Weddish: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
No edit summary
m (→‎Orthography: remove old sounds)
 
(29 intermediate revisions by 5 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name         = Weddish
|name=Weddish
|nativename   = Vediš
|nativename=Weðisk
|pronunciation = /ˈve(ː).dɪʃ/
|states=[[w:Wales|Wales]], [[w:United States|United States]]
|speakers      = 0.01
|date          = 2014
|imagecaption = [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0AmqhD4FiOtzwdDZ4TmUtd3ZnMzBSVWU4WnFaTlgxdEE&usp=sharing Online Lexicon]
|familycolor = Indo-European
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam3 = [[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[w:Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]]
|fam4 = [[w:Middle High German|High German]]
|fam5=[[w:Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
|fam5 = [[w:Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
|ancestor=[[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
|fam6 = [[w:Basque language|Basque]]/[[w:Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
|ancestor2=[[w:Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]
|creator      = [[User:aquatiki|Robert Murphy]]
|ancestor3=[[w:Old Frisian|Old Frisian]]
|created      = 2013
|script1        = Hebr
|setting      = [[w:Interfaith marriage in Judaism|Jewish intermarriage]] / [[w:Systematic theology|Systematic Theology]]
|creator = [[User:Aquatiki|Robert Murphy]]
|posteriori    = Yiddish
|speakers = 40 000
|script        = [[w:Hebrew script|Hebrew]]
|date = 2015 census
|image    = Weddish tree.jpg
|agency=Beth Diyn d'Weddisk
|notice=IPA
}}
}}
'''Weddish''' (''Weddish'': '''װעדיש''', ''X"Q'': '''וֶדִש''', ''Romanization'': '''Vediš''') is a [[w:conlang|constructed]], ''a posteriori'', naturalistic [[auxlang]], made from [[w:Yiddish language|Yiddish]] with heavy influences from Hebrew, English, German, and some Basque.  It has ergative-absolutive [[Linguistics:Morphosyntactic alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]] and a pervasive yet symbolic use of the [[w:Dual (grammatical number)|dual]].  It is meant to promote the institution of marriage, foster better communication between persons, and improve the constructs of [[w:Systematic theology|systematic theological]] discussions.  It is well-suited as an auxlang for [[w:Jewish intermarriage|Jewish intermarriage]].


<big>This language now has its own wiki at [http://weddish.conglang.org weddish.conglang.org]!</big>
'''Weddish''' is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]] spoken by several small communities within [[w:Wales|Wales]] and several large one within the United States. Approximately 40,000 people speak Weddish as their L1. It is of considerable interest to linguists and ethnographers, because of its complex history and unique place in the world.


The language was created in 2013 by [[User:aquatiki|Robert Murphy]] as part of an assignment at [[w:Covenant Theological Seminary|Covenant Theological Seminary]] for Professor Jerram Barrs.
Weddish began as a dialect of [[w:Old Frisian|Old Frisian]], which fell under the influence of its Welsh-speaking neighbors (unlike its Anglo-Saxon kin).  It was "conquered" by Jews in 1066, and "freed" by the [[w:Edict of Expulsion|Edict of Expulsion]] in 1290, and so returned to being under Welsh influence.  English has exerted some small sway over its development.


== Philosophy ==
== Design Goals ==
First and foremost, there is the [[w:Monism#Creator-creature_distinction|Creator-Creature distinction]].  That means, God is wholly other than the Universe.  Second, human beings are made in the [[w:Image of God|image of God]].  This means that we are persons -- like God is -- and our ''agency'' is our single-most important feature.  Third, we reflect the image of God as females '''''or''''' males.  The marriage bond is God-created and a fundamental part of our identity in this life.  Hence it is, that we may divide the world into: actors, non-actors, and actions.  Stated grammatically, this list becomes: ergative nouns, absolutive nouns, and verbs. Furthermore, ergative nouns may be divided up into married and non-married actors, which we will mark with the ''dual'' or not.
''While I have taken elaborate pains to make Weddish appear naturalistic and give it a rich history, it is nevertheless an auxlang, designed for me to work on my philosophical ideas and methodologies of translations.  I welcome feedback and appreciate any advice you might give, but people are often surprised to find out my primary goal is not to avoid artificiality.''


We have said that ontologically speaking, there are ultimately only Two (God and not-God).  However, the 800lb. gorilla in the room -- philosophically speaking -- is [[w:Abstraction|abstraction]].  Since before [[w:Pythagoras|Pythagoras]], abstract nouns (such as numbers, "goodness", etc.) had been held by the Greeks to be [[w:Ontology|ontic]].  Westerners betray their affinity to Greek ideals, classifying humanity as ''homo sapiens'' - "thinking man".  We seek to disenthrall ourselves from this metaphysic and therefore ''banish'' abstract nouns from our language.  Numerals are adjectives.  Infinity is that which we cannot see the end of.  Universals are the same as aggregates ("all" is the same as "sum" ... but not "some"!).
''My goals are 1) anti-abstraction, 2) marking marriage, 3) lots of Hebrew, 4) close to English, 5) Welsh influence''


The [[w:Language Creation Society|Language Creation Society]] (an excellent institution) waves the flag of the [[w:Tower of Babel|Tower of Babel]].  Unlike the hubristic men of the initial chapters ''In the Land of Invented Languages'' ([[w:Arika Okrent|Arika Okrent]]'s chronicle), we do not believe we can undo what God has done to human speech by intellectual rigor.  Our aim is for Jews and Christians to discuss the truth in ''better'' terms. The status of English as a ''lingua franca'', German as a language of science, and Hebrew as a holy language suggests that an Indo-European language is still the best option for an ''a posteriori'' auxlang, but with Semitic components.  Rather than compete with those vital languages, however, it seems most prudent to build upon a base of all at once, utilizing a language that is already as eclectic as English, similar to German, and informed by Hebrew.  That language is Yiddish. Basque serves as an inspiration for new categories and "outside the box" thinking.
== History ==
{{Main|Weddish/History}}
=== Early Antiquity ===
Weddish was born under a different name: Frisian.  While there are individual words that cannot be explained under this rubric, the overwhelming majority of Weddish vocabulary is clearly of Frisian – not Anglo-Saxon – ancestry.  While the differences are small, the evidence is clear.  Unlike the Frisians of the continent, however, and unlike the conquering Anglo-Saxons, the ancestors of the Wedds were heavily influenced by the nearby Celts.  The Old Welsh language rubbed off on Old Weddish, winnowing down many consonant clusters, producing significant vowel changes, and greatly altering the phonology and phonotactics.
 
Old Welsh (Proto-Brythonic) also gave Weddish its system of consonantal mutations.  Certain words and grammatical processes trigger regular changes in the first consonant of the ''next'' word.  This is also the only period where Latin words came into the language (until the modern, international terminology).
 
=== Late Antiquity ===
Some time in the eighth or ninth century, a charismatic leader supposedly brought the Weddish community into his quasi-Jewish cult.  He also introduced two key elements of the Basque language into Weddish: ergative-absolutive morphosyntax and animate-inanimate distinctions in noun phrases.  Folk stories continue to warn young Wedds of the danger of crying wolf, i.e. being like Conrad and hiding under the auspice of false-Judaism, when he was actually just creating a cult.
 
=== 1066 ===
With the arrival of William the Conqueror, ''actual'' Jews arrived from the Continent and called the Wedd's bluff.  Mandatory Hebrew schools were formed, and a similar situation to the rest of the U.K. developed for two centuries: strata.  The elites and leaders spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Judeo-Arabic.  Ethnic Jews arrived from Spain and the continent.  The common folk spoke Weddish, but like England with the Norman language, Hebrew dominated the upper crust.
 
=== 1290 ===
When Edward I issued the edict of expulsion in 1290, the influence of external Jewry ceased, and all appearance of Judaism had to be removed from the public eye.  The Wedds had their own ''Domus Conversorum'' set up, and were allowed to create their own monastic order, where the vows of marriage were conjoined with the vows of holy orders.  Hebrew schools continued in private, with Talmud and Maimonides studies going on for several more centuries.  Because they were not allowed to officiate over the Mass, Weddish "convents" avoided much of the accreting philosophy, and were among the hotbeds of Protestant theology, until the [[w:Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542]]. 
 
With the decline of the surrounding Welsh culture, Wedds happily retreated into the background.  By the 19th century, however, a growing concern over the state of the Western world had settled in, and after several Weddish-wide councils, a missions-through-monasticism philosophy was official ensconced in the Weddish laws.  Since then, they have actively been involved in evangelism and scholarly theology.  [[w:James B. Jordan|James B. Jordan]] and his [[w:Christian Reconstructionist|Christian Reconstructionist]] theology have become the mainstay of Weddish discourse.


== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
Weddish has 25 consonantal sounds, which is typologically average <ref>http://wals.info/chapter/1</ref>, and common in Europe as well as the Middle East.  English speakers will find it to be common, apart from the lack of <tt>/w/</tt> and the abundance of <tt>/x/</tt> (like the ''ch'' in ''Bach'' or ''loch'').  Weddish has 6 vowels, which is also average<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/2</ref>, as is the resulting consonant-to-vowel ration<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/3</ref>.  This is typologically equivalent to Yiddish and Hebrew, but far less than German or English.
{{Main|Weddish/Phonology}}
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; float:left;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left; font-size:large;"
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish'''
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish'''
! colspan="9"|Consonant phonemes
! colspan="9"|Consonant phonemes
Line 42: Line 54:
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|
! style="text-align: center;"|Labial
! style="text-align: center;"|Labial
! Dental
! style="text-align: center;"|Alveolar
! style="text-align: center;"|Alveolar
! style="text-align: center;"|Post-Alveolar
! style="text-align: center;"|Post.
! style="text-align: center;"|Dorsal
! style="text-align: center;"|Velar
! style="text-align: center;"|Uvular
! style="text-align: center;"|Glottal
! style="text-align: center;"|Glottal
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasals
! rowspan="2" |Nasals
| '''מ''' <tt>/m/</tt>
! voiced
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''נ''' <tt>/n/</tt>
| {{IPA|m}}
| * <tt>/ŋ/</tt>
|
| {{IPA|n}}
|
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
|
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Stops
! unvoiced
!<small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA|m̥}}
| '''פ''' <tt>/p/</tt>
|
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''ט''' <tt>/t/</tt>
| {{IPA|n̥}}
| '''ק''' <tt>/k/</tt>
|
| '''א''' <tt>/ʔ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ŋ̊}}
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
| '''ב''' <tt>/b/</tt>
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''ד''' <tt>/d/</tt>
| '''ג''' <tt>/g/</tt>
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Fricatives
! rowspan="2" | Obstruent
! <small>voiceless</small>
! voiced
| '''פֿ''' <tt>/f/</tt>
| {{IPA|b}}
| '''ס''' <tt>/s/</tt>
|
| '''ש''' <tt>/ʃ/</tt>
| {{IPA|d}}
| '''כ''' <tt>/x/</tt>
| {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}
| '''ה''' <tt>/h/</tt>
| {{IPA|g}}
|
|
|-
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
! unvoiced
| '''װ''' <tt>/v/</tt>
| {{IPA|p}}
| '''ז''' <tt>/z/</tt>
| {{IPA|t͡θ}}
| '''זש''' <tt>/ʒ/</tt>
| {{IPA|t}}
| '''ר''' <tt>/ʁ/</tt>
| {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA|k}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! voiced
| {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|ð}}
| {{IPA|z}}
| || || ||
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Affricates
! unvoiced
!<small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA|f}}
| {{IPA|θ}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}}
|
| {{IPA|χ}}
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Trills
! voiced
|
|
| '''צ''' <tt>/ts/</tt>
|  
| '''טש''' <tt>/tʃ/</tt>
| {{IPA|r}}
| || || ||
|-
! unvoiced
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA|r̥}}
| || || ||
|-
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
|
! voiced
| '''דז''' <tt>/dz/</tt>
| {{IPA|w}}
| '''דזש''' <tt>/dʒ/</tt>
|
|
|
| {{IPA|l}}
| {{IPA|j}}
| || ||
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximants
! unvoiced
|
| {{IPA|ʍ}}
| '''ל''' <tt>/l/</tt>
| '''י''' <tt>/j/</tt>
|  
|  
|
| {{IPA|ɬ}}
| {{IPA|ç}}
| || ||
|}
|}
Weddish consonants primarily center around a voiced-unvoiced contrast.  Several sounds do not occur in the lexical forms of words, but are nevertheless common as the result of consonant mutation.


 
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; float:right;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-left:10px; float: right; font-size:large;"
|+ '''Vowels of Weddish'''
|+   '''Vowel phonemes in Weddish'''
! colspan="9"|Vowel phonemes
|-
!  
!  
! style="text-align: center;"|Front
! Front
! style="text-align: center;"|Central
! Mid
! style="text-align: center;"|Back
! Back
|-align=center class=small
|-
|-align=center
! High
! High
| '''י''' <tt>/i/~/ɪ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ɪi}}
|
| {{IPA|ɨː}}
| '''ו''' <tt>/u/~/ʊ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ʊu}}
|-
! Near-high
| {{IPA|ɪ}}
|  
| {{IPA|ʊ}}
|-
! High-mid
|
| {{IPA|ǝ}}
| {{IPA|oʊ}}
|-
|-
! Mid
! Low-mid
| '''ע''' <tt>/e/~/ɛ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ɛː}}
| ''' ׳ ''' <tt>/ə/</tt>
| {{IPA|ʌ}}
| '''אָ''' <tt>/o/~/ɔ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
|
| {{IPA|æ}}
| '''ַא''' <tt>/ɐ/~/ä/</tt>
| {{IPA|aː}}
|
|
|}
|}


<br clear="right" />
Weddish vowels are most easily characterized a six-vowel system: the typical five, plus a central vowel. They all occur in "long" and "short" versions, though (as in English) those terms are used colloquially, and not as linguists mean them.
 
There are also many diphthongs, as in Welsh: '''eu''', '''ei''', '''au''', '''ai''', '''oi''', '''ui''', and the palatalized '''iu''', '''ie''', '''ia'''.


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right; font-size:large;"
|+ '''Diphthongs in Weddish'''
!
! +y
! +w*
|-
! a
| '''ײַ''' = ay
| <small>'' '''אַו''' = aw'' *</small>
|-
! e
| '''ײ''' = ey
|
|-
! o
| '''ױ''' = oy
| <small> '' '''אָו''' = ow'' * </small>
|}
<br clear="both" />
<br clear="both" />
Voicing is contrastive in both plosives and fricatives, like Yiddish and English<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/4</ref>.  Vowel nasalization and rounding are not phonemic<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/11</ref>.
There are several issues in the pronunciation of individual sounds.  The rhotic of Weddish is either alveolar or uvular<ref>As in Hebrew, uvular may be seen as the most prestigious form: http://wals.info/chapter/6</ref> and may be anything from a fricative, to a flap, to a trill, to an approximant.  No R-colors vowels are permitted.  Words that begin with a vowel are separated from a prior open syllable by a glottal stop.  The velar nasal only occurs when an "n" is assimilated in place of articular before or after an "x", "k", or "g", in a syllable coda<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/9</ref>.  '''ng''' is pronounced <tt>/ŋg/</tt>, not just <tt>/ŋ/</tt>.  '''L''' is typically dark (aka "velarized") except before '''i'''.  '''Ayen''' is always romanized '''e''', but signifies the schwa in unaccented syllables.
In the dialect of the Americas, central vowels retain a color of their original/short form.  Elsewhere, they are all central, except <tt>/a/</tt> before glottals and <tt>/ɪ/</tt> before labials.  The rhotic must not be retroflex!  Americans also pronounce '''aw''' and '''ow''' as diphthongs, which is readily understood.


=== Orthography ===
=== Orthography ===
Weddish written in the Hebrew alphabet, mostly following the standard of YIVO Yiddish, except for '''gereš''' as the šva.  There is a one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme, except for three digraphs and one trigraph.  Weddish also has its own Romanization scheme, largely Slavic in appearance.  In it, <tt>/ʃ/</tt> is written '''š''', <tt>/ʒ/</tt> is written '''ž''', <tt>/j/</tt> is written '''y''', <tt>/ts/</tt> is written '''c''', <tt>/tʃ/</tt> is written '''č''', <tt>/dʒ/</tt> is written '''dž''', and <tt>/ʁ/</tt> is written '''r'''.
Weddish is written with the letters of Hebrew abjad and the Massoretic "points" (''niqqud'').  Romanization is unheard of, apart from linguistics literature.


If the syllable after a diphthong begins with a vowel, the off-glide of the diphthong is doubled as the onset of that next syllable, '''''without being written again'''''.  Thus '''zeyer''' is pronounced <tt>/zey.yer/</tt>.
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; float:left"
 
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish'''
As in Hebrew, five letters have "final" forms, when they occur at the end of a word.  These forms do not affect pronunciation at all. 
! colspan="9"|Consonant graphemes
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="font-size:large;"
|-
! Initial/Medial
! colspan="2"|
| '''מ'''
! Labial
| '''נ'''
! Dental
| '''פֿ'''
! Alveolar
| '''צ'''
! Post.
| '''כ'''
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nasals
! voiced
| מ '''m'''
|
| נ '''n'''
|
| ע '''ŋ'''
|
|
|-
|-
! Final
! unvoiced
| '''ם'''
| מה '''mh'''
| '''ן'''
|
| '''ף'''
| נה '''nh'''
| '''ץ'''
|  
| '''ך'''
| עה '''ŋh'''
|}
|  
 
|
Alphabetical order is ('''gereš''',) '''alef''', '''alef pasex''', '''alef kamec''', '''beys''', ('''veys''',) '''giml''', '''dalet''', '''dalet''', '''hey''', '''vov''', '''gvováyin''', '''šurek''', '''zayen''', ('''xes''',) '''tes''', '''yud''', '''yud xirik''', '''gyudayin''', '''gyudayin pasex''', '''vov yud''', '''xof''', ('''xof dageš''',) '''lamed''', '''mem''', '''nun''', '''samex''', '''ayen''', '''pey''', '''fey''', '''cadek''', '''kuf''', '''reyš''', ('''sin''',)  '''šin''' (, '''tav''', '''sav''').
 
When necessary to avoid confusion (e.g. with an adjacent װ or ױ), <tt>/u/</tt> can be precisely specified with a '''וּ''', called a '''šurek'''.  <tt>/i/</tt> can be invoked as '''יִ''', that is a '''yud xirek'''. 
==== Others Languages====
Yiddish has many loanwords from Hebrew and Aramaic which are written using the Hebrew abjad in the Semitic way.  Weddish, however, writes these words out according to its own orthographic conventions.  There are times when it is necessary to use the ancient letters, especially in religious settings.  Hebrew ''hataf'' vowels are recognized as short vowel signs, and are treated as part of "extended Weddish" (see next paragraph).
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="font-size:large;"
! Lošn Koydeš Letter
| '''בֿ'''
| '''ח'''
| '''כּ'''
| '''שׂ'''
| '''ת'''
| '''תֿ'''
| '''אֲ'''
| '''אֳ'''
| '''אֱ'''
| אֻּ
| אִּ
|-
|-
! Equivalent
! rowspan="2" | Obstruent
| '''װ'''
! voiced
| '''כ'''
| בּ '''b'''
| '''ק'''
|
| '''ס'''
| דּ '''d'''
| '''ט'''
| ג '''j'''
| '''ס'''
| גּ '''g'''
| '''אַ''' short
|
| '''אָ''' short
|
| '''ע''' short
| '''וּ''' short
| '''יִ''' short
|}
 
In Hebrew, words from other languages are typically written out in the Latin alphabet.  However, Weddish makes an attempt at Hebraization of foreign terms into the Hebrew alphabet.
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="font-size:large;"
! Extended Latin
| th/θ/þ
| th/ð
| w
| ā, etc.
| ü, etc.
| é, etc.
| ñ
| æ
|-
|-
! Extended Hebrew
! unvoiced
| '''טֿ'''
| פּ '''p'''
| '''דֿ'''
| צ '''x'''
| '''װֿ'''
| ט '''t'''
| '''אַֿ'''
| כ '''k'''
| '''וּ֯'''
| ק '''q'''
| '''ע֫'''
|
| '''׆'''
| א '''`'''
| '''ﭏ'''
|}
 
