8,646
edits
Chlouvānem/Verbs: Difference between revisions
m
→Comparatives and superlatives
mNo edit summary |
|||
| (47 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
: | : ''Part of: [[Chlouvānem/Morphology|Chlouvānem morphology]]'' | ||
Verbs (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') are the most inflected part of speech in Chlouvānem. Most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles. | Verbs (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') are the most inflected part of speech in Chlouvānem. Most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles. | ||
| Line 10: | Line 10: | ||
: ''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Exterior_and_interior_verbs|Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs]] for a more thorough explanation of these forms.'' | : ''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Exterior_and_interior_verbs|Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs]] for a more thorough explanation of these forms.'' | ||
Potentially every Chlouvānem verb form, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' ('' | Potentially every Chlouvānem verb form, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' (''driṣṇa'') conjugation which is considered an inflection and not a derivation, even if the meanings may vary: ''mišake'' is an extreme example as each form has a different meaning (with particularly interior forms having many meanings) - non-causative exterior ''mešu'' "I am seen", interior ''meširu'' "I know; I see myself"; and causative exterior ''mešisu'' "I am shown", interior ''meširisu'' "I learn; I show myself <small>(trans.)</small>". | ||
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs: | Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs: | ||
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked); | * '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked); | ||
* '''agent-trigger''' ('' | * '''agent-trigger''' (''darīyūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only); | ||
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe''); | * '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe''); | * '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatalunsusūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
| Line 27: | Line 27: | ||
The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined: | The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined: | ||
* '''indicative''' ('' | * '''indicative''' (''urḍāmiti darišam'') - the realis mood; | ||
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands; | * '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands; | ||
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles. | * '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles. | ||
| Line 37: | Line 37: | ||
* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junya'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X) | * '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junya'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X) | ||
* '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness. | * '''intensive''' (''caṃliven junya'') - typically denotes emphasis on a stronger effort for/in an action, or on its contrastive nature, or on its completeness and exhaustiveness. | ||
Finally, Chlouvānem also has a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter). | |||
Considering that non-indicative moods do not mark evidentiality, a single verb may have up to 39,781 conjugated forms (including the infinitive), excluding analytic constructions. | |||
==Verb classes== | ==Verb classes== | ||
| Line 45: | Line 45: | ||
A Chlouvānem verb's conjugation is determined by two factors: whether it is ''thematic'' and whether - and if it does, how - its root vowel changes among the different stems.<br/> | A Chlouvānem verb's conjugation is determined by two factors: whether it is ''thematic'' and whether - and if it does, how - its root vowel changes among the different stems.<br/> | ||
The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG | The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG past) between its root and every consonantic termination; '''athematic verbs''' don't. All verbs with vowel-ending roots are athematic. | ||
Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to twelve verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs: | Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to twelve verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs: | ||
# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''. | # The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męlyē'', past ''męlik'', perfect ''emęlya''. | ||
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'') | # Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''širṣṭake'' "to dip, soak": ''šerṣṭē — širṣṭek — iširṣṭa''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltik, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulik — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'') | ||
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and '' | # Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munik — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kṣitrake'' "to matter, be on topic": ''kṣaitrē — kṣitrek — ikṣitra''. | ||
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''. | # Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldik — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''. | ||
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''. | # Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''. | ||
| Line 71: | Line 71: | ||
* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''lyēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''lyēnu, lyēni, lyēnē''...; past exterior ''lyēnau, lyēnei, lyēk''. | * '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''lyēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''lyēnu, lyēni, lyēnē''...; past exterior ''lyēnau, lyēnei, lyēk''. | ||
* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''... | * All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''... | ||
* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē | * Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''... | ||
In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are: | In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are: | ||
| Line 79: | Line 79: | ||
* ''sklyāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, sklyāk, asklyā'' | * ''sklyāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, sklyāk, asklyā'' | ||
== | ==Perfect stems== | ||
The perfect stem (used for the perfect and for the intentional future) formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples: | The perfect stem (used for the perfect and for the intentional future) formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples: | ||
* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-'' | * ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-'' | ||
| Line 95: | Line 93: | ||
* ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → alait-'' | * ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → alait-'' | ||
* ''leike'' "to stick, press into something" = ''lei- → elei-'' | * ''leike'' "to stick, press into something" = ''lei- → elei-'' | ||
==Infinitive== | ==Infinitive== | ||
| Line 111: | Line 107: | ||
** verbs whose roots end in any other consonant cluster only add ''-e'' (e.g. ''pudbh-ke'' → ''pudbhe'' (to sleep)). | ** verbs whose roots end in any other consonant cluster only add ''-e'' (e.g. ''pudbh-ke'' → ''pudbhe'' (to sleep)). | ||
Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" ('' | Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" (''molē'', ''mulek'', ''umula'') and ''mun-'' "to be able to" (''maunē'', ''munek'', ''umuna''). | ||
The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''nenyai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''nenyai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book"). | The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''nenyai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''nenyai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book"). | ||
| Line 127: | Line 123: | ||
* '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs; | * '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs; | ||
* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-'''; | * '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-'''; | ||
* '''k-''' as '''š-'''; | * '''k-''' as '''š-'''; | ||
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''. | * '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''. | ||
** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-). | ** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-). | ||
| Line 150: | Line 145: | ||
Desiderative examples: | Desiderative examples: | ||
* '' | * ''mbiṇḍhe'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''mbiṇḍh-'' → ''mi-mbeṇḍh-s'' → ''mimbeñc-'' (pf. stem ''imimbeñc-'') | ||
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'') | * ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'') | ||
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'') | * ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'') | ||
| Line 170: | Line 165: | ||
Necessitative examples: | Necessitative examples: | ||
* '' | * ''mbasike'' “to draw” → ''mīmbašū-'' (pf. stem. ''emīmbašū-'') | ||
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'') | * ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'') | ||
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'') | * ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'') | ||
| Line 179: | Line 174: | ||
Potential examples:
| Potential examples:
| ||
* '' | * ''mbiṇḍhe'' “to go (multid.)” → ''mimbeṇḍhṇā-'' (pf. stem. ''emimbeṇḍhṇā-'') | ||
* '' | * ''khluke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlonā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlonā-'') | ||
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'') | * ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'') | ||
| Line 192: | Line 187: | ||
Permissive examples: | Permissive examples: | ||
* ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'') | * ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'') | ||
* '' | * ''bhike'' “to take care of”, → ''būbhyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''ibūbhyūd-'') | ||
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'') | * ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'') | ||
| Line 218: | Line 213: | ||
#* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-'''; | #* The reportative (or "first reportative") marks a reported situation likely to be true, marked by '''-emi-'''; | ||
#* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''. | #* The dubitative reportative (or "second reportative") marks a reported situation whose truthness is unlikely or doubted, marked by '''-enab(u)-'''. | ||
# The second stem extension is | # The second stem extension is '''-ug-''', marking the optative mood. | ||
# The third stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked) | # The third stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked) | ||
# The fourth stem extension is | # The fourth stem extension is the causative marker '''-is-''' (non-causatives are not marked) | ||
Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai), | Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai). In the ''-is-'' stem extension, when preceding ''-b-'' initial personal terminations, the final ''-s'' predictably disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel (e.g. ''meš-is-ba'' → ''mešība''). | ||
Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not | Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not followed by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs. | ||
===Personal terminations=== | ===Personal terminations=== | ||
| Line 240: | Line 228: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective | ! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective | ||
| -u || -i || -ē || -sme || - | | -u || -i || -ē || -sme || -bin || -ba || -inta<br/>-ata<sup>1</sup> || -šin || -āhai | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective | ! Perfect<br/>Opt. Perfective | ||
| Line 246: | Line 234: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past | ! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Past | ||
| -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || - | | -au || -ei || -(e)k || -ram || -rais || -rat || -ābhe || -āṣe || -aika | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Simple future | ! Simple future | ||
| Line 255: | Line 243: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective | ! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective | ||
| -ati || -īs || -ī || -īndu || -īndi || -ī || -īnam || - | | -ati || -īs || -ī || -īndu || -īndi || -ī || -īnam || -īnais || -ī | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Perfective | ! Perfective | ||
| -ēta || -ēti || -ēt || -ētham || -ēthai || -ēt || -eine || -eiše || -ēt | | -ēta || -ēti || -ēt || -ētham || -ēthai || -ēt || -eine || -eiše || -ēt | ||
|} | |} | ||
# The ''-ata'' termination is used after the interior, causative, and optative stem extensions (cf. ''miširata'' "we [plur.] see each other", ''mišisata'' "we are shown", ''miširisata'' "we learn"), otherwise ''-inta'' is used, together with a thematic vowel for thematic verbs (hence ''mešenta'' (← ''meš-a-inta'') "we are seen"). | |||
Additional notes: | Additional notes: | ||
* The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme - | * The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme -ąbin -ąba ; -ęnta -ąšin -ah''. | ||
* The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''. | * The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''. | ||
* The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī. | * The third person interior imperfective subjunctive is ''-irya'' instead of *-ir-ī. | ||
| Line 288: | Line 275: | ||
* Instrument: instrumental case | * Instrument: instrumental case | ||
Patients of intransitive and interior verbs usually require the essive case instead of the accusative. An example is the structure "there is/are ... in ...", usually cast in locative-trigger voice: | Patients of intransitive and interior verbs usually require the essive case instead of the accusative. An example is the structure "there is/are ... in ...", usually cast in locative-trigger voice: | ||
{{Gloss | |||
| phrase = keika lalāruṇęs virā. | |||
| gloss = garden.<small>DIR.SG</small>. lalāruṇa-<small>ESS.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3S.EXTERIOR-LOCATIVE</small>. | |||
| translation = There is a lalāruṇa in the garden. | |||
}} | |||
==Impersonal verbs== | ==Impersonal verbs== | ||
| Line 313: | Line 302: | ||
Actual usage of Chlouvānem grammatically marks respect towards the listener by using analytic constructions formed with auxiliary '''respectful verbs''' (''imatimaivi daradhaus'', i.e. verbs used in the ''imatimaiva'' (respectful language)<ref>Contrasting with the ''emmāmaiva'', (humble language), and the ''lilamaiva'' (neutral language); the three styles take their names from their respective words for "person"</ref>). They are used whenever the action being spoken of effects the listener in some way; a common mistake, made both by foreigners and young Chlouvānem people, is overusing them, thinking that in polite speech almost every single verb needs to be marked this way. | Actual usage of Chlouvānem grammatically marks respect towards the listener by using analytic constructions formed with auxiliary '''respectful verbs''' (''imatimaivi daradhaus'', i.e. verbs used in the ''imatimaiva'' (respectful language)<ref>Contrasting with the ''emmāmaiva'', (humble language), and the ''lilamaiva'' (neutral language); the three styles take their names from their respective words for "person"</ref>). They are used whenever the action being spoken of effects the listener in some way; a common mistake, made both by foreigners and young Chlouvānem people, is overusing them, thinking that in polite speech almost every single verb needs to be marked this way. | ||
The respectful auxiliaries themselves, as well as a number of inherently respectful verbs (e.g. ''pṛdhake'' "to ask" vs. neutral ''muṣke''; '' | The respectful auxiliaries themselves, as well as a number of inherently respectful verbs (e.g. ''pṛdhake'' "to ask" vs. neutral ''muṣke''; ''naiṣake'' "to give" vs. neutral ''męlike''; ''naimake'' "to meet" vs. neutral ''vuryake''), do not need to be marked with a respectful auxiliary. Inherently humble verbs (or verbal locutions; e.g. ''yacce'' "to ask" or "to order, command" vs. neutral ''muṣke'' and ''spruvyake''; ''chlašake'' "to do, act, make" vs. neutral ''dṛke''; ''tittake'' "to suggest, advise" vs. neutral ''smārṣake''), which are, in learners' materials, treated together with respectful language, are also never used with an auxiliary. | ||
The choice of respectful verbs depends on various properties of the main verb, and using a different respectful verbs may imply different shades of meaning; some auxiliaries, in fact, act as if they were ''junyai'' of other ones. All respectful auxiliaries are used together with the main verb in the infinitive. | The choice of respectful verbs depends on various properties of the main verb, and using a different respectful verbs may imply different shades of meaning; some auxiliaries, in fact, act as if they were ''junyai'' of other ones. All respectful auxiliaries are used together with the main verb in the infinitive. | ||
