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Pulqer takes its name from the Latin ''(sermo) vulgaris'' "common speech". It is thought that Latin was brought to the islands by sailors between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD and may have originally formed part of a pidgin before being adopted by a tribe believed to have been called ''Khrapnat'' as a language of power and religion. These people became known in Old Pulqer as ''faularci pulkaeri'' and later simply as ''Pulkaeri''.
Pulqer takes its name from the Latin ''(sermo) vulgaris'' "common speech". It is thought that Latin was brought to the islands by sailors between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD and may have originally formed part of a pidgin before being adopted by a tribe believed to have been called ''Khrapnat'' as a language of power and religion. These people became known in Old Pulqer as ''faularci pulkaeri'' and later simply as ''Pulkaeri''.


The language spoken by the Pulkaeri was a bastardised form of Vular Latin referred to today as Old Pulqer. Upon its adoption, Vulgar Latin was assimilated to the existing phonology of Kelt which immediately resulted in a slew of changes to the language. Plosives in Kelt appear to have been distinguished by aspiration rather than by voicing so that, in general, Latin voiced plosives became voiceless (/d, b, g/ > /t, p, k/) and voiceless plosives became aspirated (/t, p, k/ > /tʰ, pʰ, kʰ/). Vowels also assimilated, resulting in Latin /o/ becoming Pulqer /u/ in most cases, and Vulgar Latin /ẹ/ (< ''ē, œ'') merging with /i/. These sound changes, alongside forces of analogy resulted in drastic reduction of noun and adjective declensions and verbal conjugations. However, because Old Pulqer remained primarily the language of a learned elite, it could be said to be closer to Latin than its descendants.
The language spoken by the Pulkaeri was a bastardised form of Vular Latin referred to today as [[Pulqer/Old Pulqer|Old Pulqer]]. Upon its adoption, Vulgar Latin was assimilated to the existing phonology of Kelt which immediately resulted in a slew of changes to the language. Plosives in Kelt appear to have been distinguished by aspiration rather than by voicing so that, in general, Latin voiced plosives became voiceless (/d, b, g/ > /t, p, k/) and voiceless plosives became aspirated (/t, p, k/ > /tʰ, pʰ, kʰ/). Vowels also assimilated, resulting in Latin /o/ becoming Pulqer /u/ in most cases, and Vulgar Latin /ẹ/ (< ''ē, œ'') merging with /i/. These sound changes, alongside forces of analogy resulted in drastic reduction of noun and adjective declensions and verbal conjugations. However, because Old Pulqer remained primarily the language of a learned elite, it could be said to be closer to Latin than its descendants.


From about the 7th century AD the Pulkaeri began to dominate their neighbours and all tribes were eventually brought under their leadership. Old Pulqer became the language of the elite across the island, but gradually filtered down through society until it eventually ousted the native ''Kelt'' entirely. This new vernacular was marked by a large number of borrowings from ''Kelt'' and by further phonological changes, most notably the weakening of unstressed vowels which resulted in the total loss of the declension system and a greater reliance on syntax, adverbs and prepositions to indicate relationships between words. This period of the language is known as Middle Pulqer.  
From about the 7th century AD the Pulkaeri began to dominate their neighbours and all tribes were eventually brought under their leadership. Old Pulqer became the language of the elite across the island, but gradually filtered down through society until it eventually ousted the native ''Kelt'' entirely. This new vernacular was marked by a large number of borrowings from ''Kelt'' and by further phonological changes, most notably the weakening of unstressed vowels which resulted in the total loss of the declension system and a greater reliance on syntax, adverbs and prepositions to indicate relationships between words. This period of the language is known as Middle Pulqer.  


Since the loss of final vowels perhaps 1,000 years ago, there have been relatively few changes to Pulqer and the medieval language is largely intelligible to speakers today. The most drastic changes to have taken place are the loss of the aspirate distinction, leading to the merger of aspirated and unaspirated consonants, and the loss of all diphthongs except ''au'' and ''ai''. Modern Pulqer is distinguished from its predecessor largely by a renewed connection to the outside world, which began in the 18th century.  
Since the loss of final vowels perhaps 1,000 years ago, there have been relatively few changes to Pulqer and the medieval language is largely intelligible to speakers today. The most drastic changes to have taken place are the loss of the aspirate distinction, leading to the merger of aspirated and unaspirated consonants, and the loss of all diphthongs except ''au'' and ''ai''. Modern Pulqer is distinguished from its predecessor largely by a renewed connection to the outside world, which began in the 18th century.