==== X"Q ====
There is also a highly ornate style of writing Weddish, called '''xtiv qoydeš''' ("holy writing", abbr. x"q) where letters are used not as an alphabet, but as an abjad.  Vowels may or may not be written in this style.  When written, they are written as diacritical marks ("points") around the consonants.  In this style, '''v''' is written as '''ו''' and '''y''' as '''י'''.  Vowels are as follows, with the '''א''' written in syllables with no onset:
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="font-size:large;"
! Standard
! X"Q
! Roman.
|-
|-
| '''אַ'''
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
| '''אַ'''
! voiced
| '''a'''
| ב '''v'''
| ד '''ð'''
| ז '''z'''
| || || ||
|-
|-
| '''ﭏ'''
! unvoiced
| '''אָ'''
| פ '''f'''
| '''o'''
| ת '''þ'''
| ס '''s'''
| סי '''š'''
|
| ח '''c'''
| ה '''h'''
|-
|-
| '''ע'''
! rowspan="2" | Trills
| '''אֶ'''
! voiced
| '''e'''
|
|  
| ר '''r'''
| || || ||
|-
|-
| '''י'''
! unvoiced
| '''אִ'''
|
| '''i'''
|
| רה '''rh'''
| || || ||
|-
|-
| '''ו'''
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
| '''אֻ'''
! voiced
| '''u'''
| ו '''w'''
|
| ל '''l'''
| י '''y'''
| || ||
|-
|-
| '''ײ'''
! unvoiced
| '''אֵ'''
|
| '''ey'''
|
| ש '''ł'''
|  
| || ||
|}
 
Vowels are written (when they are written at all) above or below the consonantal letters as little dots.  The stress-pattern of the word typically indicates whether a given syllable should be "long" or "short", except in the case of high-vowels and the center vowel.
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right;"
|+ vowel gramemes
! !! Forced Long !! Normal !! Forced Short
|-
|-
| '''ײַ'''
! A || אַא '''a`'''
| '''אַי'''
| אַ '''a'''
| '''ay'''
| אֲ '''ǎ'''
|-
|-
| '''ױ'''
! E || אֶה '''eh'''
| '''אֹ'''
| אֵ '''e'''
| '''oy'''
| אֶ '''ě'''
|-
|-
| '''אָו'''
! I || אִי '''iy'''
| '''אָי'''
| ø
| '''ow'''
| אִ '''i'''
|-
|-
| '''אַו'''
! O || אֹו '''ow'''
| '''אַו'''
| אָ '''o'''
| '''aw'''
| אֳ '''ǒ'''
|-
|-
! U || וּ '''u'''
| ø
| ø
| '''אְ'''
| אֻ '''ǔ'''
| <tt>/ə/</tt>
|-
|-
! Ə || אֱ '''ɨ'''
| אְ '''ǝ'''
| ø
| ø
| '''לֽ'''
| ''syllabic''
|}
|}
Handwriting, or cursive, is the same as Hebrew and Yiddish.  The Braille system is [[w:Hebrew Braille]].
[[File:Alfabet.hebrajski.png]]
==== Puncuation ====
A '''gereš''' - ׳ - is basically an apostrophe in Hebrew, but in Weddish it is a letter, a central vowel.  The "double gereš" ('''geršáyim''') is used to indicate contractions.  Quotation markers occur bottom-and-top, as in German (i.e. „ייִסראַעל“).  Periods in a traditional serif face usually looks like a tiny tilted square (a diamond; ◊). This is also true for the dot part of the question mark, and exclamation mark.  As in Hebrew, the left-to-right question mark is used, not the Arabic right-to-left one.  Periods in normal space use the ancient sof pasuk ⟨׃⟩.  Paseq ⟨׀⟩ acts as a comma.  The atnax is used when writing out poetry, to symbolize line breaks.  The makef <־> is used instead of hypehens.


== Phonotactics ==
The diphthongs are generally written as expected, except '''wy''' (ui) and '''yw''' (iu), which are never written with vowel-points, under any orthography.
Weddish phonotactics are inherited from Yiddish, which are quite permissive on the world scale<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/12</ref>.  While they do not rise to the level of Georgian or Salish, they are nevertheless sometimes difficult for English speakers. Gemination only becomes phonemic across word boundaries.  Consonant clusters are spontaneously broken up across syllables in order to make codas less complicated and, if necessary, onsets more so.
 
<br clear="both" />
 
=== Phonotactics ===
==== Initials ====
; With S : ,סק, סמ, סנ and סל.  Older versions of the language forbid '''st-''', but it is now permissible.  The same could be said of ספּר, סטר, סקר, ספּל, and סקל.
; With C : חל, חר, and חו.  New words no longer force '''sl-''' to change to '''cl-'''.
; With Þ/X : In a few Semitic words, תנ and צנ begin the syllable, e.g. {{term|צנוע}} (modest), or {{term|תנוך}} (earlobe).  There is also '''xl''', as in {{term|צלבן}} (to crucify).


=== Syllabic Consonants ===
The bulk of onset consonant clusters are subject to mutation.  There are many doubles on this table, but it is important to note the lexical form of a word,
Liquids and fricatives may be said syllabically.  Syllabic consonants often occur at the end of a word.  In an unstressed syllable, syllabic sonorants and syllables with a reduced vowel are indistinguishable.  In stressed syllables, no vowel is written, the onset and coda are optional or may consist of a single stop.
and follow the correct mutation path:


=== Onsets ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:560px;"
|+ mutatable onset clusters
! colspan="25" | Onset Consonant Clusters
| first || second
! Form !! Soft !! Nasal !! Aspirate
|-
|-
|
| rowspan="2" | p || l
! b || g || d || dz || dž || h || v || z || ž || t || č || y || x || l || m || n || s || p || f || c || k || r || š
! pl- !! bl- !! mhl- !! fl-
|-
|-
! b
| r
| || '''bg''' || '''bd''' || || || || || || || || || '''by''' || || '''bl''' || || || || || || || || '''br''' ||
! pr- !! br- !! mhr- !! fr-
|-
|-
! g
| rowspan="2" | t || r
|| || || || || || || '''gv''' || '''gz''' || || || || '''gy''' || || '''gl''' || || '''gn''' || || || || || || '''gr''' ||
! tr- !! dr- !! nhr- !! þr-
|-
|-
! d
| w
|| || || || || || || '''dv''' || '''dz''' || || || || '''dy''' || || '''dl''' || || '''dn''' || || || || || || '''dr''' ||
! tw- !! dw- !! nhw- !! bw-
|-
|-
! dz
| rowspan="3" | q || r
|| || || || || || || '''dzv''' || || || || || '''dzy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||  
! qr- !! gr- !! ŋhr- !! cr-
|-
|-
! dž
| l
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''džy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
! ql- !! ql- !! ŋhl- !! cl-
|-
|-
! h
| w
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''hy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
! qw- !! gw- !! ŋhw- !! cw-
|-
|-
! v
| b || l
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''vy''' || || '''vl''' || || || || || || || || '''vr''' ||
! bl- !! vl- !! ml- !!
|-
|-
! z
| d || r
| '''zb''' || '''zg''' || || || || || '''zv''' || || || || || '''zy''' || || '''zl''' || '''zm''' || '''zn''' || || || || || || '''zr''' ||  
! dr- !! ðr- !! nr- !!
|-
|-
! ž
| rowspan="3" | g || r
| '''žb''' || '''žg''' || || || || || '''žv''' || || || || || '''žy''' || || '''žl''' || '''žm''' || || || || || || ||  ||  
! gr- !! jr- !! ŋr- !!
|-
|-
! t
| l
| || || || || || || '''tv''' || || || || || '''ty''' || '''tx''' || '''tl''' || '''tm''' || '''tn''' || '''c''' || || '''tf''' || || '''tk''' || '''tr''' || '''č'''
! gl- !! jl- !! ŋl- !!
|-
|-
! č
| w
| || || || || || || '''čv''' || || || || || '''čy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
! gw- !! jw- !! ŋw- !!
|}
 
=== Morphophonology ===
Mutation
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Initial !! Soft !! Nasal !! Aspirate
|-
|-
! y
! p
| || || || || || || || || || || ||  || || || || || || || || || || ||
| b || mh || f
|-
|-
! x
! t
| || || || || || || '''xv''' || || || || || '''xy''' || || '''xl''' || '''xm''' || '''xn''' || '''xs''' || || || '''xc''' || '''xk''' || '''xr''' || '''xš'''
| d || nh || þ
|-
|-
! l
! q
| || || || || || || || || || || ||  || || || || || || || || || || ||
| g || ŋh || c
|-
|-
! m
! b
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''my''' || || '''ml''' || || || || || || || || '''mr''' ||  
| v || m ||  
|-
|-
! n
! d
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''ny''' || || || || || || || || || || ||  
| ð || n ||  
|-
|-
! s
! g
| || || '''sd''' || || || || '''sv''' || || || '''st''' || '''sč''' || '''sy''' || '''sx''' || '''sl''' || '''sm''' || '''sn''' || || '''sp''' || '''sf''' || || '''sk''' || '''sr''' ||  
| j || ŋ ||  
|-
|-
! p
! m
| || || || || || || '''pv''' || || || '''pt''' || || '''py''' || '''px''' || '''pl''' || || '''pn''' || '''ps''' || || '''pf''' || || '''pk''' || '''pr''' || '''pš'''
| w || ||  
|-
|-
! f
! ll
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''fy''' || || '''fl''' || || || || || || || || '''fr''' ||  
| l || ||  
|-
|-
! c
! rh
| || || '''cd''' || || || || '''cv''' || || || || || '''cy''' || || '''cl''' || || '''cn''' || || || || || || '''cr''' ||  
| r || ||  
|-
|-
! k
! wh
| || || '''kd''' || || || || '''kv''' || || || '''kt''' || || '''ky''' || '''kx''' || '''kl''' || || '''kn''' || '''ks''' || || || || || '''kr''' ||  
| w || ||
|-
|-
! r
! yh
| || || || || || || || || || || ||  || || || || || || || || || || ||
| y || ||  
|-
! š
| || || || || || || '''šv''' || || || '''št''' || '''šč''' || '''šy''' || '''šx''' || '''šl''' || '''šm''' || '''šn''' || || '''šp''' || '''šf''' || || '''šk''' || '''šr''' ||  
|}
|}
There are three-consonant clusters allowed that begin with '''s''' or '''š''' plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid: '''spl''', '''spr''', '''str''', '''skr''', '''skl''', '''špl''', '''špr''', '''štr''', '''škl''', and '''škr''' but not '''stl''' or '''štl'''.


American's should take care with '''dr''', '''tr''', '''štr''', and '''str''' not to "africatize" the cluster.