| Line 333: | Line 322: | ||
: ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself" | : ''blutake nacite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for yourself" | ||
: ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others" | : ''blutake naiṣite'' "you clean (<small>RESP</small>) for others" | ||
The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike | The verb ''nacce'' is often used as a polite optative for imperative requests, as seen in many common forms such as ''daudike nacugi'' "please" (literally something like "may you want (<small>RESP</small>), benefitting yourself") or ''kaukulke nacugite'' "please tell..."<ref>Note that formal Chlouvānem has a plethora of ways to form polite and respectful imperatives, and a common one, especially when talking to higher-ranked people, is to reformulate an imperative as a humble statement; in such a case, "please tell" could be reformulated as ''kaukulke yacce cīchlakṣūyute'' "I humbly have to ask to tell", or even (though quite bookishly) up to something like ''kaukulke yacce chlašatite garpirati pīpaipsūyu'' "I (<small>HUMB</small>) have to be bad (lit. "take the bad manner of") and humbly ask to tell".</ref>. The polite optative ''nacce'' followed by ''garpirati paibu'' (lit. something like "I'm taken to behave badly") is a very common set phrase for making requests. | ||
The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire. | The verb ''pṛdhake'' (''pardhē - pṛdhek - apṛdha'', respectful equivalent of ''muṣke'' "to ask") may be used with all verbs and virtually replaces the desiderative ''junya'', i.e. implies "to want to". Note that the desiderative ''junya'' of another auxiliary such as ''gāke'' (''hagās-'') or ''nacce'' (''nanākṣ-'') can still be used for virtually the same meaning - however, for some speakers, ''pṛdhake'' may imply a less strict desire. | ||
| Line 342: | Line 331: | ||
==Irregular verbs== | ==Irregular verbs== | ||
Chlouvānem has only a very small number of truly irregular verbs, as most verbs conform in some way to one of the various stem classes. Even among irregular verbs, many of them are only irregular in the formation of one of their three basic stems; only seven verbs (''lulke, milke, mṛcce, mišake, lilke, jalle'', and ''tilah'') have at least one entirely suppletive stem. | Chlouvānem has only a very small number of truly irregular verbs, as most verbs conform in some way to one of the various stem classes. Even among irregular verbs, many of them are only irregular in the formation of one of their three basic stems; only seven verbs (''lulke, milke, mṛcce, mišake, lilke, jalle'', and ''tilah'') have at least one entirely suppletive stem. | ||
There | There is one true defective verb: ''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to). | ||
Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are: | Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are: | ||
* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa'' | * ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...''). | ** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'' | ** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lau-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''lāvu, lāvi, lāvē...''). | ||
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | * ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...''). | ** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...''). | ||
** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...''). | ** The optative stem is irregular ''målu-'', conjugated as a regular verb (''målū, målvi, målvē...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular | ** Also has the irregular stems ''mīmakṣ-'' for the desiderative and ''meliknā-'' for the potential junyai. | ||
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | * ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša'' | * ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, | * ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, ellā'' | ||
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ||
** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya. | ** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junya. | ||
| Line 366: | Line 355: | ||
The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at); also note that ''tamišake'' has the same past tense suppletion as ''mišake'', i.e. ''tamešē - tāsmik - temiša''. The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs. | The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at); also note that ''tamišake'' has the same past tense suppletion as ''mišake'', i.e. ''tamešē - tāsmik - temiša''. The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs. | ||
''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerasme, | ''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerasme, ñoeradya''...). | ||
''vṝlke'' (to plant), in the past, may use for the | ''vṝlke'' (to plant), in the past, may use for the 3rd person singular both ''vṝlik'' (regular) and ''vṝk'' (quite formal); in the perfect, both the regular stem ''avṝl-'' and the irregular, literary ''rūrl-'' are found. | ||
Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels: | Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels: | ||
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura'' | * ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura'' | ||
* ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura'' | * ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura'' | ||
Other various irregular verbs: | Other various irregular verbs: | ||