==Phonology and Orthography==
==Phonology and Orthography==
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===Nouns===
===Nouns===
All Pulqer nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender and singular or plural in number but neither of these is marked on the noun itself, which is immutable. For example, ''atyn'' is a masculine noun and can mean "man" or "men" whilst ''hityn'' is feminine and may mean "woman" or "women".
All Pulqer nouns are either masculine (''maśkyr'') or feminine (''hetyn'') in gender and singular or plural in number but neither of these is marked on the noun itself, which is immutable. For example, ''atyn'' is a masculine noun and can mean "man" or "men" whilst ''hityn'' is feminine and may mean "woman" or "women".


The gender and number of a noun is either unspecified or is indicated by an attached determiner (usually an article).   
The gender and number of a noun is either unspecified or is indicated by an attached determiner (usually an article).
 
Noun suffixes indicating natural gender also indicate grammatical gender:
 
{| class="wikitable" text-align="center;" style="vertical-align: top;" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! width="200px;" | Masculine !! width="200px;" | Feminine
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| ''-(t)uar'' (agent) <br> ''-alc'' (agent) || ''-trik'' (agent)
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| || ''-tet'' (abstract) <br> ''-zun'' (abstract) <br> ''-iz'' (abstract)
|}


===Determiners===
===Determiners===
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{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
! style="width: 25px" | 1sg
! style="width: 50px" | 1sg
| style="width: 100px" | ''me''
| style="width: 100px" | ''me''
|-
|-
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|}
|}


'''Note:''' the 1pl and 2pl have two forms, which are identical in meaning and represent optional variants; ''ne, pe'' being more informal and common in vernacular speech.
'''Note:'''  
* the 1pl and 2pl have two forms, which are identical in meaning and represent optional variants; ''ne, pe'' being more informal and common in vernacular speech
* the 3sg and 3pl have no separate masculine and feminine forms, so ''se'' means "his, her" and ''luar'' means "their"
 
Examples:
:: ''sa kes me'' "my house"
:: ''su ken se'' "his/her dog"
:: ''se hilc naśtyl / se hilc ne'' "our daughters"


====Demonstrative Adjectives====
====Demonstrative Adjectives====
Demonstrative adjectives show a three way distinction:  
Demonstrative adjectives behave much like possessive adjectives, following a definite noun. They show a three-way distinction:  
* ''śtu'' "this" refers to objects close to the speaker
* ''qiśt'' "this" refers to objects close to the speaker
* ''kisu'' "that" refers to objects close to the listener
* ''qis'' "that" refers to objects close to the listener
* ''kitlu'' "that" refers to objects at a distance
* ''qityl'' "that" refers to objects at a distance


All three may function as adjectives preceding the noun or as pronouns; in both cases they must agree with the referent in gender and number.
Examples:
 
:: ''su palk qiśt'' "this pig"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
:: ''sa kepyr qis'' "that goat"
! style="width: 100px" rowspan="2;" |
:: ''si talp qityl'' "those bulls"
! colspan="2;" | Masculine
! colspan="2;" | Feminine
|-
! style="width: 100px" | Singular
! style="width: 100px" | Plural
! style="width: 100px" | Singular
! style="width: 100px" | Plural
|-
! This
| ''kiśtu''
| ''kiśti''
| ''kiśta''
| ''kiśte''
|-
! This, That
| ''kisu''
| ''kisi''
| ''kisa''
| ''kise''
|-
! That
| ''kitlu''
| ''kitli''
| ''kitla''
| ''kitle''
|}


====Interrogative Adjectives====
====Interrogative Adjectives====
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===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
====Personal====
Personal pronouns exist for each person in the singular and plural, plus a single reflexive pronoun ''si'', used for all persons and numbers. Only the 1sg and 2sg make any distinction between subject and object pronouns.  
Personal pronouns exist for each person in the singular and plural, but only the 1st and 2nd persons make any distinction between subject and object pronouns.  