=== Codas ===
Final '''t''''s and '''c''''s devoice any other code consonants.  In writing, it may look like there are therefore combinations not possible on the chart below, but they are pronounced devoiced.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:560px;"
== Pronouns ==
! colspan="25" | Coda Consonant Clusters
{{Main|Weddish/Pronouns}}
Weddish pronouns are split in two groups. The 1st and 2nd person align nominative-accusative.  The third person pronouns are ergative-absolutive.
 
 
=== 1st and 2nd ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Person !! Number !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Suffixing !! Dative !! Genitive
|-
|-
!
! rowspan="3" | First
! b || g || d || dz || dž || h || v || z || ž || t || č || y || x || l || m || n || s || p || f || c || k || r || š
! singular
| {{C2|איח|איִח}}
| {{C2|מיח|מיִח}}
| {{C2|־מי|־מִי}}
| {{C2|מה|מֵה}}
| {{C2|מין|מִין}}
|-
|-
! b
! antinomic/dual
| || || '''bd''' || '''bdz''' || || || || '''bz''' || '''bž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| {{C2|ויט|ויִט}}
| {{C2|אוק|אֹוק}}
| {{C2|־אוח|־אֹוח}}
| {{C2|אוע|אֹוע}}
| {{C2|אועקנז|אֹועְקֶנְז}}
|-
|-
! g
! pl.
| || || '''gd''' || '''gdz''' || || || || '''gz''' || '''gž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| {{C2|וי|וִי}}
| {{C2|וּס|וס}}
| {{C2|־וס|־וּס}}
| {{C2|וה|וֵה}}
| {{C2|וסר|וּסֶר}}
|-
|-
! d
! rowspan="3" | Second
| || || || || || || || '''dz''' || '''dž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
! singular
| {{C2|תו|תוּ}} <!--Man, does RTL wreck things! //-->
| {{C2|תיק|תִיק}}
| {{C2|־תי|־תִי}}
| {{C2|תה|תֵה}}
| {{C2|תין|תִין}}
|-
|-
! dz
! antinomic/dual
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| {{C2|יהט|יְהַט}}
| {{C2|איעק|אִיעְק}}
| {{C2|־אנך|־אִנְך}}
| {{C2|יהח|יְהִח}}
| {{C2|איעקנז|אִיעְקִנְז}}
|-
|-
! dž
! plural
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| {{C2|יהי|יְהִי}}
| {{C2|יהוק|יְהוּק}}
| {{C2|־יהו|־יְהוּ}}
| {{C2|יהו|יְהֹו}}
| {{C2|יהוור|יְהוּוֶר}}
|}
 
=== 3rd ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Gender !! Number !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Suffixing !! Dative !! Genitive
|-
|-
! h
! masculine
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
! rowspan="2" | singular
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|אי|אֵי}}
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|איק|אֵיק}}
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|־אי|־אֵי}}
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|איס|אֵיס}}
| {{C2|היס|הִיס}}
|-
|-
! v
! feminine
| || || || || || || || '''vz''' || '''vž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| {{C2|הר|הַר}}
|-
|-
! z
! inanimate
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
! singular/antinomic
|-
| {{C2|אט|אִט}}
! ž
| ø
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| {{C2|־אט|־אִט}}
|-
| {{C2|טו|טֹו}} {{C2|אט|אִט}}
! t
| {{C2|דּ־|דְּ־}}{{C2|אט|אִט}}
| || || || || || || || || || || || || '''tx''' || ||  ||  || '''c''' || || || || || || '''č'''
|-
! č
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
|-
! y
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
|-
! x
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''xt''' || || || || || '''xs''' || '''xp''' || || || '''xk''' || || '''xš'''
|-
! l
| '''lb''' || '''lg''' || '''ld''' || '''ldz''' || '''ldž''' || || '''lv''' || '''lz''' || '''lž''' || '''lt''' || '''lč''' ||  || '''lx''' || || '''lm''' || '''ln''' || '''ls''' || '''lp''' || '''lf''' || '''lc''' || '''lk''' || || '''lš'''
|-
! m
| '''mb''' || || '''md''' || '''mdz''' || '''mdž''' || || || ='''mdz''' || ='''mdž''' || || || || || || || || ='''mps''' || '''mp''' || ='''mpf''' || || || || ='''mpš'''
|-
! n
| || '''ng''' || '''nd''' || '''ndz''' || '''ndž''' || || || ='''ndz''' || ='''ndž''' || '''nt''' || '''nč''' || || ='''nkx''' || || || || ='''nc''' || || || '''nc''' || '''nk''' || || ='''nč'''
|-
! s
|  ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''st''' || '''sč''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''sp''' ||  || '''sc''' || '''sk''' || ||  
|-
! p
| ||  ||  || || ||  || ||  ||  || '''pt''' || '''pč''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''ps''' ||  || '''pf''' || '''pc''' || '''pk''' || || '''pš'''
|-
! f
| ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  || '''ft''' || '''fč''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''fs''' || '''fp''' ||  || '''fc''' || || '''fk''' || '''fš'''
|-
|-
! c
! masculine
! rowspan="2" | antinomic
| {{C2|פו|פֹו}}
| {{C2|גּור|גּוּר}}
| {{C2|־אם|־אִם}}
| {{C2|הם|הִם}}
| {{C2|היס|הִיס}}
|-
|-
! k
! feminine
| || || || || || ||  ||  ||  || '''kt''' || '''kč''' ||  || '''kx''' ||  ||  ||  || '''ks''' ||  || '''kf''' || '''kc''' ||  || || '''kš'''
| {{C2|הי|הִי}}
| {{C2|גּוריגּ|גּוּרַיגּ}}
| {{C2|־איר|־אִיר}}
| {{C2|היר|הִיר}}
| {{C2|הר|הַר}}
|-
|-
! r
! all
| '''rb''' || '''rg''' || '''rd''' || '''rdz''' || '''rdž''' || || '''rv''' || '''rz''' || '''rž''' || '''rt''' || '''rč''' ||  || '''rx''' || || '''rm''' || '''rn''' || '''rs''' || '''rp''' || '''rf''' || '''rc''' || '''rk''' || || '''rš'''
! dual
| {{C2|בּית|בֵּית}}
| {{C2|בּיק|בֵּיק}}
| {{C2|־אית|־אֵיר}}
| טֹו בֵּית
| סִין
|-
|-
! š
! all
| || || || || || ||  ||  ||  || '''št''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  '''šs''' || '''šp''' || || || '''šk''' ||  ||
! plural
 
| {{C2|יהא|יְהַא}}
| {{C2|יהק|יְהַק}}
| {{C2|־יהא|־יְהַא}}
| טֹו יְהַא
| סִין
|}
|}
There are also ''liquids plus stop plus homorganic, alveolar fricative'': '''lps, lbz, lks, lgz, rps, rbz, rks, rgz.'''
== Suprasegmentals ==
Stress is predicable, if one knows the root of a word.  The first syllable of the root receives primary stress, with secondary stresses proceed out onto alternating syllables, forwards and backwards.  (The major exception is the dual, which moves the stress of a word with an odd number of syllables.)  The default rhythm of Weddish is ''trochaic'': '''stressed'''-unstressed.  Neither vowel length nor stress is phonemic. Long vowels indicate stress. If the word is long, one of the first three syllables must have primary stress.  Prefixes and suffixes all have an underlying vowel which is expressed or repressed in order to maintain the rhythm pattern.  Two syllables with reduced vowels may not follow each other. 


Polar and interrogative questions are both marked by a rising tone at the end of the utterance.
=== Wh-words ===
; what : {{C2|והט|וְהַט}}
; who : Absolutive - {{C2|והא|וְהַא}} ; Ergative - {{C2|והק|וְהַק}} ; Genitive - {{C2|והמס|וְהַמֵס}} ; Dative - {{C2|והם|וְהַם}}
; when : {{C2|והן|וְהֵן}}
; how : {{C2|והו|וְהֹו}}
; which : {{C2|והלך|וְהִלְך}}
; why : {{C2|והיד|וְהִיד}}


== Syntax ==
{{ClassMeter
|Name = Weddish
|NativeName = וועדיש
|Type = fusional
|Alignment = Ergative-Absolutive
|Head = Second
|Tonal = no
|Declined = no
|Conjugated = yes
|Genders = 2
|NCase = no
|NNumber = yes
|NDefiniteness = no
|NGender = yes
|VVoice = yes
|VMood = no
|VPerson = yes
|VNumber = yes
|VTense = no
|VAspect = yes


|Phonology= 100
== Nominals ==
|NounCases= 50
{{Main|Weddish/Nominals}}
|NounDef= 80
It is important to be aware of case, number, and gender (animacy) when dealing with Weddish nouns.
|NounNumbers= 90
|NounGender= 50
|VerbPerson= 50
|VerbNumber= 50
|VerbAspect= 50
|VerbTense= 100
|VerbMood= 10
|VerbVoice= 30
|AdjCase= 60
|AdjNumber= 30
|AdjDef= 80
|AdjGen= 90
|AdjComparative= 10
|AdjSuperlative= 10
|AdjGen= 10
|Supine= 20
|Gerund=0
|Participle= 20
|Infinitive= 20
|Modality= 20
|Words= 100


|adjective = final
=== Animacy ===
|adposition = initial
Vowel vs consonant ending ... sometimes
|adverb= final
|article= initial
|relativeclause = initial
|nounclause = mixed
|order = SVO
}}
Weddish aims to appeal to English speakers.  While the verbal-system is somewhat new, the noun-system should be easy.  Nouns are not inflected, but pronouns have unique forms that show part of speech.  Like German, articles inflect, not the noun.  Weddish (like English) only has gender on the independent third person personal pronouns.  Otherwise there are just noun classes, a system taken from Basque.  People, animals, and things that can move on their own are "animate", while plants and other objects are "inanimate". Adjectives do not inflect unless substantive, and there are not many adjectives. Most descriptors are intransitive verbs.


