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However, qualitative ablaut is still visible and productive in several derivational categories: | However, qualitative ablaut is still visible and productive in several derivational categories: | ||
*[[w:Noun|Substantives]] with an "a"-vowel in their roots, derived from verbs without suffixes with an "e"-vowel, denoting action or agent: '' | *[[w:Noun|Substantives]] with an "a"-vowel in their roots, derived from verbs without suffixes with an "e"-vowel, denoting action or agent: ''r'''e'''ktei'' “to say” — ''r'''a'''kas'' “law”, ''b'''e'''rgetei'' “to protect” — ''b'''a'''rgas'' “protection”. Some words have undergone semantic drift or became obsolete: ''g'''a'''rmas'' “thunder” from dial. ''g'''e'''rmetei'' “to mutter” (the zero-grade ''g'''i'''rmētei'' “to thunder”, derived from the e-grade verb, still exists though); ''gadas'' “meeting, gathering” from ''*gʰedʰ-'', though the "e"-grade verb did not survive. | ||
*Substantives, ending in ''-ā'', denoting the product of an action, derived from verbs with e-vowel roots: '' | *Substantives, ending in ''-ā'', denoting the product of an action, derived from verbs with e-vowel roots: ''n'''e'''rtei'' “to plunge” — ''n'''a'''rā'' “hole, burrow”; ''p'''e'''ntei'' “to stretch” — ''p'''a'''nā'' “curtain”; ''w'''e'''ltei'' “to allow” — ''w'''a'''liā'' “will, freedom”. | ||
*Substantives, ending in ''-is'', denoting agents of action, tools or states: '' | *Substantives, ending in ''-is'', denoting agents of action, tools or states: ''s'''e'''ngetei'' “to reach” — ''s'''a'''ngis'' “that which reaches”. No longer productive. | ||
*Progressive or iterative verbs with a-vowel: '' | *Progressive or iterative verbs with a-vowel: ''n'''e'''stei'' “bring, carry” — ''n'''a'''sītei'' “to be carrying”; ''l'''e'''mtei'' “to break” — ''l'''a'''mītei'' “to be breaking”. | ||
*Causative verbs with a-vowel from adjectives with e-vowel: '' | *Causative verbs with a-vowel from adjectives with e-vowel: ''t'''e'''išas'' “still, quiet” — ''t'''a'''išītei'' “to console”. | ||
==Zero-grade== | ==Zero-grade== | ||
In Proto-Indo-European the zero-grade ablaut arose in originally unstressed syllables and was represented by absence of a vowel, or by syllabic sonorants. In Carpathian the old zero-grade was replaced by short "i"- or "u"-vowels, when before a syllabic sonorant. The original zero-grade with no vowel is rare and unproductive in Carpathian, often being altered by later [[w:Epenthesis|anaptyxis]]. One example of inflectional zero-ablaut is in the conjugation of the verb ''dōtei'' “to give”: ''dōsti'' “gives” — ''dōdinti'' “they give” (the few examples of a reduplicated stem in Carpathian). | In Proto-Indo-European the zero-grade ablaut arose in originally unstressed syllables and was represented by absence of a vowel, or by syllabic sonorants. In Carpathian the old zero-grade was replaced by short "i"- or "u"-vowels, when before a syllabic sonorant. The original zero-grade with no vowel is rare and unproductive in Carpathian, often being altered by later [[w:Epenthesis|anaptyxis]]. One example of inflectional zero-ablaut is in the conjugation of the verb ''dōtei'' “to give”: ''dōsti'' “gives” — ''dōdinti'' “they give” (the few examples of a reduplicated stem in Carpathian). | ||
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*Infinitives of intensive or progressive verbs: ''b'''e'''rō'' “I pick up” — ''b'''i'''rātei'' “to pick up”; ''g'''e'''nō'' “I drive” — ''g'''u'''ntei'' “to drive”; ''p'''ei'''siō'' “I write” — ''p'''i'''sātei'' “to write”. | *Infinitives of intensive or progressive verbs: ''b'''e'''rō'' “I pick up” — ''b'''i'''rātei'' “to pick up”; ''g'''e'''nō'' “I drive” — ''g'''u'''ntei'' “to drive”; ''p'''ei'''siō'' “I write” — ''p'''i'''sātei'' “to write”. | ||
*Detransitive verbs with the ē-suffix: ''b'''au'''dītei'' “to wake” — ''b'''u'''dētei'' “to be awake”; ''sw'''ai'''tātei'' “to dawn” — ''sw'''i'''tētei'' “to shine”. | *Detransitive verbs with the ē-suffix: ''b'''au'''dītei'' “to wake” — ''b'''u'''dētei'' “to be awake”; ''sw'''ai'''tātei'' “to dawn” — ''sw'''i'''tētei'' “to shine”. | ||
*Inchoative verbs from progressive verbs and adjectives: ''s'''au'''šas'' “dry” — '' | *Inchoative verbs from progressive verbs and adjectives: ''s'''au'''šas'' “dry” — ''s'''u'''šnetei'' “to dry up”. Some original inchoative verbs instead have conjugational zero-ablaut: ''l'''e'''getei'' “to lie down” — ''l'''i'''ngō'' “I lie down”; ''rēstei'' “to find” — ''rindō'' “I find” (here the ''-n-''infix does not appear in the infinitive). | ||