| Line 417: | Line 397: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || | | jelli || nīres || reri || jalṣyari || nībin | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| jali || | | jali || nīrat || ri || jalṣya || nība | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
| Line 438: | Line 418: | ||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | {| class="redtable lightredbg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 | Person !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive | ! colspan=2 | Person !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive !! Intensive | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st | ||
| gati || | | gati || jogu || jijālyu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu || jājlīyu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīs || | | gīs || jogi || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi || jājlīyi<br/>(or ''jājlī'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| gī || | | gī || jogē || jijālye || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē || jājlīyē | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ||
| gīndu || | | gīndu || jokṣme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelaisme || jījalūtsme || jājlīsme | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīndi || | | gīndi || jombin || jijālšabin || jājalšūbin || jelābin || jījalūmbin || jājlībin | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| gī || | | gī || jomba || jijālšaba || jājalšūba || jelāba || jījalūmba || jājlība | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
| gīnam || | | gīnam || jogata || jijālinta || jājalšūvinta || jelinta || jījalūdinta || jājlīnta | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīnes || | | gīnes || jokṣin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin || jājlīšin | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| gī || | | gī || jogāhai || jijālyāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai || jājlīyāhai | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 475: | Line 455: | ||
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe". | ** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe". | ||
==Analytic constructions | ==Analytic constructions== | ||
The following section lists the most common analytic constructions in Chlouvānem; they are either verbs requiring a subjunctive clause argument or true auxiliary verbs, requiring an infinitive and taking all inflections that would have been on the lexical verbs. | |||
* ''perfective subjunctive'' | ===Main verbs with subjunctive arguments=== | ||
* | * ''perfective subjunctive'' + ''lā'' + ''jalle'' in the past or future tense: analytic pluperfect and future perfect (the bare perfect is used instead in literature and in common speech, especially to replace the pluperfect): | ||
* | *: ''yųlētate lā nīvau'' "I had eaten"
| ||
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' | *: ''yųlētate lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten" | ||
* | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''lā'' + ''jalle'' in the needed tense: analytic construction for the progressive aspect. In the present, ''jalle'' can be omitted if needed [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Zero-copular_sentences|(see the corresponding section in Syntax)]]. | ||
* | *: ''yųlatite lā ū'' "I am eating" | ||
* | *: ''yųlatite lā nīvau'' "I was eating" | ||
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): | *: ''yųlatite lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating" | ||
* | * ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance; when used with the perfective subjunctive it can also have a pluperfect meaning. | ||
** ''yaive | *: ''yųlatite męliru'' "I eat in advance" | ||
** ''yaive | *: ''yųlētate męlirau'' "I ate in advance" → "I had already eaten" | ||
* ''infinitive'' + '' | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junya'', especially common in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both verbs, it can be omitted in the subjunctive one. It is different from the desiderative in that the two verbs can have different triggers. | ||
* | *: ''kulati(te) daudyute'' "I want to talk" (cf. ''šukilyute'') | ||
* | *: ''kulīte daudyute'' "I want him/her to talk" | ||
* | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' (less commonly ''infinitive'') + ''novake'' (to be able to): can X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential ''junya''). | ||
*: ''dratite novē'' or ''dṛke novute'' "I can do [it]" (cf. ''dadrenānute'') | |||
* ''infinitive'' + either '' | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential ''junya''). | ||
* | *: ''dratite šergē'' "I may do [it]" (cf. ''dadrenānute'') | ||
* | ===Constructions with auxiliary verbs=== | ||
* '' | * ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): analytic construction for habitual actions in present, past, or future tense; the perfect tenses focus on the result. Note that multidirectional motion verbs in the present tense already have this meaning compared to the monodirectional ones. | ||
* | *: ''yaive prājānye yæyake ñǣɂute'' "I am used to read every evening." | ||
*: ''yaive prājānye yæyake ñǣɂaute'' "I used to read every evening." | |||
* ''infinitive'' + '' | *: ''yaive prājānye yæyake ñǣɂiṣyaṃte'' "I will be used to read every evening." | ||
* | *: ''yaive prājānye yæyake añǣɂaṃte'' "I got used to read every evening." | ||
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to ''mai-'' | *: ''yaive prājānye yæyake añǣɂāltaṃte'' "I will get used to read every evening." | ||
* | * ''infinitive'' (in more formal language ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed. | ||
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing | *: ''valde kitē'' "it is kept opened" | ||
* | *: ''valdēt kitē'' "it is kept opened" | ||
* '' | * ''infinitive'' + ''nartalulke'' (to reach): to come to X, to end up X-ing, to result in X-ing. | ||