[[File:MorphSyntAlign2.png|left]]Weddish has an ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment.  This was purposefully chosen to stimulate thinking, and done in imitation of Basque.  Most languages in the world treat the actor of transitive verb and the subject of an intransitive verb in the same way.  The object of a transitive verb is special in these systems.  It can be promoted to the subject via the passive voice.  Normally, it must come after the verb.  Weddish treats the ''object'' of a transitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb the same, called the "absolutive case".  Actors of transitive verbs are specially, called the "ergative case".  This is the special case in Weddish.  It must come before the verb and can be demoted by the anti-passive voice.
=== Number ===
Singular vs. Plural, but also antinomic vs. dual


<br />
=== Genitive ===
Animate vs {{C2|דּ־|דְּ־}}


It would be tempting to classify Weddish as VSO (subject-veb-object) like Hebrew, but that's not quite right.  It is, in fact, a V2 language, which means the verb always wants to come second.  (Discourse particles and few other things do not count towards calculating where "second" is, and entire phrases are taken as a whole when counting this place.)  Because core cases are marked almost solely by word order, the actor of a transitive verb (the ergative case) must come before the verb, i.e. first in the sentence.  It could also be said that intransitive sentences are VSO and transitive ones are SVO.
=== Dative ===
Prepositions {{C2|טו|טֹו}}


The V2 Principle is carried throughout Weddish, to the point where it might be labeled a "head second" language.  This is not a recognized typology, since languages are either head-initial, head-final, or mixed.  In compound nouns, the head is second.  For auxiliary verbs, the head verb is second.  For nouns with attributive modifiers, the article comes first, but adjectives come after the noun, making it head-second as well.
=== Ergative ===
{{term|־ק}}


=== Number ===
English, Hebrew, Yiddish and many other languages have two numbers: singular and plural.  Weddish (like Arabic) has three: singular, dual, and plural.  Obviously, the dual is for two of something, and the plural therefore means three or more.  However, in regards to persons, the dual is used on married people, even if only one of them is being spoken about.  Exceptions can be made in every case except the ergative, which is reserved for the spouses to use on each other.  This distinction does not apply in the third person for people not present.


Weddish also distinguishes whether actions were done as individuals or all as a group.  It also possible to add "associates" of a noun to it. 
== Determiners ==
=== Copula ===
{{Main|Weddish/Determiners}}
The verb "to be", "to become", and "to have" are all copulas in Weddish.  That means they all use only the absolutive case, never the ergative.  However, "to be" and "to have" are more like "to equal" and "to exist".  "I have shoes" is literally "Shoes exist to me".  This can be easier for Far East Asians to learn than Westerners.
Every noun that isn't proper must be covered by a determiner.


<br clear="both" />
=== Articles ===
== Morphology ==
The two articles of Weddish are definite and specific.  What in English would be covered by the indefinite article is split between the specific article and anarthrous usage.
=== Case ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left; text-align:center"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right"
|+ Definite Article - {{C2|דה|דֵה}}
! colspan="4" | Genitive
| ||
! Singular !! Antinomic !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | '''פֿון'''/'''fun'''
! rowspan="3" | Animate !! Genitive
| colspan="2"| דֵס
| colspan="2" | דִיס
|-
|-
! Dative || Ablative || Partitive || Equative
! Ergative
|-
| colspan="2" | דֵק
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ל׳'''/'''l-'''
| colspan="2" | דִיק
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ב׳'''/'''b-'''
| style="text-align:center;" | '''מ׳'''/'''m-'''
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ק׳'''/'''k-'''
|}
 
By default, all nouns are in the ''absolutive'' case.  But, if they are placed '''''before''''' the verb, then they are said to be in the ergative case, though their morphology is unchanged. Linguists call these two case the "core cases" of a language, since they are fundamental.  There are five additional cases --- called "non-core" cases --- that are also very important.  Unlike many languages that have ''suffixing'' case marking, Weddish has ''prefixing''.  This is because they are derived from Hebrew Inseparable Prepositions.  Phrases in the non-core cases either relate to the verb (and are hence, adverbial), or are in a noun phrase.  In relation to nouns, the core cases are all seen as greater specificity ''within'' the genitive case.
 
Non-core cases all fall under the umbrella term "genitive".  The generic genitive is not a case ''per se'', but a preposition (meaning, a separable preposition).  An expression like '''די לינע פֿונ געלט/di line fun gelt'''/''the love of money'' is even more ambiguous in Weddish than in English.  It may mean ''the love [belonging] to money'', ''the love in/by money'', ''the love from/composed of money'', or ''the love as/according to money''.  After a genitive phrase has been established or is implicitly understood, the phrase may incorporated be into a compound noun using the "head-second" structure.
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
|+ '''Case, Articles, and IP's'''
!
! colspan="3" | Definite
! Indefinite
! rowspan="2" | Anarthrous
|-
!
! <small>anim.sg</small>
! <small>dl</small>
! <small>inan.sg/pl</small>
! <small>sg/dl</small>
|-
! Erg.
| '''{{C|der}}'''
| rowspan="2" | '''{{C|dos}}'''
| rowspan="2" | '''{{C|di}}'''
| rowspan="2" | '''{{C|a}}([[Contionary:an|n]])'''
| rowspan="2" | ø
|-
! Abs.
| '''{{C|dem}}'''
|-
|-
! Dat.
! Absolutive
| '''{{C|lem}}'''
| דֵר
| '''{{C|ler}}'''
| דִיר
| '''{{C|li}}'''
| דֵור
| '''{{C|len}}'''
| דַאר
| '''l-'''
|-
|-
! Abl.
! Inanimate !! Absolutive
| '''{{C|bem}}'''
| דֵה
| '''{{C|bos}}'''
| דִי
| '''{{C|bi}}'''
| דֵו
| '''{{C|bam}}'''
| דַא
| '''b-'''
|-
! Part.
| '''{{C|mem}}'''
| '''{{C|mos}}'''
| '''{{C|mi}}'''
| '''min a'''
| '''m-/{{C|min}}'''
|-
! Eq.
| '''{{C|kem}}'''
| '''{{C|kos}}'''
| '''{{C|ki}}'''
| '''{{C|ka}}'''
| '''k-'''
|}
|}


The definite article is always determined.  In the following hierarchy, if an article is any of these, it is also all those to the left:
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right; text-align:center"
* Identifying --> Anaphoric --> Well-Known --> ''Par Excellence'' --> Monadic
|+ Specific Article - {{C2|אן|אֵן}}
 
| ||
=== Number ===
! Singular !! Antinomic !! Dual !! Plural
Weddish verbs conjugate for three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), but nouns inflect '''''eleven''''' different ways!  However, these myriad ways can be easily understood as the optional adding of "associates" to a noun, and distinguishing between masses of individuals and collectives (one forest vs. many trees).  The following table is color-coded to show verb conjugation in the singular (light background), dual (purple), and plural (brown).
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! || Singular || Dual || Plural
|-
|-
! Distributive
! rowspan="2" | Animate !! Genitive
| '''בין''' <br /> '''bin''' <br /> ''a bee''
| colspan="2" | אֵנְס
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''בינײַים''' <br /> '''bináyim''' <br /> ''two bees each''
| colspan="2" | אִנִיס
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''בינען''' <br /> '''binen''' <br /> ''bees each''
|-
|-
! Collective
! Absolutive
|  
| אֵן
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''ג׳בינײַים''' <br /> '''g'bináyim''' <br /> ''a couple of bees''
| אֵנִיר
| '''ג׳בינען''' <br /> '''g'binen''' <br /> ''a group of friends''
| אִנֵור
| אִנַאר
|-
|-
! Distributive <br /> Associative
! Inanimate !! Absolutive
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''בינאאַװ''' <br /> '''bin'av''' <br /> ''a bee et al each''
| אֵנֶה
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''בינײַימאאַװ''' <br /> '''bináyim'av''' <br /> ''two bees et al each''
| אֵנִי
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''בינענאאַװ''' <br /> '''binen'av''' <br /> ''bees et al each''
| אִנֵו
|-
| אִנַא
! Collective <br /> Associative
| '''ג׳בינאאַװ''' <br /> '''g'bin'av''' <br /> ''a group of a bees et al''
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''ג׳בינײַימאאַװ''' <br /> '''g'bináyim'av''' <br /> ''a group of two bees et al''
| '''ג׳בינענאאַװ''' <br /> '''g'binen'av''' <br /> ''a group of bees et al''
|}
|}


There are a plethora of paradigms for the distributive plural formations, 99% of which time come straight from the Yiddish plural.  The regular plural endings for nouns are ס- -s for a noun that ends in an unstressed r, m, n, or vowel, ען- -en after a stressed vowel, m, n, ng, or nk and ן- -n for most other types of nouns.
On the one hand, it is tempting to say that only '''ðeh''' is an article.  It has more forms (because it can be ergative) and the lexical form is the inanimate singular (unlike the more adjectival specific article).  However, both trigger mutation in feminine nouns.  ''''En''' is clearly closer to English ''an'' than Englih ''one'', so for conventions sake, we say it is an article too.


There are a very large number of nouns with irregular distribute plural forms, including -es (these are usually nouns of Slavic origin), and -er with umlaut (eg., man 'man', cf mener 'men'; kind 'child', cf kinder 'children'), or umlaut alone (eg., האנט hant 'hand', cf הענט hent 'hands'). Many words of Hebrew origin form plurals, not with -im, but with -in (like Aramaic).  Feminine Hebrew word end in -es. Many plural forms of words are accompanied with a stem vowel mutation.
<br clear="both" />
=== Anarthrous ===
Anarthrous clauses might be un-adorned vocative phrase, or non-specific and indefinite. That is, they typically refer to an entity not immediately discernible from discourse and not any particular entity.  


The dual ending is unique, in that is shifts the accent pattern of the root to itself.  It may be written '''-áyim''' to indicate that shift.  This shift triggers vowel reduction of of the previous syllable, if it is a diphthong (cutting it down to its first vowel).
=== Quantifiers ===
Most of the remaining determiners not mentioned heretofore, are quantifiers, determiners that describe the quantity of an item.  Weddish very particular with its quantifiers, distinguishing very particularly between determiners and adjectives based on position.  Linguists note that these differences are off a very unique kind, what they call 'evidentials'.  Quantifiers used as determiners denote a kind of "God's eye point of view" or "omniscient evidentiality" which is not present when used as an adjective.


The number affixes may be summarized as follows:
For example, consider the two following phrases
* '''g-''' is the collective prefix, which turns most groups into "one's"
* all men
* '''-áyim''' is the dual suffix, while '''-s/es''' and '''-n/en/in''' are the inanimate and animate distributive plurals respectively. Vowel reduction and/or umlaut may occur.
* the men all (of them)
* '''-'av''' is the associative plural
While these phrases are synonymous in English, in Weddish they indicate a difference in level of confidence in the information presented: ''all men'' is a phrase universal and without any exceptions, whereas ''the men, all of them'' is completely human and normal, allowing for natural exceptions.
=== Others ===
Distributives, numerals, and possessives make up the remaining determiners (Interrogatives make-up an overlapping category).