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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! rowspan="2;" |
! rowspan="2;" |
! colspan="2;" | Singular
! colspan="2;" | Singular
! style="width: 100px" rowspan="2;" | Plural
! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
|-
! style="width: 100px" | Subject
! style="width: 100px" | Object
! style="width: 100px" | Subject
! style="width: 100px" | Subject
! style="width: 100px" | Object
! style="width: 100px" | Object
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| ''mi''
| ''mi''
| ''nu''
| ''nu''
| ''ni''
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| ''tu''  
| ''tu''  
| ''ti'' (obj.)
| ''ti''
| ''pu''
| ''pu''
| ''pi''
|-
|-
! 3m
! 3m
| colspan="2;" | ''lu''
| colspan="2;" | ''lu''
| ''li''
| colspan="2;" | ''li''
|-
|-
! 3f
! 3f
| colspan="2;" | ''la''
| colspan="2;" | ''la''
| ''le''
| colspan="2;"  | ''le''
|-
|-
! Refl.
! Refl.
| 
| ''si''
|  
|  
| colspan="2;" | ''si''
| ''si''
|}
|}


The subject pronouns are used as the subject of a verb (''cu'' and ''tu''), e.g. '''''la''' am sa musk'' "she loves music", '''''cu''' talmip'' "I slept".
The subject pronouns are used as the subject of a verb only when more than one subject is involved, e.g. '''''cu''' i '''tu''' eman sa musk'' "me and you love music", '''''la''' i Akuśt cakean nu cak'' "She and Akust played a game".  


The object pronouns are used in the following ways:
The object pronouns are used in the following ways:
* as the direct object of a verb (''mi, ti''), e.g. ''lu am '''ti''''' "he loves you", ''su trakun mankep '''le''''' "the dragon ate them (f.)".
* as the direct object of a verb where more than one object is involved, e.g. ''lu em '''ti''' i '''mi''''' "he loves you and me", ''su trakun mankep '''le''' a si kapat luar'' "the dragon ate them and their horses".
* following prepositions (''mi, ti''), e.g. ''ku '''mi''''' "with me", ''pel '''pu''''' "for you".
* following prepositions, e.g. ''ku '''mi''''' "with me", ''pel '''pu''''' "for you".
* as possessive adjectives following the noun, with or without ''te'' "of", e.g. ''kes mi'' or ''kes te mi'' "my house".


The reflexive pronoun can only be used as an object or following prepositions, e.g. ''si milt tutepan '''si''''' "the soldiers killed themselves", ''nu kantan ku '''si''''' "we sing to ourselves".
The reflexive pronoun can only be used following prepositions, e.g. ''lakant ku '''si''''' "she sings to herself".


====Relative====
====Relative====
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Verb forms are usually given with the infinitive and Present Indicative sg, e.g. ''amel, em'' "love".
Verb forms are usually given with the infinitive and Present Indicative sg, e.g. ''amel, em'' "love".


====Regular Conjugation====
====Personal Prefixes====
Where either the subject or direct object of a verb is a pronoun, it is marked by personal prefixes. The 1st and 2nd persons distinguish between subject and object prefixes in the singular and plural. 3rd person prefixes make no such distinction. There is also a reflexive prefix, ''si'' used for 3rd person singular and plural.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2;" |
! colspan="2;" | Subject
! colspan="2;" | Object
|-
! style="width: 100px" | Singular
! style="width: 100px" | Plural
! style="width: 100px" | Singular
! style="width: 100px" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 25px" | 1
| ''cu-''
| ''nu-''
| ''-mi-''
| ''-ni-''
|-
! 2
| ''tu-''
| ''pu-''
| ''-ti-''
| ''-pi-''
|-
! 3m
|  ''lu-''
|  ''li-''
| ''-lu-''
| ''-li-''
|-
! 3f
| ''la-''
| ''le-''
| ''-la-, -l'-''
| ''-le-''
|-
! Refl.
| colspan="2;" |
| colspan="2;" | ''-si-''
|}
 
The prefixes are added to the verb in the order [subject] + [object] + [verb], e.g. ''cutiem'' "I love you", ''lilukrihean'' "they believed him", ''lusile'' "he washes himself", ''tutipiti'' "you saw yourself". If either the subject or object is a noun, the equivalent prefix is dropped, e.g. ''Malk l'em'' "Malk loves her", ''Cupiti Kraz'' "I saw Kraz", ''Culc sile'' "Culc washes herself".
 
====Tense and Mood Markers====
Conjugated verbs are marked for one of three moods (Indicative, Subjunctive and Imperative) and two tenses (Past and Present). They also have an infinitive, present participle and past participle.
 
