others;
  • Krysys edhi alen? - Do you need something else?
  • Gnoky ý wdhis alen? - Does she know someone else?

Adverbs

Usually adverbs are formed by suffixation: many adverbs derive from adjectives, to that the suffix -ews is added. Some examples:

  • elyv > elvews (happy - happily);
  • lur > lurews (sad - sadly);
  • meal > mealews (great - greatly);
  • thenar > thenarews (strong - strongly);
  • athin > athinews (weak - weakly).

Some adverbs have got suppletive forms, ex.: iwŷdh > eu; penyr > fawl.

Adverbs occupy a precise position within the sentence:

  • 1) adverbs always follow subject when in the sentence there is only the verb ynyn (= to be), ex.: yv mal elyv (= "I am very happy"), dagrwŷ ý thenarews (= "She cries strongly");
  • 2) adverbs always precede adjectives, ex.: it o elion lur (= "He's a little sad").

Place adverbs

In Brythohellenic place adverbs nawdh and kys inflect to express state or movement to and from. The adverb w, "where", also inflects:

Form W Nawdh Kys
State w nawdh kys
Movement to oe nawdhes kyses
Movement from ŵen nawdhen kysen

The adverb w has got also a relative function:

  • It to ŷwn to peli, ŵen ergw - This is the town where I come from;
  • It to ledh to peli, oe ovylw ferthae - That is the town where I have to go.

Other place adverbs are: alodh, alodhes, alodhen, respectively "elsewhere", "from elsewhere", "(to) elsewhere"; wdhovw, "nowhere" and "from nowhere", wdhovon, "(to) nowhere"; edhovw "somewhere" and "from somewhere", edhovon, "(to) somewhere".

Time adverbs

The adverb yneg, "when", can be used both as interrogative and relative. Other time adverbs are:

  • nun - now;
  • enna - then;
  • prothen - before;
  • ivyn - after;
  • dyvodh - some times;
  • hunydhen - usually;
  • ey - always;
  • oseg - ever;
  • wvodh - never;
  • alodh - another time.

Vocabulary

Colour terms

The colour system of Brythohellenic is particular, because, except white, black and red, colours' names derive from flowers or natural elements. Historians have supposed that as the Greeks of Conon reached Great Britain they used natural elements to estabilish a first contact between their languagage and the language of Celtic people. There are also other colour terms that come from Ancient Greek, such as klŵr (= "green"), porhur (= "purple-red"), arwirin (= "silver") or hegin (= "bronze-coloured"), but they are old-fashioned nowadays and they are used almost exclusively in literature.

Colours in Brytho-Hellenic.
Colour terms
Source Brythohellenic English
μέλαινα (Ancient Greek) melaen black
κελαινός (Ancient Greek); furvus (Latin) kelaen; fwrg dark, obscure
λαμπρός (Ancient Greek) lemyr light, pale, fair
lividus (Latin), llwyd (Welsh), disliw (Cornish) liwŷs grey
gwyn (Welsh), gwynn (Cornish) gwŷn white
φαλακρός (Ancient Greek) x eglur (Welsh) faeglur bright, lucid
rudhvelyn (Cornish), "orange" velin orange
ἐρυθρός (Ancient Greek), rhudd (Welsh), rudh (Cornish) rudhyr red
πορφυροῦς (Ancient Greek) porhur purple-red
gwaed (Welsh), "blood" gwaedin burgundy
crinllys (Welsh), "violet (flower)" krilysin violet, purple
ινδικόν (Ancient Greek), "that comes from India" ynnik indigo
χλωρός (Ancient Greek); gwels (Cornish), "grass" klŵr; gwŷlsin green
ebron (Cornish), "sky" brenin light blue, cyan
θάλασσα (Ancient Greek), "sea" thalesin dark blue
mêl (Welsh), mel (Cornish), "honey" mylin yellow
dur (Cornish), "earth" durin brown
χρυσός (Ancient Greek), "gold"; owr (Cornish), "gold"; krusin; ewrin golden
rosen (Cornish), "rose" resin pink
ἄργυρος (Ancient Greek), "star"; steren (Cornish), "star" arwirin; ytrin silver
χαλκός (Ancient Greek), "bronze"; efydd (Welsh), "bronze" helgin; yvydhin bronze-coloured

Fruit and vegetables

Fruit and vegetables
Source Brythohellenic English
μῆλον (Ancient Greek), "apple" myl red apple
afal (Welsh), aval (Cornish), "apple" aval yellow apple, generic apple
κυδωνία (Ancient Greek), "quince" kudwn green apple
στάλαγμα (Ancient Greek), "drop" talamadh grape
citreum (Latin), "lemon" sidhyr lemon
χρυσοῦν μῆλον (Ancient Greek), "golden apple" krumyl orange
هلو (Persian), "peach" heulv peach
ἐλαία (Ancient Greek), "olive" eladh olive
لیموترش (Persian), "lemon" lamewtyr lime
κέρασος (Ancient Greek), "cherry" seres cherry
ruber (Latin), "bright red" rŷwyr watermelon
αγγούριον (Ancient Greek), "cucumber" onwŷr (pl. onwŷr-) cucumber
انجیر (Persian), "fig" neyar fig
ananas (Tupian or Guaraní) > ananassum (Neolatin), "pineapple" nanas pineapple
sevien (Cornish), syfien (Welsh), "strawberry" syvyn strawberry
νύξ (Ancient Greek), "night" + mwyaren (Welsh), "berry" nithwŷrn blueberry
du (Welsh), du (Cornish), "black" + mwyaren (Welsh), "berry" duwŷrn blackberry
tomatl (Nauhatl) > tomatĭlum (Neolatin), "tomato" tovydh tomato
mahiz (Arawakan) > mahīsum (Neolatin), "maize" mehys maize
موز (Persian), "banana" mews banana
زردآلو (Persian), "apricot" serdel apricot
προυνον (Ancient Greek), "plum" brwn plum
قهوة (Arabic) > قهوه (Perisan), "coffee" hewŷf coffee
茶 (Chinese) > چای (Persian), "tea" sea (pl. seae) tea
xocolatl (Nahuatl) > chocolatĭlum (Neolatin), "chocolate" segolydh cacao (beans)
باذنجان (Arabic) > بادنجان (Persian), "eggplant" badynyn eggplant
cucurbĭta (Latin), "courgette" kurvedh courgette
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