Forms lacking the collective plural endings are automatically distributive unless singular.
== Clauses ==
=== Pronouns ===
=== Verbs ===
==== Independent Personal ====
{{Main|Weddish/Verbs}}
Absolutive independent personal pronouns are most commonly used with ø-copula clauses to show predication.  Such sentences are distinguished from those with the "to be" verb, which show absolute identity, as opposed to mere attribution.  '''Gu Yidiš'''/''We are Jewish'' vs. '''Big Džonzez'''/''We are (the) Jones's''.
Weddish textbooks call their verb conjugations, ''present'', ''past'', and ''future'', and then list all the ways they aren't.  It seems better to call then what they are: aspects and moods.  The Continuous, the Perfective, and the Subjunctive are available in most verbs.  What makes it more confusing is that two verbs -- to be and to have -- do indeed conjugate for tense, and are used extensively at the start of discourses, and at jumps in the relative time.


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
==== Continuous ====
! colspan="2" |  
{| class="bluetable" style="text-align:right;"
! Ergative
|+ Continuous Finite
! Absolutive
! !! One !! Many
! Dative
! Ablative
! Partitive
! Equative
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | 1
! 1st
! <small>sg</small>
| –ם
| '''{{C|'ix}}'''
| rowspan="3" | –ן
| '''{{C|mix}}'''
| '''{{C|mir}}'''
| '''{{C|bix}}'''
| '''{{C|mix}}'''
| '''{{C|kix}}'''
|-
|-
! <small>dl</small>
! 2nd
| '''{{C|gurekin}}'''
| –ס
| '''{{C|gu}}'''
| '''{{C|gir}}'''
| '''{{C|bug}}'''
| '''{{C|ming}}'''
| '''{{C|koug}}'''
|-
|-
! <small>pl</small>
! 3rd
| '''{{C|vir}}'''
| –ת
| '''{{C|mir}}'''
|}
| '''{{C|undz}}'''
 
| '''{{C|bu}}'''
Imperatives are '''-ø''' for the singular and –ת for the plural.  The participle (verb-made-adjective) is –נד.  The infinitive (verb-made-noun) is –ינה.  The gerund (auxiliary-verb-complement) is –יע.
| '''{{C|minu}}'''
 
| '''{{C|ku}}'''
==== Aorist ====
{| class="bluetable" style="text-align:right;"
|+ Aorist Finite
! !! One !! Many
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2
! 1st 
! <small>sg</small>
| -ø
| '''{{C|du}}'''
| rowspan="3" | –ון
| '''{{C|dix}}'''
| '''{{C|dir}}'''
| '''{{C|bed}}'''
| '''{{C|mind}}'''
| '''{{C|ked}}'''
|-
|-
! <small>dl</small>
! 2nd
| '''{{C|stu}}'''
| –ס
| '''{{C|stuk}}'''
| '''{{C|stire}}'''
| '''{{C|bist}}'''
| '''{{C|minst}}'''
| '''{{C|kist}}'''
|-
|-
! <small>pl</small>
! 3rd
| '''{{C|'ir}}'''
| -ד
| '''{{C|ayx}}'''
| '''{{C|'ux}}'''
| '''{{C|bikm}}'''
| '''{{C|mint}}'''
| '''{{C|kat}}'''
|-
! rowspan="5" | 3
! <small>m.a.sg</small>
| '''{{C|er}}'''
| '''{{C|'im}}'''
| '''{{C|'inen}}'''
| '''{{C|bo}}'''
| '''{{C|mino}}'''
| '''{{C|ko}}'''
|-
! <small>inam.sg</small>
| '''{{C|zi}}'''
| '''{{C|es}}'''
| '''{{C|aya}}'''
| '''{{C|ba}}'''
| '''{{C|mina}}'''
| '''{{C|ka}}'''
|-
! <small>dl</small>
| '''{{C|bera}}'''
| '''{{C|hura}}'''
| '''{{C|hav}}'''
| '''{{C|bav}}'''
| '''{{C|minav}}'''
| '''{{C|kav}}'''
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| '''{{C|zey}}'''
| '''{{C|cey}}'''
| '''{{C|čire}}'''
| '''{{C|bouč}}'''
| '''{{C|minč}}'''
| '''{{C|kač}}'''
|-
! <small>f.a.sg</small>
| '''{{C|ši}}'''
| '''{{C|her}}'''
| '''{{C|herz}}'''
| '''{{C|bau}}'''
| '''{{C|mim}}'''
| '''{{C|kauk}}'''
|}
|}


Possessive pronouns (cp. English ''mine'', ''ours'', ''yours'', ''hers'', ''his'', ''its'', ''theirs'')
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
!
! sg !! dl !! pl !! sg !! dl !! pl !! sg !! dl !! pl/inanim.
|-
! Erg.
| מײַן || גורײַן || אונדזער
| דײַן || סטײַן || אײַער
| זײַן (m) הערס (f) || בײַן || זײער
|-
! Abs.
| מײַנס || גורײַנס || אונדזערס
| דײַנס || סטײַנס || אײַערס
| זײַנס (m) הערס (f) || בײַנס || זײערס
|}


==== Interrogative ====
The aorist is made from a different principle part, which is sometimes predictable through umlaut or reverse umlaut, and sometimes not.  There is also the suffixing of a -ד or –ט (cp. Germanic weak verbs).  The imperative is –ת.  The participle is ג...וד.  The infinitive is ג...ן.  The gerund is ג...ד.
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
|
! Erg. || Abs. || Gen. || Dat. || Abl. || Part. || Eq.
|-
! Persons.
| {{C|mi}} || {{C|ver}} || {{C|vermens}} || {{C|vermen}} || {{C|bimi}} || {{C|mimi}} || {{C|komi}}
|-
! Impers.
| {{C|ma}} || {{C|vos}} || {{C|fun vos}} || {{C|vu}} || {{C|vi}} || {{C|vat}} || {{C|ven}}
|}
The interrogative pronouns do not inflect for person, number, or gender.  Linguists would say they are animate and inanimate, though Weddish grammar calls them "personal" and "impersonal".  They are identical to the relative pronoun (just as in English) and must match their antecedent in animacy, but not in case.  Instead (just as in English) they indicate their new role in the relative clause.
==== Affixes ====
Like Hebrew, Weddish uses enclitic forms of pronouns to indicate several things.  The imperfective aspect uses suffixes to indicate the absolutive argument, and prefixes to indicate the ergative argument. These same suffixes, when used on nouns, mark a genitive relationship. On transitive verbs, the prefix (matching) the ergative argument, are obligatory.  Weddish is pro-drop with regards to pronouns, but an affix on both ends is required on transitive verbs. Remember, there are no ambi-transitive verbs in Weddish.  Use of the independent personal pronouns when the person has been specified on either end of the verb is considered emphatic.


The perfective aspect also has suffixes for intransitive verbs, to indicate the absolutive argument.  However, for transitive verbs, a major of the affixes are circumfixes.  Also, perfective transitive verbs take the suffixes associated with the imperfective to show their absolutive argument.
==== Subjunctive ====
Often used as a simple future, the subjunctive is made from the same stem as the continuous.  one: –א.  Many –וח.


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left;"
==== Auxiliary ====
|+ Imperfective (and Genitive)
The three main forms of each verb only show aspect. True tense marking requires the presence of a copula.
! Person || # || Suffix || Prefix
|-
! rowspan="3" | <big>1</big>
! sg
| '''-(n)i'''
| '''ni-'''
|-
! dl
| '''-(u)g'''
| '''gu-'''
|-
! pl
| '''-(n)u'''
| '''na-'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | <big>2</big>
! sg
| '''-(e)d'''
| '''de-'''
|-
! dl
| '''-(e)st'''
| '''sti-'''
|-
! pl
| '''-ti'''
| '''ta-'''
|-
! rowspan="4" | <big>3</big>
! anim.
| '''-o'''
| '''ro-'''
|-
! inan.
| '''-(y)a'''
| '''čay-'''
|-
! dl
| '''-av*'''
| ø
|-
! pl
| '''-(ay/i)č'''
| '''čay-'''
|}


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left;"
|+ Perfective
! Person || # || Intransitive || Transitive
|-
! rowspan="3" | <big>1</big>
! sg
| '''-ti'''
| '''e(n)-'''
|-
! dl
| ø
| '''x(e)-'''
|-
! pl
| '''-(e)m'''
| '''me- -u'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | <big>2</big>
! sg
| '''-t'''
| '''ta-'''
|-
! dl
| '''-tem'''
| '''ta- -i'''
|-
! pl
| '''-ten'''
| '''ta- -u'''
|-
! rowspan="4" | <big>3</big>
! anim.
| '''-ayl'''
| '''ya-'''
|-
! inan.
| '''-ant'''
| '''ta- -nu'''
|-
! dl
| '''-naya'''
| '''yi- -ina'''
|-
! pl
| '''-ant'''
| '''ta- -u'''
|}


<br clear="both" />


=== Verbs ===
Other aux verbs include skulen (should), wilen (will), weuþen (to become), dwyn (to do), hauven (to have)
Weddish verbs take affixes for aspect, then use auxiliaries for tense and mood.


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right;"
=== Adnominals ===
! Normal || Antipassive
Adjectives is an open class in Weddish.  They follow the noun and need not agree in any way, though they often do so in a way that keeps the trochaic meter going (see Prosody).  Prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow adjectives.  Verbs conjugated as participles are adjectives, taking the head noun as their absolutive argument.  Other uses of verbs require relative clauses. 
|-
| -ei- || -a-
|-
| -ai- || -ei-
|-
| -o- || -ow-
|-
| -oy- || -a-
|-
| -e- || -u-
|-
| -i- || -a-/-e-/-u-
|}


There are several valency-altering operations available in Yiddish, which may be combined.  The anti-passive is formed by ablaut.  The causative is made with the prefix ש׳/š-, which takes its voicing from the next consonant. The reflexive is made with the prefix היט/hit-, which also takes its voicing from the following consonant.
Nouns can be made adnominal, either by being put into the genitive or by certain suffixes.  For example {{term|־סק}} '''-(i)sq''' attaches to nouns or adjectives and makes them into adjectives mean "of or pertaining to x" (cp. English -ish).