The table below shows the three regular conjugations of verbs. Pink squares show where the present stem of the verb is used; in all other cases the past stem is used.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Regular Conjugations
|-
|-
! style="width: 100px"  | Mood
! style="width: 100px"  | Mood
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| ''-el''
| ''-el''
| ''-il''
| ''-il''
| ''-yl''
| style="background: pink;"  | ''-yl''
|-
|-
! colspan="3;" | Present Participle
! colspan="3;" | Present Participle
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| ''-yt''
| ''-yt''
|}
|}
====Non-Finite Forms====
As described above, the '''infinitive''' is formed in all cases by the stem + the thematic vowel + ''-l''.
The '''past participle''' is formed in the same way, replacing ''l'' with ''t'', e.g. ''amet'' "loved", ''katit'' "fallen", ''nakyt'' "injured".
:: <small>Note: some old past participles are retained but have diverged in meaning from their original verbs, e.g. ''aret'' "correct, just; straight" < ''arekyl'' "rule". </small>
The '''present participle''' is formed by ''-ant'' in the ''E'' verbs and by ''-ent'' everywhere else.


====Irregular Verbs====
====Irregular Verbs====
A number of irregular verbs exist. The most irregular is ''seśtyl'' "to be", which is the only verb to show distinct forms for persons in some categories.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ ''Seśtyl'' "To Be"
|-
! style="width: 100px"  | Mood
! colspan="2;" | Tense
! style="width: 100px"  | 1st
! style="width: 100px"  | 2nd
! style="width: 100px"  | 3rd
|-
! rowspan="4;" | Indicative
! rowspan="2;" style="width: 100px" | Present
! Sg
|  ''su''
|  ''se''
|  ''seśt''
|-
! Pl
|  ''sum''
|  ''sut''
|  ''sun''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Past
! Sg
| colspan="3;" | ''sir'' 
|-
! Pl
| colspan="3;" | ''siran'' 
|-
! rowspan="4;" | Subjunctive
! rowspan="2;" | Present
! Sg
| colspan="3;" | ''si'' 
|-
! Pl
|''sim''
| ''sit''
| ''sin''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Past
! Sg
| colspan="3;" | ''ses''
|-
! Pl
| colspan="3;" | ''sesen''
|-
! colspan="2;" rowspan="2;" | Imperative
! Sg
|
| ''se''
|
|-
! Pl
|
| ''seśt''
|
|-
! colspan="3;" | Infinitive
| colspan="3;" | ''seśtyl''
|-
|}
The following are the other major irregular verbs:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
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|}
|}


====Non-Finite Forms====
====Periphrastic Tenses====
As described above, the '''infinitive''' is formed in all cases by the stem + the thematic vowel + ''-l''.
Besides the basic tenses formed with conjugated verbs, a number of other tenses can be made with forms of ''seśtyl'' "be" and ''el'' "have" used as auxiliaries and either the infinitive or past participle of the lexical verb.


The '''past participle''' is formed in the same way, replacing ''l'' with ''t'', e.g. ''amet'' "loved", ''katit'' "fallen", ''nakyt'' "injured".
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
 
|-
:: <small>Note: some old past participles are retained but have diverged in meaning from their original verbs, e.g. ''aret'' "correct, just; straight" < ''arekyl'' "rule". </small>
! width="150px;" | Tense !! width="175px;" | Auxiliary !! width="150px;" | Main Verb !! width="300px;" | Example
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Present Perfect Ind.
|  Present Indicative of ''el'' || Past Participle || ''su arik a pitit'' "the king has seen"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Past Perfect Ind.
| Past Indicative of ''el'' || Past Participle || ''su arik hai pitit'' "the king had seen"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Future Ind.  
| Present Indicative of ''el'' || Infinitive || ''su arik a pitil'' "the king will see''
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Present Perfect Subv.
|  Present Subjunctive of ''el'' || Past Participle || ''su arik haiar pitit'' "the king may have seen"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Conditional
| Past Subjunctive of ''el'' || Past Participle || ''su arik hais pitit'' "the king might have seen"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Future Subv.  
| Present Subjunctive of ''el'' || Infinitive || ''su arik haiar pitil'' "the king may see''
|-
|}


The '''present participle''' is formed by ''-ant'' in the ''E'' verbs and by ''-ent'' everywhere else.
====Negation====
Negative verbs are formed by adding the particle ''anin'' after the verb, e.g. ''cutiem anin'' "I don't love you", ''Lihan anin na mis'' "they are not making a table", ''Kraz piti 'nin Malk'' "Kraz did not see Malk". Note that the initial ''a-'' drops following a vowel.


====Finite Forms====
Negative imperatives are formed with ''na'' before the verb, e.g. ''na halet'' "don't speak", ''na hri'' "don't cry', ''na lukamit'' "don't eat it".
Conjugated verb forms for regular verbs are limited in extent and usage, most verb tenses being created through periphrasis.  