Its use in derivation is much less common, than the qualitative ablaut: | Its use in derivation is much less common, than the qualitative ablaut: | ||
*''samdas'' “agreement” from ''d'''ē'''tei'' “to do”, where the root is reduced to a single consonant "d". | *''samdas'' “agreement” from ''d'''ē'''tei'' “to do”, where the root is reduced to a single consonant "d". | ||
==Lengthened grade== | ==Lengthened grade== | ||
Late Proto-Indo-European had two long vowels (''*ē'' and ''*ō''), the sources of which were manifold. In the dialect of disintegrating Proto-Indo-European, which later became Carpathian, the length contrast led to a morphological alternation. The separate lengthened grade existed for both monophthongs and diphthongs, but later in Proto-Carpathian the full grade of diphthongs (''*ai'' and ''*au'') was reanalysed as the addition of ''*a'' to a full vowel (''*i'' and ''*u'' respectively), which led to the addition of ''*a'' to the original ''*e'' and ''*a'', which resulted in lengthening of those vowels. The loss of laryngeals further contributed to the establishment of the lengthened grade. | |||
The lengthened grade is present in the inflectional morphology, although no longer productive: | |||
*Consonant-stem declension in nouns: nominative ''pīl'''ē'''n'' — genitive ''pīl'''e'''ntis'' “chicken”. | |||
*Sigmatic aorist of verbs without a thematic vowel: ''n'''e'''stei'' “to carry” — ''n'''ē'''sun'' “I carried”, ''w'''e'''stei'' “to lead” — ''w'''ē'''sun'' “I led”. | |||
*Prefix and preposition doublets: ''par(a)-'' “towards” and ''parā(h)-'' “before, proto-”, ''pa'' “after” — ''pā-'' “later, secondary”, ''ba'' “for, because” — ''bā'' “indeed, as”. | |||
In derivational morphology, the lengthened grade is scattered and does not form regular patterns the same way, as the full and zero grades do. Some nominal derivation involves root vowel lengthening: | |||
*Substantives, ending in ''-is'' from verbs with full-grade root vowels, denoting product or result of an action: ''r'''e'''ktei'' “to say” — ''r'''ē'''kis'' “speech”, ''dw'''e'''stei'' “to breathe” — ''dw'''ē'''stis'' “living being”, ''t'''a'''rtei'' “to speak” — dial. ''t'''ā'''ris'' “language”. | |||
*Affective nouns from neutral counterparts: ''ž'''a'''riā'' “aurora, daybreak” — ''ž'''ō'''riā'' “dawn”; ''g'''a'''mis'' “confusion” — ''g'''ā'''mas'' “din” | |||
The legthened grade can be involved in qualitative ablaut in the same way as the full grade, such as to create causative verbs: ''r'''ē'''žetei'' “to cut” — ''r'''ō'''žītei'' “to strike”. The reverse is also possible, such as when forming stative verbs from verbs with long root vowel: ''st'''ā'''tei'' “to become” ― ''st'''a'''hētei'' “to stand”. | |||
===ū- and ī-grades=== | ===ū- and ī-grades=== | ||
Unlike in Proto-Indo-European, in Carpathian '''u''' and '''i''' were full vowels and took part in quantitative alternations alongside '''o''' and '''e'''. Resulting mostly from the loss of laryngeals "ū" and "ī" gave rise to a lengthened grade, which later spread by analogy and was employed in several morphological categories: | Unlike in Proto-Indo-European, in Carpathian '''u''' and '''i''' were full vowels and took part in quantitative alternations alongside '''o''' and '''e'''. Resulting mostly from the loss of laryngeals "ū" and "ī" gave rise to a lengthened grade, which later spread by analogy and was employed in several morphological categories: | ||
*Forming new intransitive verbs from transitive verbs with full grade vowels: '''''ū'''ktei'' “to learn”, '''''au'''kītei'' “to teach” (full grade), '' | *Forming new intransitive verbs from transitive verbs with full grade vowels: '''''ū'''ktei'' “to learn”, '''''au'''kītei'' “to teach” (full grade), '''''u'''nnautei'' “to get accustomed” (zero grade). | ||
*Deriving substantives from verbs with zero grade: ''ź'''ū'''ka'' “nickname” from ''ź'''u'''hētei'' “to call”, ''pil'''ī'''skas'' “patter” from ''pil'''i'''skātei'' “to clap, to patter”. | *Deriving substantives from verbs with zero grade: ''ź'''ū'''ka'' “nickname” from ''ź'''u'''hētei'' “to call”, ''pil'''ī'''skas'' “patter” from ''pil'''i'''skātei'' “to clap, to patter”. | ||
*Forming iterative verbs from the non-iterative ones: ''kal'''āwī'''tei'' “to be praising” from ''kal'''au'''tei'' “to be famous”. This type is unproductive and may be a borrowing from the Slavic languages (''slaviti'' from ''sluti'' respectively). | *Forming iterative verbs from the non-iterative ones: ''kal'''āwī'''tei'' “to be praising” from ''kal'''au'''tei'' “to be famous”. This type is unproductive and may be a borrowing from the Slavic languages (''slaviti'' from ''sluti'' respectively). |
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