==== Non-finite ====
=== Adverbials ===
The imperfective participle is made by the suffix -(e)n.  The perfective participle is made by the circumfix ge- -en.  The infinitive (also called the infinitive construct) is the participle with a preposition, usually '''cu'''. The adverbial form (also called infinitive absolute) is simply the participle form unattached.
Like in English, nouns of time can be used as adverbs with zero-derivation.  The suffix {{term|־לך}} '''-lik'' (cp. English -ly) is the most common adverb-maker.


==== Incorporation ====
== Numerals ==
On the Mithun scale<ref>Mithun, Marianne. 1984. The Evolution of Noun Incorporation. ''Language'', Vol. 60, No. 4. pp. 847-894.</ref>, Weddish does type-I and type-II noun incorporation.  This means
{{Main|Weddish/Numerals}}
# דאָװיד ראָקלײביטש יאַגדעס׃ - '''Dovid rokleybič yagdes.'''
Weddish numbers are a true anomaly. The technical description is that they are "sexagesimal, with a duodecimal sub-base". That means, they start off counting by twelves, and then group those into sixties.   
#: ''Dovid picks berries.''
#: which is equivalent to
## יאַגדעקלײבאָ דאָװיד׃ - '''Yagdekleybo Dovid.'''
##: ''Dovid berry-picked.''
# ניװאַשאַװ פאָנײַימאָ׃ - '''Nivašav ponáyimo.'''
#: ''I wash his face.''
#: which is equivalent to
## ניפאָנעמװאַשאָ׃ - '''Niponemvašo.'''
##: ''I face-wash him.''


=== Derivation ===
== Lexicography ==
{{Main|Weddish/Lexicography}}
{{See|the complete Swadesh list with relative language comparisons,|Weddish/Swadesh}}


==== Compounding ====
Weddish words are well-defined by historical epochs.  From their inception to 1066, the Wedds were warriors, and then farmers.  Agrarian words and grammatical words are of Germanic origin, and most illustrate that Weddish came from Old Frisian, though a few look more like Old English.  Also, some Welsh words entered in this time, including some Latin words which where already in Old Welsh.   
When the relationships between nouns is genitive, and it has already been stated or can easily be implied, compound nouns may be formed.  For example, ''a field for football/soccer'' may become '''fusbolfeld'''.  (Note the loss of abstraction suffixes.)  Suppose it was an Australian rules football field.  Would could make '''fusbolfeldeoystralie'''. Lastly, If one wanted to add that it is '''mgroz'''/''composed of grass'', this could become '''פֿוסבאָלפֿעלדעאויסטראליעגראָז'''/'''fusbolfeldeoystraliegroz'''.  Words with greater than four parts are deemed colloquial.  Word order is "head second", with the first specifier coming at the very front.  Unlike German, every piece must modify the head.


==== Abstract Nouns ====
Next, Biblical and religious words came from Hebrew and related languages.  These were the words of the ruling class, the educated, and the elite.  The end of Jewish dominance may have come in 1290, but new words were still being coined from Hebrew for some time afterwards.  Eventually, Welsh served as the conduit for outside influence until the 16th century, at which point English began to enter the scene.
All nouns in Weddish are inherently concrete.  Two levels of abstraction are possible through suffixation.  The first signifies the ''practice'' of one or more persons.  The second signifies the ''understanding'' of the practice.  Both are available in both noun classes, with the animate form referring to a person (of either gender).  The "practice"-form occurs much more often in the animate and the "understanding"-form occurs much more often in the inanimate.  Remember, this are no truly abstract nouns in Weddish, for they do not exist.


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
== Texts ==
! Suffix
{{Main|Literature:Translations}}
! "Tennis"
| gloss
! "Peace"
| gloss
|-
! ø
| '''a tenis'''
| ''a game of tennis''
| '''a šolem'''
| ''a season of peace''
|-
! rowspan="2" | -ay
| '''dos tenisayo'''
| ''his tennis game''
| '''šolemaya'''
| ''her (practice of) peace''
|-
| '''dem tenisayt'''
| ''the tennis player''
| '''dem šolemayt'''
| ''the peacemaker''
|-
! rowspan="2" | -šaft
| '''dos tenisšafte'''
| ''the game of tennis'' / "tennisology"
| '''šolemšafte'''
| ''peace know-how''
|-
| '''a tenisšaft'''
| ''a tennisologist''
| '''a šolemšaft'''
| ''a student of peace''
|}


== Discourse ==
=== [[The Lord's prayer]] ===
=== Formality ===
* 'Ow 'Av-us 'in llâmayiym,
=== Particles ===
* qǎðowll beþ þiyněh nowm
By far the most commonly occurring particle is '''v-''', which is like a verbal comma.  Yiddish - like English - has the word and/'''un'''.  Weddish, however, only uses that word to connect clauses.  '''v-''' is a return to Hebrew, though typically not at the start of sentences.
* þiyněh mamlâk qowměþ


== Examples ==
=== [[The Tower of Babel]] ===
כאָקמאַשאַפֿטנו (אַזױ װײַט עס עמעס װ׳זיכע) באַשטײטאַ מין ג׳פאַרצײַים ׀ גאָטשאַפֿטע װ׳זיכשאַפֿטע׃
כאָקמענו (אַזױ װײַט װי עס עמעסדיך װ׳זיכער) באַשטייטאַ ​​מין געפאַרצײַים ׀ גאָטשאַפֿט װ׳זיכשאַפֿט׃
: '''xokašaftnu (azoy vayt vi es emes v'zixe) bašteyta min gegarcayim: gotšafte v'zixšafte.'''
* ''Our wisdom (so far as it [is] true and certain) consists of a couple of parts: God-life and ourselves-life.'' - Calvin's ''Institutes'' 1.1.1


בי אָנהײב גאָט באַשעפֿאָ די הימל װ׳די ערד׃
{{Also|Weddish/218}}
* '''bi onheyb Got bašefo di himl v'di erd.'''
* ''In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth.'' - Brašit/Genesis 1:1




<references />
{{Aquatiki}}
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Germanic languages]][[Category:Semitic languages]][[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:West Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Ergative-absolutive languages]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Weddish]]
[[Category:Auxlangs]]
[[Category:Jewish languages]]

Latest revision as of 19:05, 23 October 2022

Weddish
Weðisk
Created byRobert Murphy
Native toWales, United States
Native speakers40 000 (2015 census)
Early forms
Official status
Regulated byBeth Diyn d'Weddisk
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Weddish is a West Germanic language spoken by several small communities within Wales and several large one within the United States. Approximately 40,000 people speak Weddish as their L1. It is of considerable interest to linguists and ethnographers, because of its complex history and unique place in the world.

Weddish began as a dialect of Old Frisian, which fell under the influence of its Welsh-speaking neighbors (unlike its Anglo-Saxon kin). It was "conquered" by Jews in 1066, and "freed" by the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, and so returned to being under Welsh influence. English has exerted some small sway over its development.

Design Goals

While I have taken elaborate pains to make Weddish appear naturalistic and give it a rich history, it is nevertheless an auxlang, designed for me to work on my philosophical ideas and methodologies of translations. I welcome feedback and appreciate any advice you might give, but people are often surprised to find out my primary goal is not to avoid artificiality.

My goals are 1) anti-abstraction, 2) marking marriage, 3) lots of Hebrew, 4) close to English, 5) Welsh influence

History

Main article: Weddish/History

Early Antiquity

Weddish was born under a different name: Frisian. While there are individual words that cannot be explained under this rubric, the overwhelming majority of Weddish vocabulary is clearly of Frisian – not Anglo-Saxon – ancestry. While the differences are small, the evidence is clear. Unlike the Frisians of the continent, however, and unlike the conquering Anglo-Saxons, the ancestors of the Wedds were heavily influenced by the nearby Celts. The Old Welsh language rubbed off on Old Weddish, winnowing down many consonant clusters, producing significant vowel changes, and greatly altering the phonology and phonotactics.

Old Welsh (Proto-Brythonic) also gave Weddish its system of consonantal mutations. Certain words and grammatical processes trigger regular changes in the first consonant of the next word. This is also the only period where Latin words came into the language (until the modern, international terminology).

Late Antiquity

Some time in the eighth or ninth century, a charismatic leader supposedly brought the Weddish community into his quasi-Jewish cult. He also introduced two key elements of the Basque language into Weddish: ergative-absolutive morphosyntax and animate-inanimate distinctions in noun phrases. Folk stories continue to warn young Wedds of the danger of crying wolf, i.e. being like Conrad and hiding under the auspice of false-Judaism, when he was actually just creating a cult.

1066

With the arrival of William the Conqueror, actual Jews arrived from the Continent and called the Wedd's bluff. Mandatory Hebrew schools were formed, and a similar situation to the rest of the U.K. developed for two centuries: strata. The elites and leaders spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Judeo-Arabic. Ethnic Jews arrived from Spain and the continent. The common folk spoke Weddish, but like England with the Norman language, Hebrew dominated the upper crust.

1290

When Edward I issued the edict of expulsion in 1290, the influence of external Jewry ceased, and all appearance of Judaism had to be removed from the public eye. The Wedds had their own Domus Conversorum set up, and were allowed to create their own monastic order, where the vows of marriage were conjoined with the vows of holy orders. Hebrew schools continued in private, with Talmud and Maimonides studies going on for several more centuries. Because they were not allowed to officiate over the Mass, Weddish "convents" avoided much of the accreting philosophy, and were among the hotbeds of Protestant theology, until the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.

With the decline of the surrounding Welsh culture, Wedds happily retreated into the background. By the 19th century, however, a growing concern over the state of the Western world had settled in, and after several Weddish-wide councils, a missions-through-monasticism philosophy was official ensconced in the Weddish laws. Since then, they have actively been involved in evangelism and scholarly theology. James B. Jordan and his Christian Reconstructionist theology have become the mainstay of Weddish discourse.

Phonology

Main article: Weddish/Phonology
Consonants of Weddish
Consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Post. Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasals voiced m n ŋ
unvoiced m̥ n̥ ŋ̊
Obstruent voiced b d d͡ʒ g
unvoiced p t͡θ t t͡ʃ k ʔ
Fricative voiced v ð z
unvoiced f θ s ʃ χ h
Trills voiced r
unvoiced r̥
Approximant voiced w l j
unvoiced ʍ ɬ ç

Weddish consonants primarily center around a voiced-unvoiced contrast. Several sounds do not occur in the lexical forms of words, but are nevertheless common as the result of consonant mutation.