*: ''yųlake nartateliven'' "(s)he ends up eating" | |||
* '' | *: ''lañšijilde nartadāmirdat'' "they ended up marrying each other" | ||
* | *: ''valde nartailīsa'' "it has resulted in it being open" | ||
* | * ''infinitive'' + either ''įstyāke'' (to hang from) or less commonly ''maityāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect. | ||
* | *: ''yųlake įstetimu'' "I am about to eat" | ||
* ''infinitive'' + '' | *: ''yæyake maitimē'' "it is about to be read" | ||
* | * ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X (same meaning as the permissive ''junya''). | ||
*: ''sū yæyake paṣṭemešu'' "I let you read" (cf. permissive ''sū īyæyūdute'') | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''tamišake'' (to look at): to think about doing X, to consider doing X | |||
*: ''kitom vaske tatemešu'' "I'm considering going home" | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to many instances of ''mai-'' verbs). | |||
*: ''nanau yæyake mālchute'' "I keep reading that" (cf. ''nanau maiteyæyu'') | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing. | |||
*: ''tatyāke nūkhute'' "I'm still standing" | |||
*: ''yųlake nūkhiṣyate'' "(s)he will still be eating" | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''prigirake'' (to move backwards): to redo X, to do X again. | |||
*: ''dhulte pritegeru'' "I rewrite, write [it] again" | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''nåndike'' (to suddenly feel the need to) | |||
*: ''yæyake anåndyaṃte'' "I have suddenly felt the need to read." | |||
*: ''šudhulte nåndyekte'' "(s)he suddenly felt the need to write [it] down." | |||
* ''infinitive'' + ''pidyåjyake'' (to float in the air facing something (monodirectional)): to feel like X-ing | |||
*: ''dorṣire taili ħaṇu yųlake pindeyåjyu'' "I want to/feel like eating an insane amount of candy/halva" | |||
*: ''mūmikke gu pindayejyau ša'' "I didn't feel like dancing" | |||
==Adverbs== | ==Adverbs== | ||
→ ''See also [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Avyay.C4.ABbh.C4.81va_.28.E1.B9.ADv.C4.81daradhausire_tadmaiva.29|Chlouvānem morphology § Avyayībhāva]] for more ways of forming adverbs.'' | |||
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → '' | |||
* ''namęlyausake'' (stakanovist) → '' | Verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-siṭ''' to a consonant-final stem (only '''-iṭ''' after ''-ṣṭ(h)-''), and adding that and lengthening the final vowel of a vowel-final stem. Thus: | ||
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → '' | * ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlaussiṭ'' (scientifically, according to science) | ||
* ''namęlyausake'' (stakanovist) → ''namęlyaussiṭ'' (continuously; without any break) | |||
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkṣiṭ'' (windy; like the wind) | |||
* ''cāṃkrake'' (final) → ''cāṃkṝsiṭ'' (at last) | |||
* ''bhike'' (to care) → ''bhīsiṭ'' (caringly) | |||
There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts: | There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts: | ||
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym '' | * ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlæraussiṭ'' from the related verb ''chlærausake'' (easy)) | ||
* ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of '' | * ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilsiṭ''<ref>''dilsiṭ'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilsiṭ dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.) | ||
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''lilyāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmyāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demyāṣati'', ''tamyāṣati'', and so on. | * ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''lilyāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmyāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demyāṣati'', ''tamyāṣati'', and so on. | ||
| Line 541: | Line 541: | ||
* ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better)) | * ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better)) | ||
* ''taili'' - many, much | * ''taili'' - many, much | ||
* '' | * ''širē'' - more | ||
* ''kaili'' - most | * ''kaili'' - most | ||
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little | * ''ṣūbha'' - few, little' | ||
* ''daiba'' - to some extent | |||
* ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective | * ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective | ||
All numerals also belong to this category. | All numerals also belong to this category. | ||
| Line 552: | Line 553: | ||
==Comparatives and superlatives== | ==Comparatives and superlatives== | ||
Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either ''' | Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either '''širē''' (more) or '''ovat''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in ablative case; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivų''' (than all) as the compared term. | ||
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → '' | Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''širē chlære'' → ''yaivų širē chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''širē'' also with a superlative meaning. | ||
This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu | This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu širē yæyute'' "I read more than you". | ||
Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day. | Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day. | ||
| Line 577: | Line 578: | ||
| ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best) | | ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || '' | | ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''širē'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most) | ||
|} | |} | ||