Verbs are conjugated by tense, mood and number but not by person, so all conjugated regular verbs require an overt subject unless context implies the subject. The conjugated tenses are formed agglutinatively with the verb stem + tense/mood suffix + number ending.
===Prepositions===
There are a relatively small number of simple prepositions: ''a'' "to, at"; ''kantyl'' "against"; ''ku(n)'' "with"; ''te'' "of"; ''i(n)'' "in"; ''intyl'' "between, among"; ''par'' "for, through, by"; ''sin'' "without"; ''sapyr'' "above".


The number endings are -Ø for singular and ''-n'' for plural.
These may be combined with personal pronouns:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" class="bluetable lightbluebg"  
|-
! style="width: 100px"  | Mood
! style="width: 100px"  | Tense
! style="width: 100px"  | E-Verbs
! style="width: 100px"  | I-Verbs
! style="width: 100px"  | Y-Verbs
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Indicative
! Present
| -Ø (sg.) <br> ''-an'' (pl.)
| -Ø (sg.) <br> ''-en'' (pl.)
| -Ø (sg.) <br> ''-un'' (pl.)
|-
! Past
| -''ep'' (sg.) <br> ''-epan'' (pl.)
| -''ip'' (sg.) <br> ''-ipan'' (pl.)
| -''ip'' (sg.) <br> ''-ipan'' (pl.)
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Subjunctive
! Present
| -''er'' (sg.) <br> ''-eren'' (pl.)
| ''-ir'' (sg.) <br> ''-iren'' (pl.)
| -''yr'' (sg.) <br> ''-(y)ren'' (pl.)
|-
! Past
| -''as'' (sg.) <br> ''-asen'' (pl.)
| -''is'' (sg.) <br> ''-isen'' (pl.)
| -''is'' (sg.) <br> ''-isen'' (pl.)
|}
 
Irregular
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! style="width: 100px"  | Mood
! style="width: 100px"  | Tense
! style="width: 100px"  | ''apil'' "have"
! style="width: 100px"  | ''patil'' "go"
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Indicative
! Present
| ''a'' (sg.) <br> ''an'' (pl.)
| ''pa'' (sg.) <br> ''pan'' (pl.)
|-
! Past
| ''apip'' (sg.) <br> ''apipan'' (pl.)
| ''patip'' (sg.) <br> ''patipan'' (pl.)
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Subjunctive
! Present
| ''apir'' (sg.) <br> ''apiren'' (pl.)
| ''patir'' (sg.) <br> ''patiren'' (pl.)
|-
! Past
| ''apis'' (sg.) <br> ''apisen'' (pl.)
| ''patis'' (sg.) <br> ''patisen'' (pl.)
|-
! colspan="2;" | Present Participle
| ''apent''
| ''patent''
|-
! colspan="2;" | Past Participle
| ''apit''
| ''patit''
|}
 
To Be
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! style="width: 100px" rowspan="2;" | ''eśyl'' <br> "to be"
! colspan="2;" | Indicative
! colspan="2;" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px" | Present
! style="width: 100px" | Past
! style="width: 100px" | Present
! style="width: 100px" | Past
|-
! 1s
| ''su''
| rowspan="3;" | ''ser''
| rowspan="3;" | ''si''
| rowspan="3;" | ''ses''
|-
|-
! 2s
! width="100px;" | ''a-'' "to, at" !! width="100px;" | ''ku-'' "with" !!   width="100px;" | ''te-'' "of" !!  width="100px;" | ''i-'' "in" !!  width="100px;" | ''sin'' "without"
| ''se''
|-  
|-
| ''ami <br> ati <br> alu, ala <br> ani <br> api <br> ali, ale <br> asi || ''miku <br> tiku <br> kulu, kula <br> nasku <br> pasku <br> kuli, kule <br> siku || ''temi <br> teti <br> telu, tela <br> teni <br> tepi <br> teli, tele <br> tesi || ''imi <br> iti <br> ilu, ila <br> ini <br> ipi <br> ili, ile <br> isi || ''simmi <br> sinti <br> sinlu, sinla <br> sinni <br> simpi <br> sinli, sinle <br> sinsi
! 3s
| ''seśt''
|-
! 1p
| ''sum''
| rowspan="3;" | ''seran''
| ''sim''
| rowspan="3;" | ''sesen''
|-
! 2p
| ''set''
| ''sit''
|-
! 3p
| ''sun''
| ''sin''
|}
|}


Psammead
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