Vowels of Weddish
Vowel phonemes
Front Mid Back
High ɪi ɨː ʊu
Near-high ɪ ʊ
High-mid ǝ oʊ
Low-mid ɛː ʌ ɔ
Low æ aː

Weddish vowels are most easily characterized a six-vowel system: the typical five, plus a central vowel. They all occur in "long" and "short" versions, though (as in English) those terms are used colloquially, and not as linguists mean them.

There are also many diphthongs, as in Welsh: eu, ei, au, ai, oi, ui, and the palatalized iu, ie, ia.


Orthography

Weddish is written with the letters of Hebrew abjad and the Massoretic "points" (niqqud). Romanization is unheard of, apart from linguistics literature.

Consonants of Weddish
Consonant graphemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Post. Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasals voiced מ m נ n ע ŋ
unvoiced מה mh נה nh עה ŋh
Obstruent voiced בּ b דּ d ג j גּ g
unvoiced פּ p צ x ט t כ k ק q א `
Fricative voiced ב v ד ð ז z
unvoiced פ f ת þ ס s סי š ח c ה h
Trills voiced ר r
unvoiced רה rh
Approximant voiced ו w ל l י y
unvoiced ש ł

Vowels are written (when they are written at all) above or below the consonantal letters as little dots. The stress-pattern of the word typically indicates whether a given syllable should be "long" or "short", except in the case of high-vowels and the center vowel.

vowel gramemes
Forced Long Normal Forced Short
A אַא a` אַ a אֲ ǎ
E אֶה eh אֵ e אֶ ě
I אִי iy ø אִ i
O אֹו ow אָ o אֳ ǒ
U וּ u ø אֻ ǔ
Ə אֱ ɨ אְ ǝ ø

The diphthongs are generally written as expected, except wy (ui) and yw (iu), which are never written with vowel-points, under any orthography.


Phonotactics

Initials

With S
,סק, סמ, סנ and סל. Older versions of the language forbid st-, but it is now permissible. The same could be said of ספּר, סטר, סקר, ספּל, and סקל.
With C
חל, חר, and חו. New words no longer force sl- to change to cl-.
With Þ/X
In a few Semitic words, תנ and צנ begin the syllable, e.g. צנוע (modest), or תנוך (earlobe). There is also xl, as in צלבן (to crucify).

The bulk of onset consonant clusters are subject to mutation. There are many doubles on this table, but it is important to note the lexical form of a word, and follow the correct mutation path:

mutatable onset clusters
first second Form Soft Nasal Aspirate
p l pl- bl- mhl- fl-
r pr- br- mhr- fr-
t r tr- dr- nhr- þr-
w tw- dw- nhw- bw-
q r qr- gr- ŋhr- cr-
l ql- ql- ŋhl- cl-
w qw- gw- ŋhw- cw-
b l bl- vl- ml-
d r dr- ðr- nr-
g r gr- jr- ŋr-
l gl- jl- ŋl-
w gw- jw- ŋw-

Morphophonology

Mutation

Initial Soft Nasal Aspirate
p b mh f
t d nh þ
q g ŋh c
b v m
d ð n
g j ŋ
m w
ll l
rh r
wh w
yh y


Pronouns

Main article: Weddish/Pronouns

Weddish pronouns are split in two groups. The 1st and 2nd person align nominative-accusative. The third person pronouns are ergative-absolutive.


1st and 2nd

Person Number Nominative Accusative Suffixing Dative Genitive
First singular איִח מיִח ־מִי מֵה מִין
antinomic/dual ויִט אֹוק ־אֹוח אֹוע אֹועְקֶנְז
pl. וִי וס ־וּס וֵה וּסֶר
Second singular תוּ תִיק ־תִי תֵה תִין
antinomic/dual יְהַט אִיעְק ־אִנְך יְהִח אִיעְקִנְז
plural יְהִי יְהוּק ־יְהוּ יְהֹו יְהוּוֶר

3rd

Gender Number Absolutive Ergative Suffixing Dative Genitive
masculine singular אֵי אֵיק ־אֵי אֵיס הִיס
feminine הַר
inanimate singular/antinomic אִט ø ־אִט טֹו אִט דְּ־אִט
masculine antinomic פֹו גּוּר ־אִם הִם הִיס
feminine הִי גּוּרַיגּ ־אִיר הִיר הַר
all dual בֵּית בֵּיק ־אֵיר טֹו בֵּית סִין
all plural יְהַא יְהַק ־יְהַא טֹו יְהַא סִין

Wh-words

what
וְהַט
who
Absolutive - וְהַא ; Ergative - וְהַק ; Genitive - וְהַמֵס ; Dative - וְהַם
when
וְהֵן
how
וְהֹו
which
וְהִלְך
why
וְהִיד


Nominals

Main article: Weddish/Nominals

It is important to be aware of case, number, and gender (animacy) when dealing with Weddish nouns.

Animacy

Vowel vs consonant ending ... sometimes

Number

Singular vs. Plural, but also antinomic vs. dual

Genitive

Animate vs דְּ־

Dative

Prepositions טֹו

Ergative

־ק


Determiners

Main article: Weddish/Determiners

Every noun that isn't proper must be covered by a determiner.

Articles

The two articles of Weddish are definite and specific. What in English would be covered by the indefinite article is split between the specific article and anarthrous usage.

Definite Article - דֵה
Singular Antinomic Dual Plural
Animate Genitive דֵס דִיס
Ergative דֵק דִיק
Absolutive דֵר דִיר דֵור דַאר
Inanimate Absolutive דֵה דִי דֵו דַא
Specific Article - אֵן
Singular Antinomic Dual Plural
Animate Genitive אֵנְס אִנִיס
Absolutive אֵן אֵנִיר אִנֵור אִנַאר
Inanimate Absolutive אֵנֶה אֵנִי אִנֵו אִנַא

On the one hand, it is tempting to say that only ðeh is an article. It has more forms (because it can be ergative) and the lexical form is the inanimate singular (unlike the more adjectival specific article). However, both trigger mutation in feminine nouns. 'En is clearly closer to English an than Englih one, so for conventions sake, we say it is an article too.


Anarthrous

Anarthrous clauses might be un-adorned vocative phrase, or non-specific and indefinite. That is, they typically refer to an entity not immediately discernible from discourse and not any particular entity.

Quantifiers

Most of the remaining determiners not mentioned heretofore, are quantifiers, determiners that describe the quantity of an item. Weddish very particular with its quantifiers, distinguishing very particularly between determiners and adjectives based on position. Linguists note that these differences are off a very unique kind, what they call 'evidentials'. Quantifiers used as determiners denote a kind of "God's eye point of view" or "omniscient evidentiality" which is not present when used as an adjective.

For example, consider the two following phrases

  • all men
  • the men all (of them)

While these phrases are synonymous in English, in Weddish they indicate a difference in level of confidence in the information presented: all men is a phrase universal and without any exceptions, whereas the men, all of them is completely human and normal, allowing for natural exceptions.

Others

Distributives, numerals, and possessives make up the remaining determiners (Interrogatives make-up an overlapping category).

Clauses

Verbs

Main article: Weddish/Verbs

Weddish textbooks call their verb conjugations, present, past, and future, and then list all the ways they aren't. It seems better to call then what they are: aspects and moods. The Continuous, the Perfective, and the Subjunctive are available in most verbs. What makes it more confusing is that two verbs -- to be and to have -- do indeed conjugate for tense, and are used extensively at the start of discourses, and at jumps in the relative time.

Continuous

Continuous Finite
One Many
1st –ם –ן
2nd –ס
3rd –ת

Imperatives are -ø for the singular and –ת for the plural. The participle (verb-made-adjective) is –נד. The infinitive (verb-made-noun) is –ינה. The gerund (auxiliary-verb-complement) is –יע.

Aorist

Aorist Finite
One Many
1st -ø –ון
2nd –ס
3rd -ד


The aorist is made from a different principle part, which is sometimes predictable through umlaut or reverse umlaut, and sometimes not. There is also the suffixing of a -ד or –ט (cp. Germanic weak verbs). The imperative is –ת. The participle is ג...וד. The infinitive is ג...ן. The gerund is ג...ד.

Subjunctive

Often used as a simple future, the subjunctive is made from the same stem as the continuous. one: –א. Many –וח.

Auxiliary

The three main forms of each verb only show aspect. True tense marking requires the presence of a copula.


Other aux verbs include skulen (should), wilen (will), weuþen (to become), dwyn (to do), hauven (to have)

Adnominals

Adjectives is an open class in Weddish. They follow the noun and need not agree in any way, though they often do so in a way that keeps the trochaic meter going (see Prosody). Prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow adjectives. Verbs conjugated as participles are adjectives, taking the head noun as their absolutive argument. Other uses of verbs require relative clauses.

Nouns can be made adnominal, either by being put into the genitive or by certain suffixes. For example ־סק -(i)sq attaches to nouns or adjectives and makes them into adjectives mean "of or pertaining to x" (cp. English -ish).

Adverbials

Like in English, nouns of time can be used as adverbs with zero-derivation. The suffix ־לך '-lik (cp. English -ly) is the most common adverb-maker.

Numerals

Main article: Weddish/Numerals

Weddish numbers are a true anomaly. The technical description is that they are "sexagesimal, with a duodecimal sub-base". That means, they start off counting by twelves, and then group those into sixties.

Lexicography

Main article: Weddish/Lexicography

For the complete Swadesh list with relative language comparisons, see Weddish/Swadesh


Weddish words are well-defined by historical epochs. From their inception to 1066, the Wedds were warriors, and then farmers. Agrarian words and grammatical words are of Germanic origin, and most illustrate that Weddish came from Old Frisian, though a few look more like Old English. Also, some Welsh words entered in this time, including some Latin words which where already in Old Welsh.

Next, Biblical and religious words came from Hebrew and related languages. These were the words of the ruling class, the educated, and the elite. The end of Jewish dominance may have come in 1290, but new words were still being coined from Hebrew for some time afterwards. Eventually, Welsh served as the conduit for outside influence until the 16th century, at which point English began to enter the scene.

Texts

Main page: Literature:Translations

The Lord's prayer

  • 'Ow 'Av-us 'in llâmayiym,
  • qǎðowll beþ þiyněh nowm
  • þiyněh mamlâk qowměþ

The Tower of Babel

See also article on Weddish/218


This is a tag to help User:Aquatiki backup all his files
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Weddish&oldid=290875"